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School of Economics and Business, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Contents
1
AGING AND AGING WORKFORCE ............................................................................. 1
1.1
Population aging.......................................................................................................... 1
1.2
Active aging and definitions of aging concepts .......................................................... 2
1.3
Aging workforce ......................................................................................................... 5
1.4
Aging workforce’s impact on modern organization ................................................... 8
1.5
Relations between the person’s age-related changes, health conditions, and changes
in the workplace ................................................................................................................... 10
1.6
Population aging pyramids ........................................................................................ 15
1.7
COVID-19, digital environments, and aging ............................................................ 16
1.8
Aging workforce situation and practices in the Western hemisphere ....................... 18
1.8.1 The aging workforce in European Union................................................................ 18
1.8.2 The Slovenian strategy for an aging workforce ...................................................... 24
1.8.3 Aging workforce situation and practices in the United Kingdom .......................... 29
1.8.4 The aging workforce in the United States............................................................... 31
References ................................................................................................................................ 34
2
ACTIVE AGING METRICS ........................................................................................... 45
2.1
Active Aging Index – UNECE/national-level index ................................................. 45
2.2
Aging Society Index .................................................................................................. 46
2.3
John A. Hartford Foundation Aging Society Index .................................................. 46
2.4
Global Aging Preparedness Index ............................................................................. 47
2.5
Index of Well-Being - SCL/PRB index..................................................................... 48
2.6
Short Grit Scale ......................................................................................................... 50
2.7
Silver Work Index (SWI, 2018)/German perspective/meso-level index .................. 51
iii
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iv
Towards an integrated theory of aging
2.8
Later Life Work Index/LLWI (2020)/organizational-level index ............................. 51
2.9
Balanced Scorecard Model for managing the aging workforce ................................ 56
References ................................................................................................................................ 60
3
INTEGRATED THEORY OF AGING IN MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS ............... 62
3.1
Ageism at workplace ................................................................................................. 62
3.2
Measuring active aging in manufacturing systems ................................................... 63
3.3
Overview of psychological theories of aging ............................................................ 63
3.4
Successful aging at work and socioemotional selectivity theory .............................. 65
3.5
Age-related workplace interventions at the workplace ............................................. 66
3.5.1 Selection, optimization, and compensation programs for older workers................ 69
3.5.2 Work redesign and ergonomic interventions for older workers ............................. 69
3.5.3 Age-supportive human resources practices for older workers ................................ 70
3.5.4 Work-life and health-supportive policies for older workers ................................... 70
3.6
Integrated index of aging in manufacturing systems at the organizational level ...... 71
3.6.1 Organizational culture related to older workers...................................................... 79
3.6.2 Changing mental models in leadership practices .................................................... 79
3.6.3 Managing work design and ergonomics for older workers .................................... 83
3.6.4 Health management related to older workers ......................................................... 84
3.6.5 Knowledge management for older workers ............................................................ 85
3.6.6 Practices related to older workers ........................................................................... 86
3.6.7 Age diversity – managing different generations ..................................................... 87
3.6.8 Age-related metrics in manufacturing systems ....................................................... 87
References ................................................................................................................................ 89
4
PREPARING FOR THE FUTURE OF WORKFORCE AGING ................................... 93
4.1
Knowledge management and the aging workforce ................................................... 93
4.1.1
Knowledge management in the knowledge-based economy ............................. 93
iv
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Contents
v
4.1.2 Knowledge exchange and the aging workforce ...................................................... 93
4.1.3 Knowledge management in the context of age management practices .................. 94
4.1.4 Benefits of knowledge of older workers ................................................................. 96
4.1.5 Challenges of knowledge management in the context of an aging workforce ....... 97
4.2
The aging workforce in the period of digital transformation and Industry 4.0 ........ 97
4.2.1 Digital transformation and aging ............................................................................ 97
4.2.2 Digital transformation model for an aging workforce .......................................... 100
4.2.3 Opportunity areas for emergence of age management solutions and practices .... 104
4.2.4 The transition from Industry 4.0 to Industry 5.0 and HRM .................................. 107
4.3
Sustainable leadership practices of the life-phase-oriented staff development....... 108
4.3.1
Introduction of the life-phase-oriented staff development............................... 108
4.3.2
Core skills required for sustainable development ............................................ 110
4.3.3
Multiple intelligences and older person’s development .................................. 111
4.3.4
Age-appropriate education, development, older nurturing, and managerial
training policy ................................................................................................................ 130
4.3.5
Human management practices of older workers and succession management 134
4.3.6
Sustainable leadership practices designed for older workers .......................... 136
4.3.7
The research design for self-assessment carried out by the organization’s
managers ........................................................................................................................ 141
4.3.8
Concluding remark........................................................................................... 147
References .............................................................................................................................. 148
About the authors ................................................................................................................... 159
v
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List of Tables
Table 3.1 Schematic overview of psychological theories of aging ___________________________________ 64
Table 3.2 The integrated index of aging in manufacturing systems - the perceived psychological aspect of the
aging workforce in manufacturing systems at the organizational level _______________________________ 74
Table 4.1 Management aging management solutions and practices ________________________________ 105
Table 4.2 Multiple intelligence development of older____________________________________________ 112
Table 4.3 Developing kinesthetic intelligence in the older workforce _______________________________ 114
Table 4.4 Organizational learning challenges for an aging workforce ______________________________ 131
Table 4.5 Sustainable leadership of older workers _____________________________________________ 137
Table 4.6 Self-assessment checklist for sustainable leadership Practices - adjusted for organization’s
relationship and attitude towards older workers _______________________________________________ 142
vi
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List of Figures
Figure 1.1 A history of the most widely used definitions of aging concepts _____________________________ 4
Figure 1.2 A framework for comparative research of policies towards older workers ___________________ 11
Figure 1.3 Within-person age-related changes _________________________________________________ 13
Figure 2.1 The structure of the AAI (UNECE) __________________________________________________ 45
Figure 2.2 The John A. Hartford Foundation Aging Society Index __________________________________ 47
Figure 2.3 The Global Aging Preparedness Index – GAP Index ____________________________________ 48
Figure 2.4 Index of Well-Being - SCL/PRB Index - The Stanford Center on Longevity ___________________ 49
Figure 2.5 Organizational culture ___________________________________________________________ 52
Figure 2.6 Leadership ____________________________________________________________________ 53
Figure 2.7 Work design ___________________________________________________________________ 54
Figure 2.8 Health management _____________________________________________________________ 55
Figure 2.9 The moderating effect of organizational later life work practices on the impact of demographic
exposure on organizational outcomes ________________________________________________________ 56
Figure 2.10 Components underlying Voelpel and Streb’s Balanced Scorecard Model of an aging workforce _ 57
Figure 3.1 Age-related workplace interventions at the workplace for older workers ____________________ 67
Figure 3.2 Age-related workplace interventions for older workers __________________________________ 68
Figure 3.3 Domains of an integrated index of aging in manufacturing systems ________________________ 72
Figure 3.4 The model of an integrated index of aging in manufacturing systems - the perceived psychological
aspect of an aging ________________________________________________________________________ 73
Figure 3.5 Phases of the health management process for managing the older workforce _________________ 84
Figure 3.6 The specific measures related to knowledge management metrics __________________________ 86
Figure 3.7 The specific measures related to age-related metrics in manufacturing systems for older workers _ 88
Figure 4.1 Digital transformation model _____________________________________________________ 101
Figure 4.2 Sustainable leadership model _____________________________________________________ 139
vii
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INTRODUCTION
Preface form Vlado Dimovski, Ph.D.
”Our newly developed model of aging in manufacturing systems is
designed as the ‘three-part’ model of the aging workforce, it is
philosophical, and it embodies energy, body, and spirit. The
environment and organizational culture represent ‘energy,’ the pillars
of our model are the body of our theoretical model, and leadership is
the spirit of our intellectual thought. We are proposing a
transformation based on the discipline of management and
organization. Our stream of thought is driven by what we are trying to
achieve with our concepts, and what gives strength to the advancement of certain theoretical
concepts in the practical setting of domestic and international business entities.”
We have conceptualized a new integrated aging index for manufacturing systems within our
monograph. Workers of different ages in manufacturing systems are likely to have diverse
knowledge and capabilities that may be lost or poorly exploited if they are not effectively
shared. A recent study in The Journal of Retirement (Clark et al., 2019) stated “Much less effort
has been spent on understanding the concerns and challenges of employers if their workers
delay retirement and remain on the job into old age. Most employers in manufacturing
industries expect the importance of workforce aging to increase in the next five years. In
response, many organizations are changing working conditions and compensation policies.1”
Aging is a fascinating topic, as it deals with issues relevant at the societal, organizational, and
individual levels (Salminen, Wang, & Aaltio, 2019). All three levels are interrelated (Ilmarinen,
2005), as changes in retirement policies at the overall societal level impact how individuals
plan their exit from the workforce and envision their retirement life (Laliberte Rudman, 2015).
Similarly, workforce aging also has implications at the organizational level, such as in the
human resource management department.
We propose an integrated theory of aging at the workplace in manufacturing systems,
illuminating the perceived psychological aspect of aging for measuring and monitoring the
potential of the older population in the EU at the workplace, based on the integration of highly
cited existing metrics, according to Web of Knowledge SSCI journals review: (1) the AAI –
Active Aging Index/2013, including 22 indicators; (2) The later life work index (2020),
viii
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Introduction
ix
including 24 variables, (3) the AAI-Locp multi-level index/2018, including 20 indicators
(Castro-Conde & Gutiérrez de Rubalcava, 2018); (4) the Global Agewatch Index/2013,
including 13 indicators; (5) the Societal Index of Ageing/2018, including 20 indicators (Michel,
2019); and (6) The John A. Hartford Foundation Aging Society Index/2017, including 20
indicators (Chen & Zissimopoulos, 2017), and other indexes, as presented in the sub-chapter
on active aging indexes.
This monograph addresses the aging workforce needs and requirements in European
production and manufacturing systems. It presents a new design methodology for
manufacturing systems by developing integrated metrics for an aging workforce. The
development of new analytical models aims to support the production line design of a
workforce oriented to the needs of older workers. In our monograph, we included these metrics,
using contextual knowledge to formulate advanced indicators of active and healthy aging in
the workplaces of industrial workers in the EU.
This monograph was conceptualized between January 2022 and September 2022, based on the research
program “Grant Agreement number: 873077 — MAIA — H2020-MSCA-RISE-2019. This project has
received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under
the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No 873077.”
1
Clark, R. L., Nyce, S., Ritter, B., & Shoven, J. (2019). Employer concerns and responses to an aging workforce. The Journal
of Retirement, 6(4), 82-99.
Full Professor Vlado Dimovski, Ph.D., March 9th, 2022
School of Economics and Business, University of Ljubljana
Head of the Research Program P5-0364 – The Impact of Corporate Governance,
Organizational Learning, and Knowledge Management on Organizations in Aging Societies
ix
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Preface form editors Sandra Penger, Ph.D. and Simon Colnar, Ph.D.
Current demographic changes are causing manufacturing organizations to become increasingly
diverse. A growing body of research provides a solid theoretical and empirical basis for
understanding the reality of an aging workforce; however, there has been little direct research
into how organizations in manufacturing industries could and should utilize the knowledge of
differently aged workers and thereby capitalize on the benefits of age diversity (Profili et al.,
2017). More research is needed to investigate how organizations in manufacturing industries
can customize people management practices (e.g., HR hiring, HR training, HR development,
and HR rewarding) and redesign jobs and the work environment to ensure that older workers
utilize their strengths to perform successfully. Despite the growing relevance of this
phenomenon, the research on age diversity’s workplace implications in manufacturing
services remains much less developed.
Therefore, it is crucial to understand how older workers can be successfully included and
integrated into an active and productive workforce. Moreover, as the percentage of older adults
is projected to grow, the working population is simultaneously projected to decrease
significantly in the future. Such trends highlight the necessity for changes in human resource
management and the consideration of the challenges associated with work conditions for
elderly workers. “The aging of the workforce is of special concern to manufacturers, as the
average age of workers in that sector is increasing faster than in other sectors. Aging workers
in manufacturing are at greater risk of workforce departure than in other sectors. Workers in
manufacturing have a variety of job types. Some jobs require traditional kinds of intensive
manual labor. However, new technology now requires many workers to operate automated
machines from computer workstations, resulting in different physical demands from traditional
production jobs that can nonetheless contribute to musculoskeletal strain and decreased
functional capacity,” cited Dugan with colleagues in recent Occupational Health Science
Journal (Dugan et al., 2021).
However, despite being widely used and promoted, the Active Aging Index could be revised
to include the perceived psychological aspect of aging at the workplace in the manufacturing
industry, outlining the organizational level of aging of industrial workers; therefore, we aim to
explore this phenomenon by examining the context of aging at the organizational level in the
manufacturing industry. In our context, active aging is researched at the corporate level, which
x
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Preface from editors Sandra Penger, Ph.D. and Simon Colnar, Ph.D.
xi
has multiple implications for managers and leadership positions managing the potential of
elderly industrial workers.
As cited in a recent research report on the aging workforce survey in the manufacturing industry
(SHRM, 2015): “Another promising indication of the manufacturing industry’s awareness of
the increasing age of the workforce is that HRM professionals in manufacturing were less likely
to indicate their organizations had not taken any steps to transfer the knowledge of elderly
workers compared with other industries (25% versus 36%).” This highlights importance of
knowledge management codification, knowledge exchange, and the transfer of implicit
knowledge between generations (Dimovski et al., 2022).
Full Professor Sandra Penger, Ph.D., July 10th, 2022
School of Economics and Business, University of Ljubljana
Assistant Professor Simon Colnar, Ph.D., July 10th, 2022
School of Economics and Business, University of Ljubljana
xi
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Preface from reviewer Andrej Bertoncelj, Ph.D.
In line with scientific regulations, I reviewed and evaluated the submitted scientific
monograph, entitled “Towards an integrated theory of aging,” authored by Vlado Dimovski,
Ph.D., Sandra Penger, Ph.D., Judita Peterlin, Ph.D., Barbara Grah, Ph.D., Vasja Roblek,
M.Phil, Maja Meško, Ph.D., Darja Peljhan, Ph.D., and Simon Colnar, Ph.D., and hereby
provide my positive assessment that the submitted monograph “Towards an integrated theory
of aging” represents a conceptually in-depth and methodologically demanding original
scientific work that satisfies all of the criteria for being published as the original scientific
monograph. The scientific monograph is the dissemination output of the research program
“Grant Agreement number:873077 — MAIA — H2020-MSCA-RISE-2019 and is financed by
the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation. Programme under the Marie
Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No 873077.”
The entire monograph “Towards an integrated theory of aging” is written in English. The
scientific monograph “Towards an integrated theory of aging” comprises four chapters (on 146
pages), reference lists, a table of contents, a list of tables and figures (in the sum of 14 tables
and 26 figures), and a preface letter from the executive editor of the monograph, outlining that
a primary focus of the scientific monograph “Towards an integrated theory of aging” is to
propose an integrated theory of aging at the workplace in manufacturing systems, illuminating
the perceived psychological aspect of aging for measuring and monitoring the potential of the
older population in the EU at the workplace, based on the integration of highly cited existing
metrics. The aging of the workforce is of particular concern to manufacturers, as the average
age of workers in this sector is increasing faster than the workforce in other sectors. As a result,
aging workers in manufacturing are at a greater risk of workforce departure than in other
sectors.
The monograph “Towards an integrated theory of aging” includes additional substantive cases
from the most recent European and international management practices on age management.
As stated in the United Nations report, the number of persons aged 65 years and older was
projected to increase from 0.7 billion (9%) in 2019 to 1.5 billion (16%) in 2050 (United Nations
Population Division, n.d.). However, population change is more dramatic in some specific
countries, as it has more directly impacted their age structure (Raeside & Khan, 2008).
Nowadays, it is more likely that elderly adults will face several challenges later in life,
including having to work longer, and elderly adults living in developed countries are even more
xii
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Preface from reviewer Andrej Bertoncelj, Ph.D.
xiii
likely to face these challenges. The monograph covers the aging workforce’s needs and
requirements in European production and manufacturing systems. In addition, it presents a new
design methodology for manufacturing systems by developing integrated metrics for an aging
workforce. As outlined in the monograph, active and prosperous aging is a pervasive concept
in contemporary societies.
As explained above, I conclude that the original monograph “Towards an integrated theory of
aging” meets all the requirements for the final publication as the “original scientific
monograph, original university text-book.” Population aging is a global trend that encourages
countries and governments to introduce policies related to the increasing number of older
adults, including age management practices in the workplace. Current demographic trends,
explained by the declines in fertility rates and a decline in mortality rates, will result in a smaller
young working population in the workforce that will continue to decrease over time. At the
same time, the proportion of elderly workers will continue to increase. In line with scientific
criteria, I reviewed and evaluated the submitted monograph, entitled “Towards an integrated
theory of aging,” authored by Vlado Dimovski, Ph.D., Sandra Penger, Ph.D., Judita Peterlin,
Ph.D., Barbara Grah, Ph.D., Vasja Roblek, M.Phil, Maja Meško, Ph.D., Darja Peljhan, Ph.D.,
and Simon Colnar, Ph.D., and hereby provide my positive assessment that it represents a
conceptually in-depth and methodologically demanding original scientific work that satisfies
all of the criteria for being published as an original scientific monograph.
Full Professor Andrej Bertoncelj, Ph.D.
Of Management at the Faculty of Management, University of Primorska
University of Primorska, Faculty of Management, Slovenia
xiii
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1. Page 14: Please insert new page 14 (the web link of professor Gardner below was not correct):
Preface from Howard Gardner, Ph.D.
“Keep workers who have relevant intelligence and pair them
with workers who have complementary intelligence.”
Full Professor Howard Gardner, Ph.D., John H. and Elisabeth A.
Hobbs Research Professor of Cognition and Education at the
Harvard Graduate School of Education, Harvard University.
Professor Howard Gardner, Ph, D., https://www.gse.harvard.edu/faculty/howard-gardner
F01 Aging 67363 Prelims.indd 14
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1
AGING AND AGING WORKFORCE
1.1
Population aging
The aging of the European population is changing much of the economic and social order, with
profound and overarching consequences for production, consumption, labor, and, above all,
wealth. The combination of an increase in life expectancy over the last century and a decline
in birth rates since the 1970s has led to an aging EU population (Castro-Conde & Gutiérrez de
Rubalcava, 2018). Given advancements in socioeconomic development, the population
worldwide has rapidly increased in the past few decades (Cheng et al., 2019). As stated by the
United Nations, the number of people aged 65 years and elderly is projected to increase from
0.7 billion (9%) worldwide in 2019 to 1.5 billion (16%) in 2050 (United Nations, 2019).
However, population change is more dramatic in some specific countries, as they have been
more directly impacted their age structure (Raeside & Khan, 2008). Nowadays, it is more likely
that older adults will face several challenges later in life, including having to work for longer,
and those living in developed countries are even more likely to face these challenges. Such
insight is also essential from the perspective of policy and decision-makers in preparing plans
and considering the possibilities of implementing policy in practice (Khan, 2019).
Demographic, social, and economic challenges and conclusions derived from population aging
depend on specific national contexts and are influenced by the maturity of national welfare
systems (Bonnet, Camboine, & Fontaine, 2021).
Nevertheless, we must also acknowledge that those 65 years of age differs from their past
counterparts as they can still feel physically strong, are healthier, and work longer (HalaschekWiener et al., 2018). Therefore, we can state that global population aging is our contemporary
reality, as aging today is happening at a pace not seen before, and it is a global phenomenon
that will be influential in every country, economy, and organization. In a similar vein, we can
argue that countries and organizations that will start adjusting to this trend will only have less
time to modify their existing policies and practices to accommodate the new reality (Khan,
2019), which is also related to age management practices.
Population aging is a global trend that encourages countries and governments to introduce
policies related to the increasing number of older adults, including age management practices
in the workplace. Based on such policies, it is possible to evaluate whether increased longevity
can be viewed as an opportunity or threat to society (Chang et al., 2019). When discussing age
1
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2
Towards an integrated theory of aging
management practices for the future functioning of organizations in the context of global
population aging, we also need to be aware of the effects of working longer on the health and
well-being of individuals. Population aging, in general, is a consequence of different
characteristics, such as falling fertility, healthcare improvements, increasing life expectancy,
and other aspects of our society. It is also related to demographic issues, such as demographic
transition or migration. Although migration can alleviate the effect of the aging process, it is
also related to many other complex issues that become important at the national level and affect
national approaches toward migration policies (Khan, 2019). When discussing the implications
of population aging in the workplace, we must acknowledge that this can influence labor
scarcity and the overall rigidity of the labor market (Tan et al., 2022). Tan et al. (2022) explain
that the reduction of individuals in the working-age population is responsible for labor market
shortages that can be labeled “labor scarcity” and that because elderly workers are less inclined
to engage in job mobility, we can talk about the overall rigidity of the labor market.
1.2
Active aging and definitions of aging concepts
The World Health Organization defines active aging as a process that aims to ensure health,
participation, and social security opportunities for older people to improve their quality of life
(Quattrociocchi et al., 2021). Active and successful aging are pervasive concepts in
contemporary society. The development of a guide for aging metrics in the context of the work
world requires an innovative approach that can promote targeted and systematic actions and
face the structural change of aging to transform it from a burden to a resource for society. For
designing innovative approaches, different think tanks can be formed. In order to understand
how to work in later life and how this can be managed and successfully used from an
organizational perspective, it is essential to broaden the debate on corporate practices and
conditions to understand the country-specific characteristics of the required practices
(Wilckens et al., 2020).
According to Foster and Walker (2021), active aging represents an approach enabling the
development of positive aspects and decreasing the risks associated with longer lives.
According to Zannella et al. (2021), active aging is a “process of optimizing opportunities for
health, participation, and security to enhance the quality of life as people age.” Indices of active
aging and well-being serve as tools for assessing progress in realizing the potential of the
elderly population. In the EU, active aging is monitored and promoted by the Active Aging
Index (AAI), a policy tool in use since 2012 (De São José et al., 2017). The AAI is one of the
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most commonly used indices. It was developed in the European Commission on Employment,
Social Affairs, and joint Integration project and the Population Division of the United Nations
Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) (Varlamova & Sinyavskaya, 2021).
The AAI reflects the multifaceted concept of active aging. It has a multidimensional structure
consisting of
22
indicators
(more
details
about
the
AAI
can
be
found
at
https://unece.org/population/active-ageing-index). The average EU-28 AAI was 32.0 in 2010,
whereas the preliminary 2018 index was 35.7 (Ortega, 2021). As population aging theory has
evolved, many definitions have been developed that include terms such as “successful aging”,
“active aging”, “active and healthy aging”, or simply “healthy aging” (Michel, 2019; see Figure
1.1). It can be concluded that the AAI contributes to the multidimensionality and complexity
of the aging process in the workplace in EU countries.
Numerous activities and strategies can help organizations support, retain, and engage their
aging workforce. Specifically, age management has a long and established tradition as an
organizational response to an aging workforce (Walker, 2005). For example, Ilmarinen (2005)
defined age management as “managing the workability and organization of work from the
viewpoint of people’s life course and resources whether the changes are caused by the aging
process or other age-related factors.” Similarly, Walker and Taylor (1998) posit that age
management practices are intended to deal with age barriers that may occur directly or
indirectly and to create a work environment in which each worker has the opportunity to
achieve his or her potential without being characterized or even disadvantaged by age.
Age management comprises several human resource practices and initiatives to retain older
workers’ ability to work and offer them support and help to work until the required retirement
age or beyond. Similarly, age management should consider age-related factors in activities
related to daily leadership and management, and it should enable the enhancement of resources
for older workers and adjust work tasks so that they are better tailored to utilize the best of an
individual older worker and his or her abilities (Merkel, Ruokolainen, & Holman, 2019). With
age management organizational activities, organizations are also able better to understand the
interests and needs of different age groups, retain valuable (tacit) knowledge when employees
retire, provide support to maintain the productivity levels of older workers, and organize the
retirement process in their organization (Grima, 2011). However, age management practices
are not yet widespread at the organizational level (Principi, Fabbietti, & Lamura, 2015).
Although some exceptions exist, they are more a consequence of specific managerial or
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organizational practices rather than policies developed and implemented at a national level
(Principi, Gianelli, & Lamura, 2007).
Figure 1.1 A history of the most widely used definitions of aging concepts
Source: Own work, adapted according to Michel (2019).
In the literature, there are five established main dimensions of age management practices in
organizations: (1) job recruitment and exit; (2) training, development, and promotion; (3)
flexible work practices; (4) ergonomics and job design; and (5) changing attitudes towards
aging workers (Strasser, 2018). Existing research indicates the main factors are crucial for
maintaining worker participation in the labor market within an aging workforce and
emphasizing the organizational level. These crucial organizational factors that positively
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5
influence the presence of elderly workers in the labor market include health, institutions, human
resource management practices, human capital and technology solutions, and tools. Future
organizations will need to devote significant attention to developing and promoting agefriendly workplaces and implement such activities to compete, attract, recruit, and retain older
workers an essential part of their workforce (Nagrajan et al., 2019).
Kadefors, Wikstrom, and Arman (2020) offer some additional suggestions related to potential
organizational measures, such as (1) developing a work environment in a way that all
employees are in charge of work tasks that are aligned with their capacities, including their
age; (2) implementing principles of age management throughout the organization; (3)
developing work career plans for all age groups of employees, including opportunities that
enable the development of individuals such as training and education; (4) promoting mentoring
programs, in which older workers have the opportunity to share their knowledge with their
younger colleagues; (5) developing flexible retirement plans that enable older workers to
remain productive workforce members for longer; and (6) within the organization, the
responsibility of management is primarily to promote a positive and inclusive approach
towards older workers by recognizing and valuing their knowledge, skills, and experience.
Several reported benefits of age management practices for older workers include a positive
effect on their motivation and satisfaction with their work, better work-life balance, and
sustaining their work capacity and overall employability for a more extended period their
careers. Age management also offers benefits to employers by implementing such practices
appropriately. They can retain experienced older workers in their workforce and are, therefore,
able to combat the negative impact of the scarcity of adequately skilled personnel. In addition,
it positively affects turnover intentions, reduces hiring and training costs, and enables
organizations to evaluate better the strengths and weaknesses of different age groups in their
workforce so that they can manage and delegate their tasks more efficiently (Pedro et al., 2020).
1.3
Aging workforce
Current demographic trends, explained by the decline in fertility rates and accompanied by a
decline in mortality rates, will result in a reduced size of the young working population in the
workforce, which will continue to decrease over time, while the proportion of older workers
will continue to increase. In such a state, it is necessary to understand the effect of older workers
on human capital and overall labor market participation, as this also has significant implications
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for a country’s overall productivity and quality of life (Schlick, Frieling, & Wegge, 2013). The
gradual and constant increase of older workers within the workforce will potentially open some
complex challenges, such as higher labor costs and issues with maintaining or improving the
productivity levels of employees (Lisenkova, Merette, & Wright, 2013). Due to physical and
mental health likely diminishing as people age, there are concerns that productivity levels
might decrease among older professionals (Hertel & Zacher, 2018). Moreover, in combination
with job demands, older employees’ physical abilities can increase the risk of injuries (FraadeBlanar et al., 2017). A potential discrepancy between one’s physical ability and job demands
is correlated with a higher risk of occupational injury (Stevenson White, Burns, & Acree
Conlon, 2018). If an individual cannot meet the demands of the workplace, he or she is more
exposed to unsafe practices and may consequently suffer from poor health, affecting the
increased incidence of absenteeism (Fraade-Blanar et al., 2017). According to Bilinska,
Wegge, and Kliegel (2016), an age-friendly work environment might be part of the solution as
older workers are less likely to be considered less productive members of an organization in
such an environment. Similarly, Hertel and Zacher (2018) posited that with lifelong learning,
individuals now have the possibility of improving their physical and mental health, which
enables them to still perform well or even better in the workforce.
Like overall population aging, workforce aging is a combination of general aging and
increasing retirement age for the workforce in specific countries (Calzavara et al., 2020).
Typically, governments, especially in developed countries, resort to increasing the retirement
age as a potential strategy to overcome the gap in labor supply (Nagrajan et al., 2019). The
national response is also oriented toward reducing early exits from the workforce (Lain &
Loretto, 2016). Such changes have significantly affected the employment rate of individuals
aged 55–64 (Varianou-Mikellidou et al., 2019). In practice, many developed countries in the
EU have already increased their official retirement age to 65 years and the elderly for both men
and women, while some countries are increasing their retirement age even further (EU-OSHA,
2016). According to Steenstra et al. (2017), policies to extend work life can be considered a
central response in many developed countries. Moreover, in some countries, they have already
implemented an automatic connection between retirement ages and the prolongment of life
expectancy as an effort to make their pension system more resilient to the trend of continuous
demographic ageing in the long-term. In today’s world of an aging workforce, understanding
the elements that influence an individual’s decision to retire or prolong their working life has
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gained increased interest from political, social, economic, and organizational scholars (Levi,
Vashdi, & Vigoda-Gagot, 2019).
Similarly, Salminen, Wang, and Aaltio (2019) state that research on aging in the workforce
environment, with a particular focus on how to manage, support, and retain an aging workforce,
has gained increased attention from management scholars as it deals with the pressing societal
issue of how to extend the working careers of individuals. Aging is a fascinating topic, as it
deals with issues relevant at the societal, organizational, and individual levels (Salminen,
Wang, & Aaltio, 2019). All three levels are interrelated (Ilmarinen, 2005), as changes in
retirement policies at the overall societal level impact how individuals plan their exit from the
workforce and envision their retirement life (Laliberte Rudman, 2015). Similarly, workforce
aging also has implications at the organizational level, such as in the human resource
management department. Therefore, exploring the aging workforce can be considered a
multidisciplinary research topic, including management, economics, and sociology (Chand &
Tung, 2014).
Therefore, it is crucial to understand how elderly workers can be successfully included and
integrated into an active and productive workforce. Moreover, because the percentage of
elderly adults is projected to grow, at the same time, the working population is projected to
decrease by a significant amount in the future. Such trends highlight the necessity for change
in human resource management and consider the challenges associated with working
conditions for elderly workers (Calzavara et al., 2020). To be better equipped with knowledge
on how to tackle such issues, it is integral to gain further insight into the characteristics of
elderly workers that enable an appropriate organizational response (Barrios & Reyes, 2016;
Strasser, 2018) and the subsequent proper implementation of age management-related practices
within a specific organization. State-of-the-art research shows that supporting elderly workers
in the workforce has proven to be one of the most challenging tasks for organizations (Axelrad,
Luski, & Miki, 2013). However, an organizational culture that embraces all aspects of
diversity, including age diversity, has the potential to utilize the unique skills, competencies,
knowledge, and views of different age groups of employees, which contributes to developing
a more unified organization (Rudolph & Zacher, 2015).
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1.4
Aging workforce’s impact on modern organization
In the 21st century, organizations face a shortage of adequately skilled workers (Heisler &
Bandow, 2018). Authors such as Strack et al. (2014) and Korrigane (2019) predict that
shortages and imbalances within the workforce will become apparent between 2020 and 2030.
Due to higher life expectancy and the gradual increase in the retirement age, elderly workers
represent a significant proportion of the workforce. There are several reasons why many older
workers want to continue working. If retained as part of the workforce and appropriately
employed, they can be an essential resource for organizations to address existing and future
shortages of appropriately skilled workers (Heisler & Bandow, 2018).
In contrast, high workloads, lack of relevant age management strategies, and human resource
policies that are not tailored to the needs of older workers are seen as significant barriers to
retaining them. To make older workers engaged and productive members of the workforce
while retaining their skills and motivation, organizations need to be more proactive in
addressing these issues. At the same time, formalized strategies could be beneficial to
successfully address the complex issue of dealing with older workers in an organization
(Jonsson et al., 2020). The findings of Jonsson et al. (2020) support the assertion that older
workers are valuable resources for organizations, especially in light of existing labor shortages,
as they have valuable knowledge, experience, and skills and play a social role in the
organization by supporting others and passing on knowledge to their younger colleagues
(Conen, Henkens, & Schippers, 2012). These findings are consistent with those of Conen et al.
(2011), who argue that a potential benefit of retaining older workers is that what they offer
their employers is unique and valuable.
As Jennex (2014) suggests, knowledge retention is an currently integral and inevitable activity
in organizations due to aging demographics and the threat of knowledge loss when many older
employees leave the organization upon retirement. Such a knowledge gap can be responsible
for a decline in organizational memory and affect the organization’s ability to identify and
leverage its knowledge and maintain or gain a competitive advantage (De Massis et al., 2016).
In addition, Sumbal et al. (2017) found that experienced employees who have been part of the
organization for several years can successfully link past and new knowledge to accomplishing
organizational goals. However, when these employees leave the organization, their
accumulated knowledge may also be lost; therefore, employees who retire have already been
identified as key contributors to knowledge loss in an organization (Ball & Gotsill, 2011).
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Consequently, implementing knowledge retention strategies within the organization is critical
to preventing knowledge loss (Liebowitz, 2009).
In addition, older workers with valuable tacit knowledge, accumulated work experience, and
good health can be seen as an alternative for companies to address the shortage of skilled
workers in the labor market. Organizations that are effective in such a process must have
appropriate age-related human resource practices to meet the needs and desires of older
workers and convince them to continue working after they reach retirement age (Napathorn,
2022). Despite the significant benefits, many organizations are not yet prepared to take
advantage of or adapt to this demographic trend. As a result, organizations may create barriers
that prevent them from retaining and employing their older workers (Heisler & Bandow, 2018).
Employers play a central role in designing employment opportunities and enabling older
workers to have longer careers. Therefore, it is crucial to understand the appropriate
organizational policies and practices in times of an aging workforce (Oude Mulders, Henkens,
& van Dalen, 2020). To understand labor market dynamics in an aging society, it is essential
to learn more about how employers perceive their aging workforce and how they can adapt
their human resource management practices to respond to changes in their workforce (Henkens
et al., 2017). Older worker engagement and retention are considered significant concerns for
organizations and are receiving increasing attention from researchers (Bentley et al., 2019).
Furthermore, research has shown that they can be equally motivated as their younger
colleagues (Ng & Feldman, 2008) and are more positively oriented towards implemented
organizational changes (Van Veldhoven & Dorenbosch, 2008). Likewise, empirical evidence
supports the claim that there is a positive relationship between older workers and organizational
productivity (Malmberg, Lindh, & Halvarsson, 2008). According to Strasser (2018), older
workers are better at planning their work ahead of time and quickly, displaying a high level of
autonomy, and identifying potentially critical situations.
The overall experience of older workers can be considered a significant advantage for
organizations despite their potentially declining cognitive and physical abilities (Swift et al.,
2017). Moreover, existing research asserts that experience can be considered a more critical
element within workforce capabilities than age, cognitive ability, or individual performance
(Abubakar & Wang, 2019). Older workers may also be more committed and loyal to their
employers than their younger counterparts, which can be an advantage (Wilks & de Oliveira,
2015). In addition, older workers may perform better and display more professionalism than
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their younger counterparts (Tonelli et al., 2020). Finally, older workers bring a wealth of
experience to a company with their knowledge (Ackerman et al., 2002).
With their numerous advantages, older workers can be considered indispensable and valuable
assets of an organization. Most older workers in their later career stages are still willing, well
equipped, and able to meet the organization’s expectations for their performance. Because of
their accumulated knowledge, experience, and skills can also be considered an authentic source
of organizational wisdom capital that companies must continue to foster to retain valuable
employees (Strasser, 2018). Such initiatives include appropriate incentive mechanisms and
opportunities for training and development (Vasconcelos, 2018). In modern organizations,
recruitment processes are increasingly better suited to attract older workers, and organizations
are increasing their efforts to retain older workers by providing them with opportunities for
training and development, flexible work schedules, work design, and fostering an
organizational culture that is positively focused on engaging older workers in the workplace
(Beier, Teachout, & Cox, 2012).
Similarly, organizations are encouraged to provide more organizational support accompanied
by protection from the negative consequences of age bias, ageism, and discrimination against
older workers (Bentley et al., 2019). However, there is still a gap in organizations as not many
have policies and practices to address the challenge of attracting and retaining older workers
(Bentley et al., 2017). This state of affairs is alarming, as evidence supports the assertion that
elder worker retention is more common in organizations whose human resource strategies are
better tailored to their unique organizational needs (Hennekam & Herrbach, 2015).
1.5
Relations between the person’s age-related changes, health
conditions, and changes in the workplace
As we have already noted, organizations in Europe and other developed countries worldwide
face the challenges of an aging workforce in the 21st century (e.g., the working-age population
is expected to shrink by some 2 million by 2030 in Germany). Furthermore, organizations are
facing the retirement of baby boomers, impacting the creation of a skills gap that will be left
behind as this large generation retires. For a better understanding of how the older aging
workforce influence organizational changes, we present the categorizing of critical
characteristics of older people to show their complexity and provide a possible basis for
comparative research in an organization proposed by Taylor and Walker (1998). Figure 1.2
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presents Taylor and Walker’s framework, which draws on organizational change theory and
research on employers’ workforce utilization strategies. Under each of the four characteristics
of organizational orientation, they distinguish two specific continuums on which to categorize
employers’ approaches to older people. There was some overlap between the dimensions of
the typology. However, it has already proven valuable as a practical research tool. It shows
how conflicting human resource policies and practices can coexist within an organization and
how positive and negative approaches can thrive without formal policy design or
dissemination, which we will also see in the example of implementing sustainable policies and
digital transformation while increasing the proportion of the older workforce.
Figure 1.2 A framework for comparative research of policies towards older workers
Source: Own work, adapted from Taylor & Walker (1998).
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In addition, the 21st century is seeing an increasingly mixed-age workforce in developed
countries. The aging of the workforce has led researchers to explore age differences in the
workplace, but few studies have focused on interventions aimed at supporting workers at
different points in their lifespan (Truxillo et al., 2015). However, age-related changes within
the individual may contribute to crystallized intelligence, for example, in the study comparing
“young” and “old” judges. Young judges are faster and resolve more cases (this relates to fluid
intelligence), but at the same time, more of their cases are “dropped” after appeals to higher
courts. Figure 1.3 shows some of the age-related changes in an individual.
In contrast, older judges are slower and solve fewer cases, but they are also more experienced,
and their sentences are relatively often enforced even after appeals (this refers to so-called
crystallized intelligence).
In order to dispel social clichés about older people such as “slow,” “inflexible,” “forgetful,”
and “always sick,” the car manufacturer Mercedes-Benz decided to launch a campaign to
combat these false impressions in 2018. Sylvia Huette-Ritterbusch, a Mercedes personnel
expert whose job is to decide what skills the firm will need in the future, said, “We wanted a
paradigm shift in attitudes.” As a result, the company has developed an initiative that includes
an exhibition that challenges stereotypes about aging. Mercedes head of production Markus
Schaefer supports the initiative: “Many prejudices about aging have long been outdated. Every
age has potential... Age diversity means diversity of experience, perspectives, and new ideas.”
(Thomasson, 2018).
Organizations have, therefore, already begun to implement new human resources management
practices aimed at: (1) changing stereotypes about older workers; (2) influencing the
establishment of programs that encourage older workers to expand their activities in the
organization; (3) changing working conditions, forms, and the workplace itself; (4) taking care
of the psycho-physical well-being of older employees and promoting intergenerational
cooperation. Such human resources practices will have a positive impact on the performance
of organizations. Using Mercedes as an example shows how important they are for the
organization and society, even if they are relatively informal practices.
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Figure 1.3 Within-person age-related changes
Source: Own work, adapted according to Truxillo, Cadiz, & Hammer (2015).
Organizations must embed sustainable social approaches in their “DNA” to ensure lasting
organizational performance and sustained growth. Sustainable Development Goal 8.8 requires
organizations to develop programs that address employee health and safety in the workplace
(Dahl, Rundmo, & Ohlsen, 2022; Pronk et al., 2021). For example, the issue of managing the
effects of stress that developed during the COVID-19 pandemic in response to changes in
working conditions and people’s daily lives is coming to the fore (Ayoko et al., 2022; Blaique
et al., 2022). It is also essential for organizations and society to implement prevention programs
to protect workers from occupational diseases. Between 2013 and 2018, two occupational
diseases increased in the EU: enthesopathy (inflamed and painful joints; 12% increase) and
upper limb mononeuropathies (diseases affecting a single peripheral arm nerve, such as carpal
tunnel syndrome; 13% increase). It is also of significant societal importance that the EU index
value for the number of (newly) recognized occupational diseases decreased by 14% overall
over the same period (Eurostat, 2022). Because of the increasing use of digital technologies,
the phenomenon of so-called digital dementia and pseudo-dementia is worth mentioning. These
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are phenomena in which there is a decline in a person’s intellectual and creative abilities. The
phenomenon occurs in people addicted to digital technologies (Dietzel et al., 2021).
In extending the active participation in the labor market of older people, the issue of dementia
should not be ignored. Moreover, the prevalence of dementia is increasing worldwide, and
developing countries are expected to bear the most significant burden. (Hogervorst et al., 2021).
Factors associated with active aging (e.g., more extended employment, participation in society,
independent, healthy, and safe living, and environments that enable people to remain
psychosocially and physically active) could help maintain independence for older people
longer, given the high care needs of dementia and the current lack of adequate long-term
treatment (Hogervorst et al., 2021). Recent research shows that the risk of developing dementia
decreases significantly with retirement; the research results suggest that working longer has the
potential to maintain physical and mental well-being and postpone and potentially reduce
illness and associated healthcare costs. In addition, Rohwedder and Willis’s 2010 Mental
Retirement study, which examined several nationalities, found that early retirement
significantly adversely affects people’s cognitive abilities in their early 60s (Centre for Social
Justice, 2019).
The question is how organizations can develop a work environment that allows a safe and
healthy work environment, contributing to the best possible well-being of older workers.
Organizations can create such a workplace environment by implementing an ergonomic
approach. This is a classic approach to occupational health and safety and is a well-known
requirement for the humane design of work. Therefore, it should be considered when planning
work systems. Furthermore, the ergonomic design of the workplace is crucial for older workers,
as the performance of senses, physical strength, and speed decrease with age (Morschhäuser &
Sochert, 2006). Therefore, new workplace designs that reduce workload and may be necessary
for older workers with health problems can also be a preventive measure for younger workers.
For example, using technical strength-enhancing work aids can help prevent older workers
from becoming physically overworked. Such aids can also reduce the physical stress of
younger employees and thus have a preventive effect.
Within the fourth industrial revolution, organizations are experiencing an accelerated digital
transformation. Digitalization impacts the redefinition of work, changes in the workforce, and
the emergence of new types of work (jobs), working conditions, and workplace forms. By
2030, the development of the metaverse as an embodied virtual reality will increasingly expand
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processes and dynamic capabilities (Upadhyay & Khandelwal, 2022). Digitization thus enables
management to organize work in different workplaces. Therefore, it can be organized in more
conventionally located workplaces or purely distributed and dependent on virtual interactions.
In addition, collaboration platforms are coming to the fore, enabling social and market changes,
and providing more opportunities for distributed teams as part of organizations (Schwartz et
al., 2019).
Furthermore, modern human resource practices should allow employees who do not depend on
production processes to work more from home. They would come to the organization once or
twice weekly to socialize and share ideas (transfer and crate new organizational knowledge).
All these changes in work processes will naturally lead to more and more seniors being able to
work in a virtual environment well into old age. These approaches enable a safe and healthy
work environment and open up new practical implications in organizations. We define these as
the following management challenges:
▪
Unchanged granting of social and labor rights to all workers, regardless of age, form,
and nature of work and place of work;
▪
Cyberattack prevention as a risk in the context of a new flexible and resilient business
strategy. Therefore, working remotely, such as from home, it is essential to ensure that
the older employee’s internet network is as protected at home as it is at work;
▪
The ability to regulate the work-life balance (Kinsella et al., 2021) and health risks such
as headaches, eye strain, and stress are at risk. Therefore, the EU has adopted the Act
Right to Disconnect (Eurofound, 2021). If organizations cannot demonstrate an
appropriate level of compliance, it can affect their business continuity;
▪
The emergence of organizational cyber-security culture (perception, knowledge,
attitude) ensures successful management of cyber-risks and saves expertise and
resources (Hoppe et al., 2021). It will also allow older workers to feel more secure and
comfortable working in a virtual environment.
1.6
Population aging pyramids
The world’s population is aging (United Nations, 2019); the aging of the population is mainly
the characteristic of countries with low and declining birth rates and increasing life expectancy.
The relationship between the age groups of the population is graphically displayed using the
age pyramid. From its shape, the dominant age group of the population (under 15 or over 20
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and over 60 or over 65) and the trend of population development in the future can be explained.
Three primary forms of age pyramids are distinguished: (1) the triangular form, characterized
by the preponderance of the young population; (2) the basket form, characterized by the
preponderance of the mature population, with the young outnumbering the old; and (3) the urn
form, characterized by the preponderance of the mature population, with more old than young.
Today, most countries in the developed world are in the 4th stage of the demographic transition,
characterized by an urn-shaped age pyramid. (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2022). On the one
hand, this phenomenon reflects the impact of positive health and socioeconomic progress
developments, which have increased life expectancy and shifted fertility to fewer and better
educated children, and is undoubtedly welcome. Nevertheless, on the other hand, it is
undeniable that, at the same time, it leads to a series of partially interconnected societal
challenges for the years to come, which policymakers need to address through synergistic,
systematic strategies (United Nations, 2019).
1.7
COVID-19, digital environments, and aging
The global population was affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, both health-wise and
economically, psychosocially, and educationally (Garcia et al., 2021). The pandemic has
reduced opportunities for socialization and consequently increased the use of information and
communication technologies (ICTs) in the workplace, education, healthcare, public
administration, shopping, and leisure. The need for increased use of ICT has led to unequal
access to digital technologies within and between population groups (UNECE, 2018). It turns
out that older people are more likely to be affected by digital exclusion. The consequences of
this exclusion are seen in the limited opportunities to access goods and services through online
tools or the lack of digital literacy, affecting older people’s premature departure from the labor
market (Wilson et al., 2021).
Digital exclusion limits opportunities for active aging, leading to reduced social and economic
participation. It must therefore become a social challenge to empower older people in ICT use.
Therefore, they must be given ICT access, and the proportion of older residents with digital
skills must increase (Garcia et al., 2021). In the post-pandemic period, it will be necessary to
address the appropriate design of digital services for older people and to ensure an ethical and
safe digital environment for this population that considers the diversity of the older generation
(Ienca et al., 2021; Oh et al., 2021). The goal of digital literacy and access to digital
technologies must be to enable older people to facilitate social interactions, acquire new skills,
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competitiveness in the labor market, promote independent and autonomous living, and improve
seniors’ management and delivery of health and social care services (Detlor et al., 2022; Lim
et al., 2022).
COVID-19 also accelerated the digital transformation in organizations, which opened up the
question of future organizational forms, the concept and meaning of work, and the need to
redefine social policies (Schilirò, 2021). In organizations, by 2030, there will be a dominant
phenomenon of artificially intelligent (AI) powered technologies for green digital
transformation in the post-pandemic world. However, it is necessary to be aware that the
increasing presence of AI affects older adults, increasing the risk of further social exclusion
and decline due to the digital divide, mainly because of the emergence of a new form of
platform work (Rosales & Fernández-Ardèvol, 2020). As seen from Figure 1.4, in the postpandemic period, technologies based on AI and blockchain technologies will dominate,
especially the metaverse concept. The metaverse is expected to gain importance somewhere
around 2030. It will enable the course of various activities, such as in the real world, but without
any physical interaction of the participants, so the risk of disease transmission does not exist.
In addition, older employees will be able to participate in work activities even more quickly
because they will no longer need to work permanently on the organization’s premises.
Additionally, the adoption of artificial intelligence within the metaverse can be highly
beneficial, from enabling intelligent behavior of virtual agents to an analysis of user actions,
making recommendations and decision-making leveraging predictions of various aspects (such
as prices and demand) (Roblek, Meško, & Petrović, 2022).
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Figure 1.4 Digital and green transformation enablers in the post-COVID-19 world
Source: Own work, adapted according to Roblek, Meško, & Petrović (2022)
With technological progress itself, the possibility of the risk of a gap that demarcates the aging
population from those who have access to information technology increases (Srinuan & Bohlin,
2011). Older adults use ICT in increasing numbers (Anderson et al., 2017) and benefit from
ICT use (Decker et al., 2019). However, there is still at least one age group that can be said to
have limited access (or no access) to ICT due to physical barriers (e.g., physical disability)
and/or psychological factors (e.g., lack of confidence in using technology (Anderson et al.,
2017). In addition, some older adults find it challenging to learn to use technology and become
accustomed to it. Therefore, an essential factor in accessing ICT is the economic situation of
older people. This factor increases the differences between older people regarding access to
technologies, education, and support for learning new technology (Ball et al., 2019). König et
al. (2018) state, based on the results of research conducted in 17 European countries, that the
use of the Internet among older adults varies by location and age, with non-internet rates
increasing with each decade of age.
1.8
Aging workforce situation and practices in the Western hemisphere
1.8.1 The aging workforce in European Union
At the G20 Summit in Japan in 2019, policymakers from the world’s most developed
economies expressed the view that aging is a global risk (United Nations, 2019). However,
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members’ statements and views went in two opposite directions. A less optimistic Japan called
for action to address pressures on public finances and the labor market (Hong & Schneider,
2020). At the same time, the position of the UK is more optimistic; for example, members of
UK Parliament (2022) believe that aging should be seen as one of the most promising
opportunities of the 21st century.
In the 21st century, developed economies face the problem of increasing life expectancy and
declining birth rates. Both processes are characterized by the fact that they affect fundamental
social changes. These changes and the context of population aging, both in the Western
Hemisphere and in the economies of Asia and South America, raise the question of how
countries can maintain social cohesion and organize public services following policies and
programs that prepare society for the challenges of the future (Burchi, 2022).
For the future socioeconomic development of the EU, the critical question is whether the aging
of society and the increasing social activity of the over-65s (the raising of the age limit for state
retirement) will bring opportunities in the context of economic development and ensure the
global competitiveness of the economy. Furthermore, due to the ever-increasing spending
related to the employment of older people, health and social care costs, the (co-)financing of
up-skilling and re-skilling programs for older people, and various aids to companies for digital
and green transformation and recovery after the economic crisis caused by COVID-19, the
question also arises of whether the EU is challenging social cohesion by increasing public
spending? To answer this question, it will likely be necessary for policymakers in the Member
States, as well as at the EU Commission level, to ensure not only economic sustainability but
also that these reforms and investments are aimed at successfully ensuring the welfare state’s
principles of equity and justice that promote prosperity for all citizens. Furthermore, as
associate candidates, EU Member States face the challenge of transforming most of their social
security systems in the future. It will be the only way to ensure that the growing number of
vulnerable older people can enjoy the right to a dignified and quality life. Aging has thus
become a complex issue with financial, political, and social consequences (Ophir & Polos,
2022). Therefore, in addition to discussing consumption, we need changes in several areas:
attitudes towards age and life stages, education and employment policies, and ways to enable
European society’s wealth.
It is essential to realize that the age of Europeans is increasing, influencing the rapid change in
the social age profile. Eurostat (2022) show that the proportion of the working-age population
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in the EU is declining. At the same time, the number of older people is increasing. According
to the age pyramid of the 27 EU Member States in 2019 (Eurostat, 2022)., the aging trend will
continue until 2050. After 2010, there has been a significant increase in the employment rates
of older workers in EU Member States. Data from the European Commission’s 2017 Joint
Employment Report (European Commission, 2017) show that the employment rate for older
workers aged 55–64 in the EU was 55.3% in 2016, compared with 66.6% for 15–64-year-olds
overall. The increase was significant for older women.
It should be noted that the post-war baby boom generation will also finally retire during this
period. The increase in the older population and the rising number of older workers will affect
individuals, EU institutions, Member State governments, candidate countries, organizations,
and civil society. Social change will therefore bring changes in the labor market, health
policies, long-term care, transportation, housing, and pension systems. In the 21st century, the
EU thus faces the question of managing the consequences of globalization, digitalization, and
degradation while ensuring that population aging shapes economic development. The EU will
therefore have to focus on preparing measures and a more inclusive labor market. These
measures will make it possible to compensate for higher life expectancy and lower birth rates
(OECD, 2019).
The EU Joint Employment Report 2022 (European Commission, 2022) presents the Pillar
of Social Rights, adopted in line with the March 2021 Action Plan. The pillar aims to ensure
the Union’s pursuit of green, digital, and fair transition and contribute to achieving social
and economic convergence upward in the face of demographic challenges. Thus, the
strengthening of the social pillar is envisaged through establishing thematic clusters covering
key challenges in the three areas of equal opportunities and access to the labor market, fair
working conditions, and social protection and social inclusion. It should also be noted that
the report includes three new main EU targets to be achieved by 2030. These are securing
employment and skills and reducing poverty. Thus, it must be ensured that: (1) at least 78%
of the population aged 20–64 must be in employment; (2) at least 60% of 25–64-year-olds
should participate in learning activities each year; and (3) the number of people at risk of
poverty or social exclusion should decrease by at least 15 million compared to 2019.
The cornerstone of the European Pillar of Social Rights is to create a framework that
facilitates the adaptation of labor markets to new challenges. At the same time, promoting
intergenerational equity and solidarity is essential. For the further socioeconomic
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development of the EU, it is crucial to focus on the working environment, which must be
adapted to the professional needs of workers. Such an adapted working environment will
prolong workers’ participation in the labor market. It is also important to mention the
importance of the autonomous agreement of the European social partners on active aging
and the intergenerational approach, which commits the signatories to enable older workers
to participate actively and stay longer in the labor market (ETUC, 2017).
It can be concluded that the decline of the European labor force presents a challenge and an
opportunity for EU social and economic policymakers to develop career management
strategies for both young and older workers. The objectives of such strategies should focus
on (1) the development of additional education (acquiring and maintaining the necessary
qualifications and skills), (2) the development of flexible work careers, (3) different
retirement options, and (4) supportive career breaks. By developing such a social policy, the
EU can “take advantage” of the opportunities an aging society offers. Key points for
successfully doing so are cooperation in the employment society and growth in the “silver
economy” market. For example, policymakers can evaluate active and healthy aging
measures with the Active Aging Index.
Such an approach to lengthening working lives and thus strengthening the over-65 working
population requires a comprehensive rethinking of society. After all, raising the retirement
age beyond 65 requires a new societal perspective on the life course and the meaning of
aging. As the strategies of Western countries show, the life span is becoming more flexible,
breaking away from the classic static and linear phases of education, working life, and
retirement (which people enter based on their physical age). Therefore, German aging
research cautions that a positive view of aging, i.e., “active aging”, must start with the
attitudes of individuals and society. For example, the results of aging research show that
people who view aging negatively are less physically active and sicker than people who are
more optimistic about their future and their age (Deutsches Zentrum fur Altersfragen, 2021).
Finally, let us look at the study by Cristea et al. (2022) on labor force participation, aging,
and economic prosperity in EU Member States. The authors aimed to determine the
dimensions of aging and labor market outcomes in terms of economic well-being (measured
by GDP per capita and the number of older) in the face of aging populations, increasing life
expectancy, and declining fertility in the 27 EU Member States. The authors divided the 27
Member States into four groups based on the analysis. In the first group are the countries
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that comprise the EU MS and whose AAI values are below the EU average (i.e., Greece,
Croatia, Romania, Hungary, Slovenia, Poland, Bulgaria, Slovakia, Italy, and Spain). Based
on the assumption that it is possible to achieve a favorable impact of the employment rate of
55–64-year-olds (aging labor force) on labor productivity under the influence of other
economic and social factors, Cristea et al. (2022) suggest that in the countries of the first
group, measures involving a further increase in the wage level must be implemented. In
addition, in Bulgaria and Romania, an increase in pension income must take place. Social
and economic policymakers must also consider introducing targeted measures in these
countries that will lead to new thinking about active labor market policies. These measures
include training programs, job placement, and career counseling centers (since the entire
workforce and active labor market policies have harmed the integration of older workers),
the expansion of the best practices of these policies used in Denmark and Sweden (significant
share of GDP). It is also necessary to increase spending on research and development,
especially for jobs held by people in the 55–64 age group. In addition, it is necessary to
ensure adequate job creation for older workers, which will positively impact labor
productivity. To this end, it is necessary to create an “age-friendly work environment”
(Walker & Zaidi, 2019). It is also necessary to reconsider the importance of forms of
obtaining education framework of lifelong education programs that aim to improve older
workers’ particular knowledge and skills.
Within the dimension of aging and its impact on labor productivity and economic
development of these countries, the authors propose elaborating policies focused on
maintaining fertility/fertility rates. The authors emphasize that these policies must be more
closely connected to each country’s specialization of the sector (e.g., agriculture, industry,
or services). Innocenti, Vignoli, and Lazzeretti (2021) prepare such a proposal for the Italian
provinces. It is also necessary to focus on preparing policies that promote an increase in
labor productivity due to the impact of digital transformation, external benefits (Barbu &
Bonea, 2020), and all other economic and social factors. In the context of the widespread
impact of economic development in these countries on old-age poverty under the influence
of the aging of the labor force and favorable labor market factors in these countries, it is
necessary to ensure the continued maintenance of these dimensions together with the
dimension of independent and healthy living AAI (poverty certificate considered by the
UNECE/EC for this area) (UNECE/European Commission, 2018). It will be necessary to
implement policies that restore these dimensions to pre-pandemic levels because the
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economic crisis that occurred as a result of COVID-19 influenced the increase in the poverty
rate of the older in most countries of the first group. In addition, economic and social policy
measures must be taken to mitigate the deterioration of the living standards of the older in
the event of a tightening of relations between Europe and Russia, which in 2022 has already
been reflected in the increase in prices for raw materials, food and energy products, the
increase in the rate of inflation and the loss of value of the euro. These countries will be
among the first to feel the drop in demand, leading to job losses.
The second group includes EU countries with AAI scores in the upper range of the EU
average (i.e., Luxembourg, Malta, Cyprus, Austria, Belgium, and France). In the context of
the aging of the labor force and its importance in increasing labor productivity under the
influence of other economic and social factors in another group of countries, it is necessary
to point out the need to develop policies and strategies that focus on rethinking educational
programs, while also including active market policies that provide career counseling for the
older labor force, training, incentives, and a better work environment that provides
employers with more flexibility (to offset their negative effects). Cristea et al. (2022) also
found that the employment component of older people was the most challenging for the
second group of countries among all four areas of AAI. In the context of the impact of the
aging and labor productivity dimensions on economic development and, more broadly, on
old-age poverty, Cristea et al. (2022) concluded for this second group of countries that it will
be necessary to promote active aging and labor productivity further.
The third group comprises EU countries with AAI scores in the middle range of the EU
average (i.e., Lithuania, Portugal, Latvia, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Ireland, and
Germany). For the countries in this group, in the context of the aging of the workforce at the
workplace and the importance of productivity under the influence of other economic and
social factors, it is necessary to highlight the need to establish better incentives that will
encourage workers to participate in the labor market for a more extended period. This applies
mainly to the 55–64 age group. For this purpose, it is necessary to consider active labor
market policies to examine existing passive labor market policies that have a negative impact
on workers because they encourage them to retire early (e.g., it is necessary to reduce the
benefits of public pension schemes). In addition, greater attention should be focused on job
creation in applied research and development, especially for the 55–64 age group, and care
should be taken to acquire and redirect special skills. The measures aim to “induce spillover
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effects to hinder the elderly dependency ratio effects on economic development and sustain
their overall implications upon reducing elderly people’s poverty” Cristea et al. (2022).
The fourth group includes the countries with the highest AAI scores among the EU Member
States (i.e., Finland, the Netherlands, Denmark, and Sweden). In the context of this group, it
should be noted that these countries need to focus primarily on thinking about changes in
passive labor market policies that will lead to an improvement in the aging of the labor force
and active inclusion in the labor market (Cristea et al., 2022).
1.8.2 The Slovenian strategy for an aging workforce
Slovenia is considered to be the third fastest growing old population among European
countries. United Nations projections even place Slovenia among the ten oldest countries
worldwide. Thus, every fifth resident is over 65 years old. If such dynamics continue, the share
of people over 65 will represent 25 percent of the population in 2030, and by 2050 every third
resident of Slovenia will be over 65. For Slovenia, demographic changes are already reducing
the labor supply. If migration is maintained at a modest level, even the more significant work
activity of young people and the older will not be sufficient to cover the needs for more
significant employment due to strengthening economic activity. The age-altered structure of
the reduced labor force could also slow down productivity growth and lower the potential for
economic growth. The proportion of the population aged 65 and over is increasing in Slovenia,
while the proportion of the working-age population is decreasing (UMAR, 2018).
The current pension system is not sustainable in the long term; the employment rates of older
people will have to increase considerably in Slovenia, bringing significant challenges to
individuals, organizations, and society. It requires strategic thinking on coordinated action in
developing and successfully implementing the critical structural reforms: healthcare reform,
long-term care, the pension system, labor market, and education. Demographic changes are
altering the needs for education capacities to strengthen lifelong education and provide skills
for life and work. Therefore, government policies will have to focus on preparing an active
aging strategy, including measures to contain the consequences of the digital and green
transformation for the older workforce. The active aging policy must emphasize activity and
creativity in all life periods, health concerns, intergenerational cooperation, and solidarity
(UMAR, 2018).
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In the context of developing additional policies in the field of the labor market and education,
it is necessary to ensure, following the recommendations of the Slovenian Institute for
Macroeconomic Analysis and Development (UMAR, 2018), that one of the guidelines for
formulating policies for the labor market and education is to overcome the three myths related
to the ability of older people to work: (1) poor health of older people: according to the study
SHARE (Börsch-Supan, 2016), current generations’ mental and physical health, which is also
essential for work, decreases significantly after age 73; (2) older people are less productive: by
adapting jobs or tasks, it is possible to make better use of older people’s skills, mainly based
on experience; (3) with the extension of working life, the number of jobs for young people
decreases: this is the so-called “lump work fallacy.” It should be emphasized that the aging of
the population means an opportunity to develop new services, products, and thus jobs.
1.8.1.1 Labor market changes
In the context of changes in the labor market, it is necessary to prepare state measures and
strategies to ensure a sufficient number of workers. Slovenian demographic changes are leading
to a decrease in the proportion of the population aged 20–64, which, with the current regulation
of the labor market and pension system, as well as migration flows, would reduce the supply
of labor in the future and limit the possibilities for securing and increasing the prosperity of the
population. Furthermore, due to the increase in life expectancy, it will be necessary to ensure
a more extended period of employment (i.e., earlier entry into the labor force and later
retirement). Past practice in other countries shows that partial retirement can also contribute to
extending the duration of employment (Eurofound, 2016). Compared to other countries, the
activity and work level of young people in Slovenia is extremely low. In recent years, the
increase in migration has also been modest. Migration growth of foreign citizens was positive
for the twenty-third consecutive year but the lowest since 2011: in 2021, 4,339 more people
migrated to Slovenia than left it (SURS - Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia, 2022).
Therefore, it must focus on preparing measures to ensure a sufficient labor supply. The
Slovenian Institute for Macroeconomic Analysis and Development has therefore prepared the
following guidelines (UMAR, 2018):
▪
Promote longer working lives (including by supporting more careers during working
hours, enabling continuous education and training, and introducing more flexible forms
of work for older people and retirees) to increase the employment of older people;
▪
Ensure the possibility of income security for young people and their independence;
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▪
Create opportunities for greater participation in the labor market, especially for the
older and younger populations;
▪
Reduce labor market supply-demand mismatches, encourage immigration for
employment, and reduce labor market mismatches;
▪
Create conditions to reduce the emigration of Slovenian citizens;
▪
Promote the return of emigrated Slovenian citizens;
▪
Create opportunities for the integration of foreigners.
1.8.1.2 Adjustment of workplace and working time
The lack of flexible working time makes it difficult for employees to reconcile their private
and professional lives (e.g., taking care of children, grandchildren, or sick relatives). In
addition, such inflexible forms of working time can be an obstacle when older people expand
their professional activities and stay in the labor market. Therefore, the labor market needs to
become more flexible. Otherwise, older people may leave the labor market earlier. Moreover,
for young people, the (in)flexibility of working hours affects the decision to have a family
(UMAR, 2018).
Another critical factor that determines whether older people will prolong their work activity
and simultaneously also affects the lesser extent of absence from work (absenteeism) is
represented by the employer’s measures related to safety at work and adaptation of workplaces
to the needs of older people. According to the Slovenian Institute for Macroeconomic Analysis
and Development, the measures that will make it possible to extend the working life of the
older are as follows (UMAR, 2018):
▪
Introducing flexible working hours and space;
▪
Creating appropriate working conditions (ensuring safety and health at the workplace);
▪
Enabling flexible working hours and space for employees who care for relatives or
neighbors (employed informal careers);
▪
Adapting jobs and processes to an older workforce;
▪
Adapting jobs and processes due to technological progress and digitalization.
1.8.1.3 Intergenerational transfer of knowledge and promotion of creativity in the workplace
The importance of work activity is evident in ensuring the social status and inclusion of
individuals and enabling intergenerational cooperation in the workplace and society. In
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Slovenia, the perception of the contribution of older people to society is worse than in other
EU countries. Slovenians have the lowest percentage of respondents who believe that people
over 55 can contribute to society as workers (European Union, 2012). Discrimination in the
workplace is also commonly perceived. For example, data from the Active Aging
Eurobarometer (European Union, 2012) show that 21% of respondents have been discriminated
against or experienced age discrimination in the workplace. Therefore, it is essential for
management to recognize and consider the different characteristics of generations within each
organization, which will contribute to more efficient use of human resources. For
organizations, working in a multigenerational environment is also vital because it interweaves
the knowledge of the different generations, and there is a transfer of knowledge between
generations, which can impact productivity in the company. According to the results of the
study MEET Change (UMAR, 2018), attention should be paid to the insufficient development
of the management of different age groups in organizations (age management).
According to the Slovenian Institute for Macroeconomic Analysis and Development (UMAR),
the measures that will improve the attitude towards the older and enable the intergenerational
transfer of knowledge and promotion of creativity in the workplace include (UMAR, 2018):
▪
Promoting and supporting a positive view of aging, older people, and their contribution
to society, including through work;
▪
Preventing age discrimination in the workplace;
▪
Strengthening the management of the different age groups (adapting personnel plans,
strengthening the transfer of knowledge between generations in organizations);
▪
Promoting the transfer of knowledge between generations (e.g., mentoring schemes,
creative laboratories);
▪
Encouraging creativity in the workplace for all generations.
1.8.1.4 Access to education and training
During the fourth industrial revolution, the increase in work activity and the simultaneous rapid
technological change forced individuals to improve their skills constantly. Only through upskilling and re-skilling will individuals be able to meet the demands for more remarkable
adaptations in the workplace and remain employable. In Slovenia, however, the proportion of
people participating in lifelong learning declines faster with age than in other countries.
Therefore, older people’s participation in lifelong learning or continuing education is essential
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for their work activity, workplace productivity, and social inclusion (UMAR, 2018). According
to UMAR (2018), Slovenia also presented the poor performance of older workers in solving
problems in technologically developed environments.
Rožman and Čančer (2021) conducted a study analyzing the impact of suitable working
conditions and training programs for older workers on their motivation to work in Slovenia.
The authors also determined the impact on work engagement of older workers in medium and
large Slovenian organizations. The study results show that adequate working conditions and
programs for older workers are provided in Slovenian organizations. Both the adequacy of
working conditions and the presence of programs for older workers positively impact their
work motivation. It is important to note that older workers’ work motivation positively
influences their work engagement.
According to the Slovenian Institute for Macroeconomic Analysis and Development, the
measures that will enable access to education and training are (UMAR, 2018):
▪
Creating system opportunities for continuous education and training in the workplace;
it is also necessary to create policies and programs that allow for new opportunities to
acquire new skills to change careers (this requires a clear definition of the roles of the
state, individuals, and employers);
▪
Adapting the education system to the needs of a continuous supply of education and reskilling;
▪
Strengthening the culture of lifelong learning of individuals in society and
organizations;
▪
Adapting education systems to encourage more creativity and entrepreneurship;
▪
Increasing the involvement of older people in lifelong learning (better employment
opportunities); it is also necessary to allow the emergence of a lifelong vocational
orientation towards development and change;
▪
Investing in increasing the employability of the low-educated and the older by
strengthening the operation of the active employment policy;
▪
Adapting educational programs to the changes required by digitalization, the digital and
green transformation;
▪
Preparing retirement preparation programs that encourage social inclusion and postretirement activities.
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1.8.3 Aging workforce situation and practices in the United Kingdom
Recent research by the Center for Social Justice (2019) notes that the United Kingdom is also
experiencing an aging population. The study mentions two trends as culprits in the aging of the
population: declining mortality and declining birth rates. In the U.K., mortality rates have
declined over the past fifty years. For example, the mortality rate in the U.K. fell from 10.4
deaths per 1,000 population in 2000 to 8.7 in 2011, increased in the intervening years, and
reached a rate of 10.3 in 2020 (Statista, 2022a). However, statistical data from 2021 shows that
in the U.K. came a reduction in life expectancy (of 0.3 years for women and 0.4 years for men).
In addition, the U.K. is also experiencing a decline in how many years of life a person can be
in good health (without disabling disease). Thus, in 2022, women are expected to be 60.9 years
old and men 62.4 years old, in good health condition and without disability. Furthermore,
individual life expectancy varies by ten years within the U.K., while the lifetime of a healthy
and disease-free person varies by 17 years. The reasons for these differences are the place of
residence and the individual’s financial situation (Centre for Ageing Better, 2022).
The live birth rate was 10.2 births per 1,000 people in 2020. The birth rate has been declining
in the United Kingdom since 2010 when it peaked at 12.9. However, it should be emphasized
that despite the decline, the live birth rate in the U. K. is still higher than in similarly sized
European countries such as Germany, which had a birth rate of 9.5 in 2018 (Statista, 2021).
France also had a lower birth rate of 11.2 in 2019 but followed a similar downward trend as
the U.K. Also, the population in France has aged steadily since 1970, when those over 65 made
up about 13 percent of the population; the proportion has increased, reaching a peak of 20.56
percent in 2020 (Ined, 2021). Similarly, in Germany, the population is aging. For example, the
population aged 65 and over was 22 percent in 2021. So, a broader trend of aging in the total
population is presented in Germany (Statista, 2022b).
In 2022 in the U.K., almost 11 million people aged 65 and over, accounting for 19% of the
total population. It is estimated that in 10 years, the number will have increased to almost 13
million people, or 22% of the population (Centre for Ageing Better, 2022). The study case of
the U.K. illustrates how the aging population affects the workforce. The U.K. perceives an
increase in older people in the workforce. These are people over 50 years of age, and at the
same time, the retirement age is rising because of the older population. In the U.K., the rate of
employed people aged 50 to 64 has been recorded in the last thirty years. From 1993 to 2022,
this rate rose from 56% in 1993 to 73% in 2021 (Office for National Statistics, 2022a). The
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aging population’s consequences are visible in the state pension age increase. The normal
minimum pension age is 66 in 2022. However, it will be raised to 67 in 2028, and the
government plans to bring it to 68 between 2037 and 2039 (Adetunji, 2022). As noted by
Andrews (2021), the raising of the state pension age is a consequence of both longer life and
good health, in contrast to the situation in 1940, when the national retirement age was set at 60
(women) and 65 (men). The benefit of the extended working period can be recognized in terms
of the opportunity to gain financial stability in later life, to maintain social ties and to maintain
psycho-physical activity. Therefore, the national economy needs to make the most of the
growing share of the older workforce (Andrews, 2021).
However, it should be noted that people over 50 were most affected by the COVID-19
pandemic. The number of people aged 50 to 64 who are not present in the labor market has
increased to 228,000 from the beginning of the pandemic to 2022. The employment rate in this
group has fallen by 1.8 percentage points (Centre for Ageing Better, 2022). Of course, even
before COVID-19, there were barriers to hiring older workers. For example, even before the
pandemic outbreak, about 824,000 people in the United Kingdom between the ages of 50 and
64 were not working but would like to be (Office for National Statistics, 2022b).
For individuals, early retirement is a favorable decision, but for others, early retirement is a
cause of financial problems and increased risk to well-being. Health is the main reason people
in the 50-64 age group remain unemployed in the United Kingdom. Other reasons for leaving
the labor market early and as a barrier to those who would like to return to work include care
responsibilities, inflexible working conditions, and aging. The results of the 2021 Census
(Office for National Statistics, 2022b) show that many employers do not consider age when
seeking to improve diversity and inclusion in the labor market. In addition, the language
structure of a job advertisement discourages older people from applying (Office for National
Statistics, 2022b). Because of such situations, research shows that job loss puts those in the 50–
64 age group at greater risk of becoming long-term unemployed. For example, Rest Less data
show that people over 50 are twice as likely as other age groups to be unemployed for at least
two years. In addition, prolonged absence from work often leads to the situation that older
workers are more likely to be forced to retire earlier even though they do not yet want to or
cannot afford to leave the labor market (Gray, 2021).
Indeed, post-Brexit, the U.K. faces an increasing risk of older workers remaining unemployed
in the long term. For example, up to 2.7 million workers aged 50 and over were projected to
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have been made redundant by 2022. Estimates and analysis suggest that up to 400,000 people
in this age group are at risk of redundancy when government support for closed sectors ends.
It should also be emphasized that in the current situation, most people remain out of work
before they reach state retirement age. For example, in September of 2021, only 40% of men
and 30% of women aged 65 were still working (Office for National Statistics, 2022b).
If the U.K. wants to stop the trend of unemployment among older people, the government must
put in place protections for older workers. Targeted and individualized return-to-work support
for re-skilling and moving to another industrial sector must be designed for the over-50s.
However, the preparation and implementation of the measures are not only in the hands of the
government; employers can also act. For example, employers in the United Kingdom must
become more age friendly. In practice, they need to end bias against older workers in
recruitment, support older people with health problems, create a culture where people of all
ages work well together, introduce more flexible working hours, and encourage career
development across all age groups (Office for National Statistics, 2022b). Such measures will
ensure that people over 50s will no longer face an uncertain financial future because the U.K.
state pension system is also blamed for the poor financial situation of older people. It is among
the worst in Europe. It provides only 58% of previously earned income, which is below the
OECD average of 62% (Centre for Ageing Better, 2022). Low pensions are probably also one
of the reasons that older people want to remain active as long as possible and thus secure a
higher standard of living.
1.8.4 The aging workforce in the United States
The 2020 Profile of elderly Americans report (Administration for Community Living, 2021)
shows that a growing share of older Americans remains active in the labor market compared to
a decade ago. Data from the United States Census Bureau (USCB, 2022) show that the number
of Americans over age 55 in the labor force is expected to increase from 35.7 million in 2016
to 42.1 million in 2026. So, by 2026, older workers will make up nearly a quarter of the labor
force. The growing share of older people in the labor market presents opportunities and
challenges for the United States and other Western economies. The US is also characterized by
a surprising proportion of working Americans between the ages of 70 and 74 who still work at
least 10 hours a week. This share was 17% in 2012 and was 12 percentage points higher than
in 2000. This trend of the older over 70 still working is explained by the fact that workers with
higher education and incomes decide to leave the labor market later (Johnson, 2012). Census
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data also show that the share of older employees between 66 and 74 between 2014 and 2018
reached almost 26% (in the previous five-year period, it was 25.2%). In 2014–2018, the
percentage of Americans older than 75 still working increased to 6.6% from 5.9% over that
span. The Public Policy and Aging Report cites the research findings, “The United States
population continues to age in response to relatively low birth rates and increasing life
expectancy at elderly ages. In the United States, 83% of executives in human resources agreed
or strongly agreed with the following statement: There are many employees in our organization
who are at or approaching retirement age” (Clark & Riter, 2020).
Workforce aging also varies significantly by occupation. These occupational differences can
be explained by showing the increasing share of workers aged 55 and older in various
occupations. The share of workers aged 55 and older is the highest among professional and
managerial workers and sales and office workers; however, the rate of increase is higher among
laborers and manual service workers (Clark & Riter, 2020). The share of mature workers in
employment is increasing, especially in blue-collar occupations. The main reasons older people
want to stay active include occupational and social reasons, more people stay healthy after age
60, and many have to work due to a lack of retirement savings. According to a new report from
the Transamerica Center for Retirement Studies (2019), the typical U.S. worker has only
$50,000 saved for retirement. For people earning less than $50,000 a year, the typical
retirement savings amount is a meager $3,000. At the same time, however, more and more
young adults are dropping out of the workforce due to the opioid crisis and low wages. It is
especially characteristic of men with low levels of education.
As US businesses prepare for an increasingly aging workforce, the Special Committee on
Aging of the United States Senate released the strategy for America’s aging workforce:
opportunities and challenges in 2017. The key points that are important for reshaping the U.S.
labor market and providing more significant opportunities for older people in the context of the
labor market, and improving the well-being of older people are (Special Committee on Aging
of the United States Senate, 2017):
▪
Reduction of age discrimination: cultural prejudices must be addressed and changed.
In this way, it will be possible to create a thriving age-diverse environment;
▪
Provision of adequate educational, re-skilling, and up-skilling opportunities;
▪
Necessity of enabling a more flexible working day for older workers;
▪
Balancing caregiving responsibilities with work;
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▪
33
Changes in the field of health care; older employees must be provided with sick leave
during illness and disabilities;
▪
Preparing financially for retirement; employees must receive more competitive wages.
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ACTIVE AGING METRICS
2.1
Active Aging Index – UNECE/national-level index
In the MAIA project, existing metrics on active aging at the national and societal levels were
comprehensively reviewed. Therefore, the proposed integrated theory and the revised index
can be related to the current EU active aging metrics (AAI) for all future multilevel analyzes,
resulting in a valuable tool for policy-making purposes, focusing on the problem of aging at
work. We applied contextual knowledge in the design and implementation of the project. We
compiled different theories of age management in the international context of EU countries to
ensure a balanced and holistic view of the problem of active aging in the workplace, as healthy
aging and active aging are widely used concepts in social research, public policy, professional
practice, and the media (De São José et al., 2017). We hope that our integrated theory of aging
in the workplace will contribute to the practice and debate about the multidimensionality and
complexity of the aging process in the organizational context.
The active aging index is a relatively simple tool that includes 22 indicators divided into four
domains. as shown in Figure 2.1. The active aging index is a comprehensive and flexible tool
that provides evidence for informed decision-making, development, and monitoring of policies
and strategies for aging (UNECE 2022). AAI is complete because it helps users consider many
aspects of active aging rather than focusing on one. AAI is flexible because it can be adapted
to users’ needs in different contexts without losing its core.
Figure 2.1 The structure of the AAI (UNECE)
Source: Own work, adopted according to United Nations (2019).
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AAI takes a multidimensional perspective. It considers how older people contribute to society
and the economy through paid or volunteer work, informal caregiving, political participation,
or maintaining healthy, informed, and independent lifestyles, even in advanced age. It also
considers environmental factors that enable them to be more active (for example, education
and care systems or infrastructures that promote well-being, social cohesion, and
digitalization). Global AgeWatch Index - HelpAge International
The Global AgeWatch Index focuses on 96 countries worldwide, while the Active Aging Index
is limited to EU countries, and the Aging Society Index is limited to OECD countries (Michel,
2019). Furthermore, the Global AgeWatch Index is mainly based on social aspects. Therefore,
it is rather vague (seven of the 13 indicators: employment, civil liberty, social connectedness,
gross national income per capita, retirement income coverage, poverty rate, and relative wellbeing of older people), with only two questions not included in the other indices (life
expectancy at 60 and access to public transport). Conversely, the AAI is very detailed regarding
employment (with age groups and types of volunteering) and includes questions not found in
other indices (e.g., political participation and information and communication technologies).
2.2
Aging Society Index
The Aging Society Index (Michel, 2019) is a benchmark for assessing the nation’s progress in
adapting to demographic change and developing ways to stay connected, productive, safe, and
equitable with the growing number of older residents. The Aging Society Index is an evidencebased model of a society that is successfully aging. It has five major domains of successful
ageing: productivity and engagement, well-being, equity, cohesion, and security (Chen et al.,
2018).
2.3
John A. Hartford Foundation Aging Society Index
Researchers from Columbia University’s Mailman School of Public Health and the University
of Southern California Schaeffer Center for Health Policy and Economics, with the support of
the John A. Hartford Foundation, have developed a new tool1 that estimates how countries are
adapting to dramatic increases in the number and proportion of older persons (Columbia
University, 2017). The index is composed of specific measures across five social and economic
1
More about John A. Hartford Foundation Aging Society Index can be found at
https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/public-health-now/news/new-global-aging-index-gauges-health-andwellbeing-aging-populations.
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indicators that reflect the status and well-being of older persons in a country, which can be
followed over time and used for comparison across nations. Figure 2.2 presents the John A.
Hartford index of societal aging’s five indicators, which provide a new context for measuring
the health of aging populations, including an evidence-based metric to assess effectiveness over
time and across many countries. Earlier indexes only made comparisons for a select group of
industrialized nations.
Figure 2.2 The John A. Hartford Foundation Aging Society Index
Source: Own work, adapted according to Goldman et al. (2018).
2.4
Global Aging Preparedness Index
The GAP Index provides a unique, new, quantitative assessment of countries’ progress
worldwide to prepare for the global aging challenge. The goal of this index is to support policy
makers about the phenomenon of global aging and to increase attention in dealing with one of
the most pressing issues of the twenty-first century. The GAP Index projections extend through
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2040 to capture the full impact of demographic transformation now sweeping the world. The
GAP index covers 20 countries, including developed and emerging markets. As can be seen in
Figure 2.3, the GAP index consists of two sub-indices: the fiscal sustainability index and the
income adequacy index (Jackson, Howe, & Peter, 2013).
Figure 2.3 The Global Aging Preparedness Index – GAP Index
Source: Ownb work, adapted according to Jackson, Howe, & Peter (2013).
2.5
Index of Well-Being - SCL/PRB index
The world is experiencing an aging population that is already affecting the economy, social
development, and the global political situation and will have an even more significant impact
in the future. In practice, how an individual country responds to population aging depends on
how the older population is currently doing and on projections for future well-being. Various
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economic, social, and health factors play an essential role in assessing the well-being of older
people. All of these factors affect the well-being of older people. Because collecting and
analyzing all factors is challenging and depends on the amount of data that can be obtained in
each country, planning and predicting the future response to population aging is relatively
complicated. An equally significant challenge is predicting the effectiveness of outcomes of
national policies and programs designed to ensure and improve the well-being of older people.
Figure 2.4 Index of Well-Being - SCL/PRB Index - The Stanford Center on Longevity
Source: Own work, adopted according to Stanford Center on Longevity (2011).
The index of older people’s well-being plays an essential role in predicting the effectiveness of
policies and measuring success in ensuring well-being. This index is measured comparably in
several countries. Figure 2.4 shows the SCL/PRB index of well-being developed by the
Stanford Center for Longevity (SCL) and the Population Reference Bureau (PRB). The
Stanford Center for Longevity Index helps assess the overall well-being of a country’s older
population compared to others and identifies which factors contribute to a country’s relative
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standing. The index summarizes 12 key indicators of well-being in old age in four domains:
material, physical, social, and emotional well-being2 (Stanford Center for Longevity, 2022).
The SCL/PRB index averaged the four domains listed above. Each domain consists of two to
five indicators normalized as a percentage of the best-observed value across all countries, also
called “best practice”, and scaled from 0 to 100. The range values are averages of the values
for the indicators within a range (Stanford Center on Longevity, 2011). The SCL/PRB index is
the first summary measure of well-being among older people across countries. This index was
developed primarily for cross-national comparisons. By providing a user-friendly standard that
summarizes the complex and multidimensional nature of well-being and can be compared
across countries, the SCL/PRB index fills a significant gap. The index is a valuable tool for
stakeholders to assess the overall status of the older population.
2.6
Short Grit Scale
Duckworth and Quinn (2009) introduced the construct of grit, defined as trait-level
perseverance and passion for long-term goals. They showed that grit predicted achievement in
challenging domains, over and beyond the measures of talent. Moreover, the findings of their
study confirmed that older adults reported higher levels of grit, suggesting that it may increase
with life experiences. AAI_locp Index
In addition, many recent studies have contributed to improving the existing European Active
Aging Index (AAI). For example, Castro-Conde and Gutiérrez de Rubalcava (2018) outlined
the importance of monitoring local measures of active aging in the EU, leading to the AAI_locp
index, which provides a local-level independent variable that can be linked to AAI outcomes
in future multilevel analyses. The AAI_locp index is based on the European Active Ageing
Index (AAI), which was developed to measure the potential of older people, and on a survey
on local active ageing policies in the Galicia-North Portugal Euroregion, carried out between
2000 and 2012. The proposed active ageing index related to policy will is used to monitor and
analyze active ageing policies in the EU Member States at the local level (AAI_locp) (CastroConde & Gutiérrez de Rubalcava, 2018).
2
More about SCL/PRB index can be found at https://longevity.stanford.edu/scl-and-population-referencebureau-issue-index-of-well-being-in-older-populations/.
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2.7
51
Silver Work Index (SWI, 2018)/German perspective/meso-level index
The Silver Work Index (SWI) intends to complement the AAI with a quantitative index
focusing on work in retirement as a qualitative index at the meso-level (Wöhrmann et al., 2018).
Indeed, the approach to constructing the Silver Work Index (SWI) presented in Figure 2.2 was
inspired by AAI, although it uses a different method to identify and validate indicators and
provides meso-level evidence. Wöhrmann et al. (2018) proposed the Silver Work Index, which
integrates key organizational practices related to work in later adulthood. The SWI is intended
to support evidence-based strategies for addressing the challenges of an aging population at the
organizational level to promote good practices for a more active role for older workers. The
SWI aims to support friendly employment practices across eight dimensions of good
organizational practices, leading to an understanding of how organizational practices can be
improved to include older workers. Overall, the SWI complements the AAI by focusing on
meso-level good organizational practices that support older worker participation (Wöhrmann
et al., 2018).
2.8
Later Life Work Index/LLWI (2020)/organizational-level index
An integrated, holistic perspective of successful management practices is still lacking.
Drawing on two qualitative frameworks of organizational practices for later-life work,
Wilckens et al. (2020) examine the similarities and differences between the management of
older employees in the USA and Germany. Based on evidence from the Age Smart Employer
Award in New York City and the Silver Work Index (SWI) in Germany, an integrated,
intercultural framework for later-life work practices is proposed as a recent holistic and
intellectual index for good organizational management of later-life work.
The Later Life Work Index proposes a revised integrated set of practices related to
organizational culture, leadership, work design, and health management are presented in
Figures 2.5 to 2.8. Organizational culture (Figure 2.5) is a dimension that includes the norms
and measures established by the employer. Only these are based on the mission and values
of the organization. Thus, an organizational culture promotes employee management (age
management) before and after retirement. As a result, the management of seniors can support
equal opportunities and a positive image for all age groups (Wilckens et al., 2020).
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Figure 2.5 Organizational culture
Equality of opportunity
• Every employee's initial conditions should be the same regardless of
age. No discrimination or stigmatization due to age should occur.
Therefore, each employee has the same opportunities, such as
participation in training.
The positive image of age:
• Prevailing beliefs and attitudes regarding elderly employees are
shaped by a positive attitude within the organization. Aging should
be understood as an individual change process of competencies,
motivation, values, and behavior. Opportunities should be
recognized, valued, and realized.
Open and target group-oriented communication
• This includes an open and transparent exchange between employees
and their managers regarding retirement and/or continued
opportunities for work. Positive images represent all age groups.
Source: Own work, adapted according to Wilckens et al. (2020).
In the context of leadership (Figure 2.6), it is necessary to highlight the need for managers to
utilize the potential of employees at any age of the employee. This also applies to employees
who are close to and at retirement age because managers must focus on the strengths of each
employee and value their skills and talents (Wilckens et al., 2020).
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Figure 2.6 Leadership
Appreciation
•Managers of an organization should have an appreciative attitude towards their
employees of all ages, manifested through a consistent demonstration of respect
and kindness. Celebrating milestones and farewells is another way to convey
gratitude.
Responsiveness to individuality
•Managers should be sensitive to individual needs and events at different life
stages. They should also take into account each individual's personality and
performance capability.
Source: Own work, adapted according to Wilckens et al. (2020).
Work design (Figure 2.7) is about adapting the place, time, and space of work to the needs of
individuals and the capabilities of workers. Work design aims to reduce employees’ workload
and increase their satisfaction and work performance (Wilckens et al., 2020).
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Figure 2.7 Work design
Flexible work time arrangements
•Organizations should allow employees to change their work time depending on
individual needs. Specific solutions will depend on the nature of an employee's work.
Options for flexibility could include a long- or short-term switch to part- time, job
sharing
Flexible workplaces
•When possible, employees should be able to choose their work location based on
their individual needs and what is most efficient. Examples include the facilitation
and technical support of home-office solutions or the installation of silent
workplaces.
Work according to capabilities
•Employees should have adequate jobs corresponding to their individual physical and
mental performance capability and resilience. Swapping jobs or reconsidering and
adapting work flows should also be taken into consideration.
Ergonomic working conditions
Source: Own work, adapted according to Wilckens et al. (2020).
The dimension of health management (Figure 2.8) encompasses all organizational activities
aimed at maintaining and strengthening employees’ health and ensuring their ability to work.
The focus is on a holistic approach that includes specific interventions and health-oriented work
planning and design (Wilckens et al., 2020).
Other several specific dimensions are (Wilckens et al., 2020):
▪
Individual development that covers continuous development planning and appropriate
solutions for training and development;
▪
Knowledge management that includes institutionalized knowledge transfer and intergenerative collaboration;
▪
Transition to retirement that includes timely transition planning phased retirement and
individualized transition solutions, counseling for retirement life preparation and
continuous inclusion and maintaining contact;
▪
Continued employment that covers individualized employment options and (re-)the
hiring of older employees; and
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▪
55
Health and retirement coverage that includes retirement savings and pensions and
insurance, and financial emergency support.
Figure 2.8 Health management
Availability of physical exercise and nutrition opportunities
•Initiatives to strengthen health and work ability should be offered, such as organized
sports activities, active breaks, and nutritional guidance
Workplace medical treatment
•Measures should be taken to help employees avoid medical conditions, and
assistance to recover sick employees should be offered. Examples include
organization doctors, on-site medical check-ups, and physical therapy.
Health promotion
•Measures should be taken to disseminate knowledge about healthy behaviors to help
employees make responsible and healthy decisions. This could be done by providing
information on healthy living. Managers should act as role models for healthy
behaviors and promote a healthy work environment. This includes participating in
physical exercise, nutrition opportunities, and programs and encouraging a
sustainable work-life balance.
Source: Own work, adapted according to Wilckens et al. (2020).
The Later Life Work Index, as integration, represents an incremental step toward a sound index
of good organizational management of work in later adulthood (Wilckens et al., 2020). The
recent literature (Wilckens et al., 2020) goes beyond Boehm and Dwertmann’s (2015) focus
on age diversity and performance; therefore, the later life work model identifies organizational
practices that have a positive impact not only on performance but also on sickness absence
rates and employee turnover in an aging workforce. As seen in Figure 2.9, the index outlines
an organizational-level perspective with suggested indicators that would help organizations
achieve high organizational results, despite an older and more age-diverse workforce.
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Figure 2.9 The moderating effect of organizational later life work practices on the impact of
Leadership
Culture
Knowledge
HRM
Organizational outcomes
Age structure
Age diversity
Organizational practices
and conditions
Demographic exposure
demographic exposure on organizational outcomes
Organizational
Performance
Absentee Rates
Employee
Turnover
Fluctuation
Source: Own work, adapted according to Wilckens et al (2020).
2.9
Balanced Scorecard Model for managing the aging workforce
Voelpel and Streb (2010) employed a unique empirical approach to developing a scorecard that
allows organizations to measure performance and identify critical issues related to the aging
workforce. The model was developed in collaboration with the HR departments of Daimler,
Deutsche Bank, EnBW, Lonza, Mars, Otto, and Volkswagen. The model outlines critical
organizational action areas that managers need to focus on to increase the productivity and
creativity of their employees (see Figure 2.10) and provides the focus needed to develop a
balanced scorecard to measure and monitor the overall performance of the aging workforce.
This scorecard enables managers to identify, specify, and focus on addressing the aging
workforce challenge and monitor and adjust their actions.
The scorecard developed for managing the aging workforce can be compared to Kaplan and
Norton’s well-known strategic balanced scorecard (1992, 1996, 2001, 2008). However, the
Kaplan and Norton balanced scorecard is more general and usually structured to reflect
financial customer and internal business processes, learning, and growth. By contrast, the
balanced scorecard presented by Voelpel and Streb (2010) focuses strictly on the action areas
relevant to the organization in managing an aging workforce.
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Figure 2.10 Components underlying Voelpel and Streb’s Balanced Scorecard Model of an
aging workforce
Source: Own work, adapted according to Voelpel & Streb (2010).
The balanced scorecard approach emphasizes the importance of multidimensional
organizational performance management in maintaining strategic competitive advantage.
Therefore, it is essential when analyze the role and impact of workforce aging on different
dimensions of organizational performance. Backes-Gellner et al. (2011) argue that studies
linking workforce age to performance treat performance as one-dimensional and often focus
on individual rather than organizational performance. To analyze the impact of workforce age
on organizational performance, we need to examine performance as multidimensional with
multiple dimensions. As Backes-Gellner et al. (2011) showed, individual age affects different
cognitive capabilities. As a result, workforce aging can affect performance dimensions
differently and sometimes even in contradictory ways.
The impact of an aging workforce on various dimensions of organizational performance
becomes increasingly evident as society ages. This means that the age structure of the
workforce in many organizations will change and, above all, include a more significant
proportion of older workers. In an empirical study spanning 19 years, Backes-Gellner et al.
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(2011) suggested that the age structure of an organization’s workforce and its product market
or service strategies should always be determined to ensure that market strategies are consistent
with the benefits arising from the age composition of an organization’s current and future
workforce.
Backes-Gellner et al. (2011) show that it is essential to distinguish between the two types of
capabilities that individuals working in an organization can use in its production process. These
two types of individual capabilities are crystalline (pragmatic) intelligence, also referred to as
experience, knowledge, or wisdom, and fluid mechanical intelligence, which is synonymous
with cognitive speed and precision. How these capabilities are combined influences how aging
affects performance. In addition, we need to consider physical productivity, which is very
important for occupations in which physical strength plays an important role, such as
manufacturing. In these occupations, physical productivity-based performance declines quite
early, at 30 (Backes-Gellner et al., 2011). Physical productivity is more important in
manufacturing, where work is predominantly manual. Physical productivity does not play a
significant role in automated production.
Fluid intelligence refers to mechanical cognitive skills such as comprehension, abstraction
skills, and the ability to process information quickly and accurately. These abilities decline
relatively early, around age 35, and continue to decline due to biological brain aging. As
processing speed decreases, older people tend to grasp facts more slowly and reason less
precisely. From age 55, information-processing speed is significantly impaired, resulting in 20
to 40 percent slower speed in understanding, categorizing, and classifying the information and
bad consequential decision-making. In addition to cognitive speed, accuracy also tends to
decrease as brain structure changes with age. In addition, inhibition, that is, the suppression of
irrelevant information, decreases, which reduces the robustness and accuracy of information
processing, especially when people are under tight time constraints (Backes-Gellner et al.,
2011).
Crystalline intelligence is primarily composed of general human capital and knowledge and
forms the basis of wisdom. Wise people can better abstract themselves from their situation and
maintain their distance from their state of mind when analyzing a situation. Because of their
superior emotion regulation, they are better able to cope with difficult situations, and because
they are superior in terms of detachment, reflection, and ambivalence skills, they are generally
better suited to performing judgment-related operations. Wisdom is primarily based on task58
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related and contextual life experiences and is tacit because it cannot be communicated or
taught. On average, older people perform better than younger people on tests measuring
wisdom because they assess situations and scenarios more realistically than younger people. In
summary, crystalline pragmatic intelligence, particularly wisdom, can develop with age and
experience and is a strength of older people (Backes-Gellner et al., 2011).
As age affects different dimensions of performance differently, it is vital to form heterogeneous
teams to balance these age effects on performance. Bashir et al. (2021) point out that the attitude
and work-related expertise of older employees increase because of their long work experience
in the organization (Oberauer et al., 2005). In the era of ESG reporting, age management issues
are an essential part of the S dimension in ESG (i.e., environment, social, and governance).
Advances in organizational performance management systems have also developed in this
direction. For example, Kaplan and McMillan (2021) published an article discussing how some
organizations have adapted their scorecards to reflect their interest in pursuing triple-bottomline strategies that include economic, environmental, and societal perspectives. For example,
one KPI for age management that represents the S (social) dimension is the age diversity ratio,
which is more valuable for decision-making when measured in specific teams and departments
than when measured throughout the organization. The latter indicator is more suitable for
reporting to external stakeholders in an organization’s CSR orientation. However, for internal
decision-making, knowledge management, and leveraging strategy implementation, it is
beneficial to measure more specific indicators that are more meaningful to managers and have
a more significant direct impact on job and organizational performance.
Many age-diverse practices benefit from improvements in organizational performance. Walker
(2005) argues that such practices can directly or indirectly address age barriers, promote age
diversity, and create an environment where everyone can fulfill their potential without being
disadvantaged. Age diversity enables the creation of heterogeneous teams with a
complementary mix of experience and new perspectives, transfer of skills and know-how
across generations, motivation of older employees, and avoidance of recruitment/retirement
waves (Walker, 2005). We believe that the formation and use of heterogeneous teams in the
manufacturing industry can provide additional benefits to organizational performance.
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3
INTEGRATED
THEORY
OF
AGING
IN
MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS
3.1
Ageism at workplace
Ageism is the “systematic stereotyping and discrimination against people because they are old”
(Butler, 1975). It denotes negative opinions, beliefs, attitudes, expectations, and stereotypes
about age, which support biased and discriminatory actions and behaviors that marginalize
older adults, whether implicitly or explicitly. For example, a study on age discrimination in the
workplace found that although governments in many countries have addressed age
discrimination and promoted longer working lives, age discrimination is a barrier to achieving
and maintaining satisfying work. In addition, it has been suggested that older workers might
have different resources and skills to counter ageism. Ageism is often identified as a critical
barrier to obtaining and retaining work (Harris et al., 2018). In dealing with older people in the
workplace, a study showed that regardless of the perceived challenges (e.g., the aging
workforce), the majority of employers take no necessary measures or actions to retain and
recruit older workers nor advance their productivity, except for the employers in the United
Kingdom (Van Dalen et al., 2009).
Recent research has shown that statistics on aging and older people were not given sufficient
priority in the past (Gardner, 2021). As a result, according to the Economic and Social
Commission for Asia and the Pacific, data are not systematically produced, analyzed, or
disseminated by national governments. In 2020, the WHO launched the Decade of Healthy
Aging 2020-2030, observing that three-quarters of the world’s countries have limited or no
data on healthy aging or older age groups. The UN Decade of Healthy Aging calls for action
to increase the significance of aging, create an urgency to act, and generate changes that
transform population aging from a challenge to an opportunity (WHO, 2020). The lack of data
and analysis contributes to the invisibility and exclusion of older people. There is a clear need
to investigate the extent to which communities are appropriate for inhabitants to age and
whether they have sufficient resources to support older residents (WHO, 2020; Keating, 2022).
According to Goerres and Vanhuyss (2021), political actors play a crucial role in (mis-)
managing, manipulating, and (under-)planning population changes, as long-term population
aging and short-term migration fluctuations present structural conditions.
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63
Measuring active aging in manufacturing systems
Within our MAIA project, we have explored this phenomenon of measuring active aging by
examining the context of aging at work in manufacturing systems. Active aging is researched
from the assigned organizational level, and this level has multiple implications for managers
and leadership positions that manage the potential of older industrial workers. After presenting
the age-management drivers and the complexity of the holistic age management concept,
including the macro, organizational, and individual levels, our project focuses on the
organizational level, presenting employer drivers that call for action, the older workers’
position on the labor market, and the role of age management within manufacturing
organizations (Žnidaršič & Dimovski, 2009). The developed an “integrated index of aging of
industrial work” outlines the conceptual frame for standard age management model formation
consisting of six principal fields of action: (1) changing mental models and attitudes within
organizations; (2) HRM in the light of aging workforce; (3) knowledge transforming
management; (4) health management; (5) workplace management: ergonomics/job design; (6)
managing different generations. The model is one of the primary contributions of the MAIA
project and can be applied to day-to-day HRM practices of industrial work at the organizational
level to theory and science.
3.3
Overview of psychological theories of aging
Our aging index is grounded in integrating all the existing classical, modern, and new aging
theories presented in Table 3.1. The psychology of aging focuses on behavioral patterns of
change with age, integrating the psychology of age and age in longitudinal research (Schroots,
1996). This perspective of integration systematically incorporates the gerontological research
approach (Schroots, 1996) as well as the pioneering work of Jung (1933) and Miles (1933) on
theoretical developments in psycho-gerontology. Furthermore, we present emerging aging
theories, such as Socioemotional Selectivity Theory (SST; in Cubrich & Petruzzelli, 2020),
which explains how older adults make social decisions and addresses the dynamic role of time
in predicting the objectives that guide individuals and their selection of social partners. SST
aims to improve our understanding of successful aging in the workplace from a theoretical
standpoint (Cubrich & Petruzzelli, 2020).
People are motivated by highly valued activities and results, while values are crucial for
personal behavior (Maslow, 1943). Therefore, motivational reinforcement comprises various
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social, material, or self-reinforcing resources. For example, learning motivation presents the
motivation to engage in learning, invest sufficient energy in learning, and transfer knowledge
to daily work activities. Intrinsic learning is based on a self-determined motivation, assuring
enjoyment to the learner throughout the process (Guerrero & Sire, 2001), as autonomy comes
from the learner’s inner self, leading to the satisfaction of his psychological needs. The
intrinsically motivated learner has a strong desire for knowledge and learns to increase selfconfidence, advance efficiency at work, and be more adaptable to changes at work, all of which
to higher job autonomy. Ryan and Deci (2000) developed the Self-Determination Theory
(SDT), which proposes that people are intrinsically motivated to progress their skills and
interests, to connect and contribute to other people, and to fulfill their fullest potential on
condition that they simultaneously fulfill three key intrinsic needs: autonomy, competence, and
relatedness.
Table 3.1 Schematic overview of psychological theories of aging
Theory - the
psychology of
aging
Classical
Theories
Modern
Theories
Theories of aging – review of theoretical
developments in psycho-gerontology
1. Developmental Tasks/Activity Theory
2. Psychosocial Theory of Personality
Development
3. Counterpart Theory
4. Disengagement/Activity Theory
5. Personality Theory of Age and Aging
6. Cognitive Theory of Personality and
Aging
7. Life-span Development and Aging
8. Reduced Processing Resources
9. Personality and Aging
10. Behavioral Genetics and Aging
Work
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
New Theories
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Life-span Development and Aging
Reduced Processing Resources
Personality and Aging
Behavioral Genetics and Aging
Socioemotional Selectivity Theory (SST)
▪
▪
▪
Havighurst (1948)
Erikson (1950)
Birren (1960)
Cumming &
Henry
(1961)
Neugarten (1968)
Thomae (1970)
Baltes et al. (1980, 1987,
1992)
Salthouse (1985, 1988,
1991)
Erikson (1950); Levinson
(1978); Costa & McCrae
(1988, 1992)
Plomin & McClearn
(1990); Pedersen (1996)
Tornstam (1989, 1992,
1994)
Schroots (1988)
Carstensen (1991) in
Cubrich & Petruzzelli,
2020
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Integrated theory of aging in manufacturing systems
Lifespan
▪
17. Theorizing on Time, Age and Aging.
18. The Life Course Perspective.
19. The Political Economy of Aging
Perspective.
20. Cumulative
Advantage
and
Disadvantage Theory.
21. Feminist Approaches.
22. The Moral Economy of Aging
Perspective.
23. Post-structuralist Theories of Aging.
24. Humanistic or Cultural Theories.
25. Social Phenomenology.
▪
16. Motivational
Development
Biological,
Psychological
Theories, and
Social
Scientific
Theories
of
Aging
Theory
of
Heckhausen et al. (2010)
in Cubrich & Petruzzelli,
2020
Pierce and Timonen
(2010).
Source: Own work, adapted according to Schroots (1996); Pierce & Timonen (2010).
Extrinsic motivation for learning is related to an individual’s external gains, for example, the
opportunity for further career development (Žnidaršič & Dimovski, 2009), recognition,
increased income, or security to keep the job. Despite preventing dissatisfaction, it does not
improve satisfaction. Consequently, it is possible that a person is not highly committed to
learning, followed by poor learning results. During maturation, the importance of extrinsic
motivation weakens. It is also supported by Socio-emotional Selectivity Theory (SST;
Carstensen, 1995; Žnidaršič & Dimovski, 2009), revealing that younger adults are more
motivated to gather new knowledge and develop their careers, whereas older employees
prioritize emotionally meaningful goals. Therefore, the perceived time left in life is crucial for
the relative priority of different socioemotional goals. From older employees’ standpoint,
additional learning and training does not pay off due to the shorter time left in working life
(Žnidaršič & Dimovski, 2009). We will focus more on the socioemotional selectivity theory
as our overarching theory within our monograph.
3.4
Successful aging at work and socioemotional selectivity theory
In line with population and, therefore, workforce aging, researchers call for the integration of
developmental perspectives across the lifespan into existing organizational theory, study
several measures and mechanisms by which aging affects work-related results and outcomes,
as well as conceptual frameworks for theorizing on successful aging in the workplace. One
such avenue for understanding work-related development across the lifespan, socioemotional
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selectivity theory (SST), was developed as a prominent theory of social and emotional
development (Cubrich & Petruzzelli, 2020). Kooij et al. (2020) developed a model of
successful aging based on Heckhausen et al.’s (2010) theory of life span development (a crucial
motivational theory) to examine processes of goal commitment and disengagement while
considering the context of aging in terms of changing opportunities and arising constraints that
accompany aging.
Socioemotional selectivity theory has emerged as one of the most critical motivational theories
for development across a lifespan. It states that as people age, their perspective on the future
shifts so that they begin to view “time” as time remaining in their lives instead of time since
birth. Evidence shows that the older people feel their future time left is shorter than younger
adults’ perceptions. When people perceive longer time left, they prioritize future-oriented,
knowledge-related goals. In contrast, a shorter, limited time perspective stimulates here-andnow orientation, causing people to focus more on feeling states, having emotional meaning,
and achieving satisfaction (Carstensen, 2006). In summary, SST assumes that time perceptions
influence ranking, selecting, and executing behaviors oriented toward specific goals. Younger
adults focus their efforts more on the future, for example, acquiring knowledge, planning
careers, and developing skills and abilities that will bring them gains later. In contrast, older
workers usually concentrate on more present-oriented goals such as positive emotions and
striving for positive social relationships.
Older adults are usually less competitive and cooperative than younger workers, show
outstanding organizational commitment, and report more constructive work attitudes (Cubrich
& Petruzzelli, 2020). Using SST as a theoretical lens for understanding successful aging in the
workplace, it is more likely for workers to be motivated by socioemotional goals and have
constructive social experiences.
3.5
Age-related workplace interventions at the workplace
“We urge employers not to sit and wait before determining their role in helping employees
manage their eldercare responsibilities. The time has come,” noted Griggs with colleagues
(2020) in their recent research on eldercare and the psychology of work behavior in the twentyfirst century. Truxillo et al. (2015) conceptualized numerous interventions in their research,
Supporting the Aging Workforce: A Research Review and Recommendations for Workplace
Intervention Research. Authors proposed best practices and theories on age differences at work
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67
that can stimulate older workers and support an age-diverse workforce. They noted that when
considering these measures, older workers cannot be perceived as one cohort with the same
characteristics related to age; instead, individual characteristics should be considered. Figure
3.1 presents age-related workplace interventions for older workers according to Truxillo et al.
(2015).
Figure 3.1 Age-related workplace interventions at the workplace for older workers
Source: Own work, adapted from Truxillo, Cadiz, & Hammer (2015).
Figure 3.2 presents the proposals from the different authors of age-related workplace
interventions for older workers.
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Towards an integrated theory of aging
Figure 3.2 Age-related workplace interventions for older workers
Source: Own work, adapted according to Truxillo, Cadiz, & Hammer (2015).
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3.5.1 Selection, optimization, and compensation programs for older workers
Truxillo, Cadiz, and Hammer (2015) suggest that SOC theory can explain younger and older
people’s behavior and age-related differences in responses to workplace features and numerous
HR practices for older workers. SOC strategies for older workers can bring positive results,
such as better health during the bridging period and improved ability to work. According to
Truxillo, Cadiz, and Hammer (2015), SOC theory is applied to train older workers to choose
and concentrate on skills and tasks that match their interests and abilities. Organizational
considerations about the boundaries of what lessons older workers could take on, as well as
guidance, support, and collaboration, can also be considered to ensure the effectiveness of the
measures taken for older workers.
3.5.2 Work redesign and ergonomic interventions for older workers
Job design encompasses decisions regarding the division of labor and specialization,
teamwork, corporate roles integration, internal and external organizational interactions,
coordination, and effectiveness (Fraccaroli et al., 2017). In broader terms, job design is also
perceived as bottom-up organizational activity, allowing workers to organize their actions
through personal initiative and job crafting. Furthermore, Truxillo, Cadiz, and Hammer (2015)
summarized that research had revealed more positive results for older workers: increased
autonomy and skill variety and decreased task variety compared to younger workers.
Therefore, interventions for older workers consider changes in motivation across the life span
of older workers, such as moving some of them towards intrinsic factors, away from extrinsic
ones (e.g., advancement or salary).
With the increased number of older workers, age differences have increased interest. A large
part of the studies on workplace age diversity is concentrated on cognitive and physical changes
at work and avenues for employees and employers to match the job better and the worker. For
example, BMW implemented physical workplace changes, such as improved grip tools, to
support the physical changes of the aging workforce. Numerous researchers are examining
cognitive, physical, and emotional changes occurring in people when aging and studying its
implications for the workplace (Fraccaroli et al., 2017).
Human factor and ergonomic measures concentrate on improved design and fit of tools, job
tasks, and adapting the working environment to worker’s needs in order to support worker’s
health and productivity. Due to an aging population and related changes in cognitive, sensory,
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and motor capabilities experienced by an aging workforce, work design interventions are of
crucial importance. Nevertheless, ensuring a comfortable ambient work environment (e.g.,
high/low temperature, lighting, humidity) can also decrease the physiological stress of older
workers (Truxillo, Cadiz, and Hammer, 2015).
3.5.3 Age-supportive human resources practices for older workers
HRM practices are essential in providing motivations, norms, and accountability structures that
promote and support aging management practices in organizations. Those practices and
policies can inspire workers to integrate their diverse perspectives, knowledge, and abilities
(Sammarra et al., 2017). According to studies, younger and older workers do not react similarly
to HR practices (Truxillo, Cadiz, & Hammer, 2015). In line with life-span development
theories (e.g., SOC theory), younger employees are likely to produce better results when they
perceive more learning opportunities. In contrast, older employees improve outcomes with
maintenance-focused practices, such as schedule flexibility. Development practices (e.g.,
training) are intended to improve aging workforce levels of functioning. Maintenance practices,
(e.g., flexible work schedules) are practiced to maintain the existing levels of functioning.
Accommodative practices (e.g., part-time work) are aimed at keeping a lower but still adequate
level of functioning.
Truxillo, Cadiz, and Hammer (2015) found that positive contact with demographically diverse
team members may reduce negative effects over time. In addition, perceived intergenerational
contacts also improve perceptions of diverse ages interventions, which improve the positive
exposure to people of different ages (e.g., through team composition or more full measures and
discussions to diminish stereotypes, such as training on age diversity).
3.5.4 Work-life and health-supportive policies for older workers
Flexible work arrangements, telecommuting, decreased workload, part-time work, and
eldercare support are crucial HR and work-life policies supporting older employees (Truxillo,
Cadiz, & Hammer, 2015). Good practice in flexible working practices consists of flexible
working-time arrangements for employees to balance caring for an older relative and working
as well as the arrangements catering to their significant fatigue (Frerichs et al., 2012). In
contrast, the flexibility to attend medical appointments, care for an aging partner, or help take
care of grandchildren can also benefit older employees. Positive social exchange processes can
increase their input to the organization. In addition, telecommuting increases employees’
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autonomy regarding when and where to work and increases the possibility of performing
family-related tasks.
Different lifestyle factors (e.g., exercise and healthy eating habits) often influence healthy
aging (Hansson et al., 1997). Therefore, health promotion interventions are perceived as
promising for older employees. However, Crawford and colleagues (2010) noted limited
research on health promotion interventions targeting older workers. Helping employees adjust
to the life-span changes is crucial in a contemporary, dynamic workplace. Career adaptability
is positively related to career satisfaction and self-rated career performance. In addition, the
future temporal focus and subjective health are also positively related to career adaptability
(Truxillo, Cadiz, & Hammer, 2015).
3.6
Integrated index of aging in manufacturing systems at the
organizational level
Figure 3.3 shows the domains of an integrated aging index in manufacturing systems, and
Figure 3.4 presents a three-part model of the aging workforce; it is a philosophical-based model
that embodies energy, body, and spirit. According to Dimovski et al. (2022), environment and
organizational culture represent energy pillars of the model that represents the body of our
theoretical model. Leadership represents the spirit of our intellectual thought. We propose
transformation based on the discipline of management and organization. Our stream of thought
is driven by what we are attempting to achieve with our concepts and what gives strength to
advancing specific theoretical concepts in the practical setting of domestic and international
business entities.
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Figure 3.3 Domains of an integrated index of aging in manufacturing systems
Source: Own work.
Utilizing the integration of the Later Life Work Index, Silver Work Index, Active Aging Index,
and other indicators as presented previously in our chapters, we intend to revise and develop
an integrative index for older workers in manufacturing systems from an organizational
perspective, consisting of eight domains: (1) Organizational culture, (2) Leadership – mental
models, (3) Managing work design and ergonomics, (4) Health management, (5) Knowledge
management, (6) HRM-related to age management, (7) Age diversity – managing different
generations, and (8) Age-related metrics in manufacturing systems. Workforce aging presents
challenges for governments, employers, and individuals.
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Figure 3.4 The model of an integrated index of aging in manufacturing systems - the
perceived psychological aspect of an aging
Source: Own work, authors of MAIA project (2022); adapted according to: Wilckens et al. (2020); Wöhrmann,
Deller, & Pundt (2018); Zaidi et al. (2018); United Nations Economic Commission for Europe - UNECE
(2022); Žnidaršič & Dimovski (2009); Leibold & Voelpel (2007); Kooij et al. (2014); Boehm, Schröder, & Bal
(2021).
For a better understanding of the related themes, we prepared Table 3.2, which presents an
integrated index of aging in manufacturing systems - the perceived psychological aspect of the
aging workforce in manufacturing systems at the organizational level.
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Table 3.2 The integrated index of aging in manufacturing systems - the perceived
psychological aspect of the aging workforce in manufacturing systems at the organizational
level
Theories
integrated
Domain- fields of actions
1. ORGANIZATIONAL
CULTURE
Domain-specifics
▪
Socioemotion
al Selectivity
Theory (SST)
▪
Motivational
Theory
of
Lifespan
Development
▪
Development
al
Tasks/Activity
Theory
2. LEADERSHIP
–
MENTAL MODELS
▪
Psychosocial
Theory
of
Personality
Development
1. Equality of opportunity: Every
employee should have the same
initial conditions regardless of
age. Furthermore, no age-related
discrimination or stigmatization
can occur.
2. The positive image of age:
Positive attitudes and prevailing
beliefs regarding older employees
are shared across the organization.
Aging should be understood as a
personal change process.
3. Open and target group-oriented
communication:
Differentiated
image of age is shared and
communicated
through
the
external
and
internal
representation of the organization,
including open and transparent
communication between workers
and
managers
regarding
retirement and continued work
opportunities.
1. Appreciation: Managers of an
organization should have an
appreciative attitude towards their
employees of all ages, manifested
through
a
consistent
demonstration of respect and
kindness. Managers should reward
the experience and achievements
of their employees by offering
higher levels of job autonomy and
responsibility.
Celebrating
milestones and farewells is
another way to convey gratitude,
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▪
▪
3. MANAGING WORK
DESIGN
AND
ERGONOMICS
▪
4. HEALTH
MANAGEMENT
▪
▪
75
particularly when an employee is
retiring.
Counterpart
2. Responsiveness to individuality:
Theory
Managers should be sensitive to
individual needs and events
occurring at different stages of
life.
Also,
each
worker’s
personality and performance
capability should be considered.
Managers are responsible for
Disengageme
recognizing
and
harnessing
nt/Activity
individual potential regardless of
Theory
age and creating performanceenhancing conditions, including
consideration of employees’
wishes and suggestions regarding
the work design, considering
individual life circumstances.
The specific measures related to the
ergonomics of older workers, as developed
in our model of an integrated theory of
Personality
aging, are especially related to evaluating
Theory of Age job quality and seeking for conditions by
and Aging
which organizations are able to improve
the work environment in way that it is
more suitable for older workers.
Moreover, digital technology has an
important role as an enabler in the work
environment in relation to older workers.
Phases of the health management process
for managing the older workforce in
Cognitive
manufacturing services are, according to
Theory
of our integrated model focused on
Personality
determining the rationality of measures to
and Aging
improve an individual’s health and wellbeing as this is considered integral in the
overall age management process. In
addition, organizations are advised to
conduct a thorough analysis and control of
health management of their older
workforce. In a similar vein, organizations
Life-span
should devote efforts to provide specific
Development preventative and curative measures that
and Aging
aim to maintain and even improve the
health of individuals. On a general overall
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▪
5. KNOWLEDGE
MANAGEMENT
▪
▪
6. HRM RELATED TO
AGE
MANAGEMENT
level, it is also necessary for organizations
to prepare a systemic response to all health
risks that are related to the phenomenon of
ageing of their workforce. Further down
the line, organizations are encouraged to
continuously measure the effects of their
prevention programs that are implemented
in practice and to evaluate the current
situation related to ergonomics. Similarly,
organizations are also engaged in daily
Reduced
operations tasks such as the assignment of
Processing
work and how to design their flexibility
Resources
practices and working time among others.
The specific measures related to
knowledge management practices of older
workers, as developed in our model of an
integrated theory of aging are based on the
knowledge-based view of the organization
and
are
supported
by
digital
transformation, where we must emphasize
Personality
that digital transformation should be
and Aging
adapted in a way that it is suitable also for
older workers. Important characteristics of
knowledge management within an ageing
workforce include the evaluation of older
employees’ intellectual capital, career
development and success planning with an
emphasis on older workers, knowledge
retention, knowledge transfer, training and
life-long learning that is available to older
Behavioral
workers, appropriate storage and transfer
Genetics and of knowledge, where digital technologies
Aging
occupy the role of an enabler, awareness
and preparedness of retirement of older
workers and if they are willing, finding
solutions how to include already retired
older employees, specific activities that
can help within the broader context of
knowledge
management
include
storytelling, communities of practice and
mentorship programs.
In contemporary organizations, it is
important to strive towards age-neutral
HRM practices. Work related to HRM
practice in organizations is often based on
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77
research on existing HR bundles, for
example high-performance work practices
(HPWPs; Combst et al., 2006; Huselid,
1995) or high-involvement work practices
(HIWPs; Guthrie, 2001; Lawler, 1988),
which all aim to stimulate employees’
levels of knowledge, skills, and
motivation, and therefore reinforcing
employees’
job
performance
and
organizational attachment.
In a similar vein, researchers Boehm et al.
(2014) posit that organizations should
implement HRM practices and policies
that support all age groups and are not
exclusively focused on a specific age
group. By doing so, organizations focus on
developing knowledge, skills, abilities,
motivation, effort, and opportunities of all
of their workers, including older workers.
Equally important are other activities such
as age-neutral recruiting policies, equal
access to training, age-neutral career
development and promotion systems,
initiatives to educate managers on the
benefits of age diversity and promoting an
age-inclusive organizational culture.
The specific measures related to age
diversity practices of older workers, as
developed in our model of an integrated
theory of aging, are focused on enhancing
the levels of awareness and understanding
of the benefits of age diversity and to
ensure that within the organization
intergenerational relationships are good
and that team are formed with individuals
that are members of different age groups.
By creating intergenerational teams,
organizations are able to strive towards
achieving intergenerational synergies and
having the optimal age structure of
employees that is better equipped to cope
with existing and future challenges on the
path to maintain and gain competitive
advantages.
7. AGE DIVERSITY –
MANAGING
DIFFERENT
GENERATIONS
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The specific measures related to agerelated metrics in manufacturing systems
for older workers, as developed in our
model of an integrated theory of aging, are
understanding the specific of the working
environment of manufacturing workers,
gaining knowledge on tools that are
employed in the industrial system, seeking
for improvements of their physical
working conditions, in terms of work
design, searching for solutions how to
appropriately reorganize their workplace
and, in a similar vein, to consider how it is
possible to improve the tools utilized in
industrial systems, on the individual level
of manufacturing workers to understand
how they perceive their satisfaction with
their work and to continuously conduct
medical examinations of industrial
workers.
Furthermore, we applied the items of the
Work Ability Index to manufacturing
systems with a special emphasis on the
ability to work that can be understood in
terms of the demands of the job of the
manufacturing worker, an overview of
current diseases that a manufacturing
worker is dealing with and the subsequent
work impairment that is a consequence of
such diseases and an analysis of the sick
leave patterns during the past year (12
months). It is important to understand how
an individual projects his future
workability and to gain insight into the
mental resources of the manufacturing
worker.
8. AGE-RELATED
METRICS
IN
MANUFACTURING
SYSTEMS
Sources: Adapted according to: Wilckens et al. (2020); Wöhrmann, Deller, & Pundt (2018); Zaidi et al. (2018);
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe - UNECE (2022); Žnidaršič & Dimovski (2009); Leibold &
Voelpel (2007); Kooij et al. (2014); Boehm, Schröder, & Bal (2021).
HRM practices related to the aging workforce can positively influence employees’
performance, job attitudes, and workability (Žnidaršič & Dimovski, 2009). Based on lifespan
theories (e.g., the selection, optimization, and compensation (SOC) framework (Baltes &
Baltes, 1990)) and social-psychological regulatory focus theory (Higgins, 1997), Kooij et al.
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(2013) proposed that HR-related needs and preferences should change along with workers’
motives changes throughout their work-life. Kooij et al. (2013) built on those theoretical
frameworks and categorized these high committed HR practices into theoretically meaningful
HR bundles: development (promotion) vs. maintenance (prevention) HR practices. They
supported their hypothesis on the evidence that development practices (e.g., training provision)
are more positively related to younger workers’ well-being and work motivation (e.g., job
satisfaction, organizational commitment), meanwhile maintenance practices (e.g., job security
provision) are more appreciated by older workers (Kooij et al., 2013). Practices of our aging
model for manufacturing systems can be grouped into eight fields of action, as explained in the
following subsections.
3.6.1 Organizational culture related to older workers
HRM practices founded on an age-aware organizational culture are also labeled as age
management practices (Žnidaršič & Dimovski, 2009). The core concept covers the adaption
of general HR practices to support the needs of aging on different levels (e.g., of each aging
worker on an individual level), as well as of an aging workforce in organizations on an
organizational level or whole countries on a national level (e.g., by conducting age assessments,
initiating a change of the recruiting practices, conducting older employees focused training).
The work of Naegele and Walker (2011) is considered to be influential work in the area of agespecific HRM bundles, as they proposed numerous dimensions of age management, for
example, changes related to job recruitment, career development, training, and life-long
learning, flexible working practices, health protection and promotion, workplace design,
redeployment, and employment exit and transition to retirement.
3.6.2 Changing mental models in leadership practices
The transformation of mental models in leadership practices begins with good knowledge
about older employees and what is happening in the aging process. The biggest challenge in
studying aging is individual diversity, and researchers say that the more severe and
pronounced consequences of aging, which affect working ability, in most cases, do not
appear until late in life, after the age of 85 (Žnidaršič & Dimovski, 2009; Ilmarinen, 2006).
Therefore, it is necessary to eliminate age-related prejudices in the employment of older
people.
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1
Guidelines for management to overcome age stereotypes:
a.
Not to allow assumptions and stereotypes, especially between line managers and
associates in general, to influence business decisions concerning older people in
any form;
b. Take the time for informal conversations with all employees so that the situation is
constantly monitored and that problems related to the older employees can be
responded to quickly;
c. Openly promote a provocative debate on myths and misconceptions about age which are usually associated with broader cultural stereotypical dimensions;
d. Encourage age-mixed mentoring teams to break down boundaries and promote
better understanding and the creation of valuable intergenerational networks;
e. Ensure that employees are never too old (or too young) for specific work tasks for
which they can be successful;
f. The constant emphasis on the fact that age should not be an obstacle to career
advancement and development; at the same time, extensive communication of the
employer culture for all generations should be developed among all employees. It
is necessary to develop a culture that accepts older workers and values their
experience.
2 Organizations need to design work processes and tasks to make it more attractive for
older people to stay and prolong their working lives than to retire.
3
Adopting different, more flexible retirement patterns.
4
Dissemination and publication of benefits and employment opportunities for older
employees inside and outside the organization.
In addition, central but implicit questions in the decision-making process of business leaders
include what this business is for and for whom it exists. For example, many believe that the
primary goal of executives is to maximize value for shareholders, but their decisions determine
whether that value is maximized in the short term, the long term, or a combination of both
(Avery & Bergstener, 2011a, 2011b, 2011c). Avery and Bergsteiner (2011a, 2011b, 2011c)
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propose sustainable leadership aspects of humanistic management in valuing people and
considering the firm as a contributor to social well-being. These practices form a selfreinforcing leadership system that enhances the performance of a business and its prospects for
survival in the environment of aging in organizations. Finally, Pearce and Manz (2005) posit
the importance of new “silver bullets” for the dawn of a new era of silver leadership: selfleadership and shared leadership.
Fuertes, Egdell, and McQuaid (2013) show that managers are still not sufficiently aware that
using heterogeneous teams (in terms of employee age) leads to sustainable organizational
performance and enables knowledge transfer between employees. Sustainable organizational
performance is achieved by balancing multiple perspectives of organizational performance.
Such a case is known from the manufacturing industry, where some jobs involve high physical
workloads, low decision-making latitude, and short cycle times (Weichel et al., 2009). In
manufacturing, heterogeneous teams refer to a mixed structure of older and younger workers,
with older workers contributing the most due to their experience and know-how (with
crystalline intelligence) and younger workers due to their physical fitness and fluid mechanical
intelligence (cognitive speed and precision). It should be noted that age diversity is different
from the average team age as it relates to the distribution of team members along the age
continuum. Thus, age diversity is low when all team members are of similar age (regardless of
whether they are young, middle-aged, or old), and age diversity is high when team members
differ significantly in age (Fritzsche et al., 2014).
In heterogeneous teams, younger workers accelerate their learning curve by gaining valuable
experience from older workers, while older workers make more operating errors due to their
age (e.g., visual and hearing impairments). Fritzsche et al. (2014) show that a heterogeneous
(mixed) team composition can compensate for age-related productivity risks in manufacturing
by maintaining older workers’ ability to work and improving work quality. They also found
that a mixed-age structure in the team is always beneficial, regardless of the team’s average
age.
Regarding the performance aspects in heterogeneous teams, the performance of an employee
who interacts with other team members is determined by two components: first, the employee’s
performance and, second, the collective contribution resulting from interactions with other
team members. Similarly, the impact of age diversity (or age composition) on performance is
also determined by these two components: the individual performance of each employee and
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how employees of different ages work together, share knowledge, and complementarily
support each other (OECD, 2020).
The OECD report (2020) explains that one research finding on employee performance is that
performance rises in the early years of working life, yet it is unclear what happens after the
prime working age. Most existing studies conclude that performance peaks at age 40 or 50 and
then plateaus or declines with age, while some studies suggest that performance continues to
increase until retirement. In summary, employees start their working lives with relatively lowperformance levels, and middle-aged, and older workers appear to have similar performance
levels.
These changes in performance over the life course are relevant to the relationship between age
diversity and organizational performance because differences in age diversity (e.g., in the age
composition of an organization’s workforce) and imply differences in the performance of the
average worker. These changes in performance over the life course also highlight that the
relationship between age diversity and performance depends on the source of the differences
in age diversity. Moreover, employees who retire may take essential knowledge with them,
especially if the timely transfer of knowledge to the next generation has been neglected
(Voelpel & Streb, 2010), for example, by not creating and deploying heterogeneous teams that
allow this vital knowledge to be retained in the organization, with the “glue” in the form of
adequate communication among employees of different ages. The OECD report (2020)
emphasizes that it seems plausible that a more significant number of older workers increases
the productivity of younger workers, as the latter benefit from the experience and knowledge
of the former. Similarly, heterogeneous teams have more opportunities to manage physical
tasks and distribute the workload than homogeneous teams (Fritzsche et al., 2014) because, in
this case, older workers benefit from the physical fitness of their younger colleagues.
To summarize, greater age diversity is associated with greater complementarity of skills,
knowledge, and experience among workers of different ages. This complementarity leads to
significant spillover effects and benefits, such that the productivity of an organization with an
age-diverse workforce is greater than the sum of workers’ productivities. With such practices,
we reduce the aging of the workforce, which is considered a productivity risk in the
manufacturing industry. In addition, such teams need to work together daily. Such teamwork
leads to a win-win situation of mutual trust and respect and contributes to sustainable
knowledge exchange, as tacit knowledge at work is transferred from older to younger workers,
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passing from one generation to another. The result is the achievement of balanced
multidimensional business performance (OECD, 2020).
However, few employers currently have policies supporting a multigenerational workforce
(OECD, 2020). Such a situation applies to the whole range of policy dimensions, from
supporting the mobilization and management of a multigenerational employee to making jobs
attractive at all stages of life to maintaining up-to-date skills which enable a long and
productive career. According to the 2020 AARP Global Employer Survey (Perron, 2020), in
no policy area have more than 6% of employers implemented measures aimed at supporting a
multigenerational workforce, such as bias-free hiring practices and return-to-work or phased
retirement programs. One area where there is a lack of progress so far is in human resource
performance systems. These need to capture better the collective impact of an age-diverse and
age-inclusive workforce, as much of the benefits of age diversity come from spillover effects
or age mixing, with employees working together, learning, and supplementing each other.
However, current HRM systems are inadequate: they incentivize individual contributions
rather than capturing the productivity and collective impact of age-diverse employees, and they
may even inhibit productivity by depressing collaboration by supporting internal competition
(OECD, 2020). Adapting mental models and leadership practices in light of the above findings
supports the development of strategies as a tool to protect the demographic fitness of
organizations and enable the long-term improvement of organizations’ competitive and
innovative capacity (Voelpel & Streb, 2010).
3.6.3 Managing work design and ergonomics for older workers
Specific measures related to the ergonomics of older workers, as developed in our model of an
integrated theory of aging, are typically focused on assessing job quality and improving the
work environment of older workers and finding a way how to utilize technology in the context
of the work environment management of older workers (Žnidaršič & Dimovski, 2009). In
contemporary times, the future of work is one of the most important challenges for
governments, organizations, and individuals on a global level. The changing nature of work
has gained even more attention during the COVID-19 pandemic, with a special emphasis on
how technology can support people working from remote locations and how new arrangements
influenced the well-being and performance of workers (Bentley et al., 2020). In the future, even
more focus is anticipated in the field of human factors and ergonomics, which is considered to
be a design discipline, a systems discipline, and a people-centered discipline that deals with
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research of human work and is seeking on best possible solutions how an individual employee
can fit in the overall work system of an organization (Wilson, 2014).
3.6.4 Health management related to older workers
Promoting a healthy work-life balance, providing healthy working conditions, and supporting
a healthy lifestyle with a goal: “To maintain the physical, mental and emotional health of
(older) employees” is of crucial importance when developing an integrated model for managing
the older workforce. The specific measures related to the health management practices of older
workers, as developed in our model of an integrated theory of aging, are presented in Figure
3.5 (Žnidaršič & Dimovski, 2009).
Figure 3.5 Phases of the health management process for managing the older workforce
Source: Own work, adapted according to Dimovski et al. (2022) and Žnidaršič & Dimovski (2009)
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Phases of the health management process for managing the older workforce in manufacturing
services are, according to our integrated model:
1. Determining the rationality of measures to improve health and well-being is fundamental
in the systemic approach to age management.
2. Analysis – control of health management of older workers, which includes:
a. Safety and hazard analysis of work environments;
b. Detailed analysis of data on absenteeism, causes of absenteeism, illness, and injury
(taking into account the age structure of employees),
c. Identify all areas in the organization where employees stand out in terms of the
number of illnesses, injuries, etc.
d. Development of an organizational profile of age-related absences, illness, and
injuries patterns.
3. Providing prevention and specific curative measures to maintain and improve health.
4. Development of a systemic response to health risks related to aging.
5. Ensuring measurement of the effects of prevention programs and ergonomics.
6. Operational tasks: work assignment, working conditions, workplace design, and potential
accommodations, including flexibility practices and working time and scheduling.
3.6.5 Knowledge management for older workers
Specific measures related to the knowledge management practices of older workers, as
developed in our model of an integrated theory of aging, are presented in Figure 3.6:
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Figure 3.6 The specific measures related to knowledge management metrics
Source: Own work, adapted according to Dimovski et al. (2022) and Žnidaršič & Dimovski (2009)
3.6.6 Practices related to older workers
The specific measures related to HRM practices of older workers, as developed in our model
of an integrated theory of aging, are (Žnidaršič & Dimovski, 2009):
1. Analysis and balancing of the age profile of employees in the organization.
2. Strategic human resource planning.
3. Recruitment (selection and hiring; employment).
4. Learning and continuous professional development.
5. Career development, demotion, and promotion of older employees (HRD).
6. Job appraisal, performance management, and evaluation of older workers
7. Rewards and compensation for older workers
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8. Organizational support and recognition for older workers.
9. Flexible working practices and forms of employment continued employment practices
related to retention of older workers, and
10. Transition to retirement.
3.6.7 Age diversity – managing different generations
Bundles of age-diversity practices (e.g., HRM practices supporting collaboration among
different age groups) are importan-t for the functioning of contemporary organizations when
considering workforce ageing. These practices are based on the fact that age is no different
from other diversity categories in its potential to cause conflicts between different groups in
the workplace; however, it is a pathway towards maintaining or even gaining competitive
advantage as an age-diverse workforce might be better prepared to solve existing and future
challenges that are related to the functioning of the organization and understanding the needs
of our ageing population. The specific measures related to age diversity practices of older
workers, as developed in our model of an integrated theory of aging, are therefore aimed
towards benefits of age diversity and ensuring intergenerational coexistence, with the aim of
benefiting from intergenerational synergies and ensuring that the organization is in a good
shape in terms of its optimal age structure of employees (Žnidaršič & Dimovski, 2009).
3.6.8 Age-related metrics in manufacturing systems
The manufacturing sector includes a range of subcategories. In manufacturing, specifically
producing a product from raw material, workers could be working on making cars or their parts,
wearing textiles, plastics, food products, and more. Due to technological advances in robotics
and automation, essential changes in the manufacturing industry occurred, leading to higher
efficiency and effectiveness. The specific measures related to age-related metrics in
manufacturing systems for older workers, as developed in our model of an integrated theory of
aging are presented in Figure 3.7.
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Figure 3.7 The specific measures related to age-related metrics in manufacturing systems for
older workers
Source: Own work, adapted according to Dimovski et al. (2022) and Žnidaršič & Dimovski (2009).
For example, the Work Ability Index is an essential index for measuring the health
management dimensions of older workers in manufacturing systems (Radkiewich, WiderszalBazyl, & NEXT Study Group, 2005).
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PREPARING FOR THE FUTURE OF WORKFORCE
AGING
4.1
Knowledge management and the aging workforce
4.1.1
Knowledge management in the knowledge-based economy
In today’s knowledge-based economy, organizational knowledge resources are integral sources
of competitive advantages, innovation opportunities, and sustainability. Therefore,
organizations are devoting efforts and resources toward protecting tacit organizational
knowledge through knowledge management practices (Grant, 1996; Takeuchi, 2013).
Specifically, tacit organizational knowledge is viewed as a source of long-term competitive
advantage and is deeply related to good management practices (Nisula & Kianto, 2016).
Knowledge management tools and practices include activities, strategies, and initiatives to
enhance the organizational capabilities of knowledge creation, storage, retrieval, transfer, and
implementation (Zaim et al., 2018). The elements mentioned above include knowledge
diagnostics, systems, policies, strategies, and processes that are responsible for enhancing the
ability of organizations to manage organizational knowledge successfully. Moreover, empirical
research promotes the added value of knowledge management practices that are beneficial
when addressing the risks of knowledge loss concerning the aging workforce in the example
of several organizations from the private and public sectors (Cairo, Salcedo, & GutierrezGarcia, 2015). According to Valmohammadi and Ahmadi (2015), knowledge management is
not a possibility but a key obligation for organizations globally if they want to function
successfully in the knowledge-based economy. Similarly, knowledge can now be perceived as
an organization’s most important strategic resource (Phaladi & Ngulube, 2022).
4.1.2 Knowledge exchange and the aging workforce
The knowledge management domain concerning the aging workforce primarily focuses on
efforts of inter-generational knowledge exchange through activities such as institutionalized
knowledge transfer that can occur in mentoring programs as well as initiatives that promote
inter-generational collaboration to share know-how, experiences, and storytelling between
older and younger workers (Finsel et al., 2022). In the literature, knowledge-related interactions
between different generations of employees are integral to organizational success (Fasbender
& Gerpott, 2021). In contemporary times, a problem tends to occur when younger employees
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occupy decision-making roles with limited practice and knowledge that they need to succeed
in their new roles. As older employees are exiting the workforce in never seen numbers, the
transfer of valuable tacit and experience-related knowledge between different generations is
integral to the future successful functioning of organizations. An organization’s inability to
prepare the younger generation of employees for explicit, tacit, and experimental knowledge
necessary for leadership roles risks that those individuals will not be able to lead the
organization (Sprinkle & Urick, 2018). Organizations have traditionally benefited from
socialization techniques that transfer tacit knowledge between employees, such as storytelling,
sharing commonly accepted norms, celebrating achievements, building common values, and
emphasizing appropriate behavior (Schein, 1985). However, in today’s world, such techniques
suffer from pitfalls due to generational differences and negative perceptions (Urick et al.,
2016).
The retention of critical organizational knowledge is one of the most challenging issues for
organizations that wish to survive and/or prosper and be competitive in the long term (Calo,
2008). In many examples, knowledge is within specific individuals as tacit knowledge as those
individuals can be considered experts on specific topics or activities within an organization
(Lazazzara & Za, 2020). Such a state highlights the need for organizations to implement
appropriate knowledge transfer activities, as in the absence of such activities, organizations
might be exposed to knowledge loss when they leave the organization (Lazazzara & Bombelli,
2011). As knowledge management activities and knowledge transfer among employees are
perceived as highly important, there have been an evident increase in research interest in the
topic and role of individual employees in knowledge management processes (Bonomi et al.,
2015). The so-called people-centered perspective starts from the perspective that, within
organizations, individual employees are repositories of knowledge (Spender & Grant, 1996).
4.1.3 Knowledge management in the context of age management practices
Different lifespan theories have proposed that work motivation changes with employees’ age.
Individuals may have different preferences in motivational drivers for managing their resources
throughout their working life (Baltes & Baltes, 1990). Most existing literature proposes that
younger employees are generally more oriented towards growth and gaining additional
resources, while older employees focus on maintaining the existing state and are more oriented
towards loss reduction (Kooij et al., 2013). When discussing the organizational context, which
is defined by a high average age of staff and possible knowledge retention struggles due to a
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high number of older employees who will retire soon, awareness of appropriate age
management strategies and their influence on motivation and knowledge transfer is essential
to successfully deal with this issue in any organization (Buelens & Van Den Broeck, 2007).
Longer working lives and simultaneous technological advancement accompanied by an
increasing number of job-related changes significantly impact the individual work experience,
especially in the case of older workers (Ackerman & Kanfer, 2020). In today’s fast-paced and
ever-changing work environment, older employees must strive towards lifelong learning and
seek new knowledge, which is gaining importance for their progress and success (Fasbender
& Gerpott, 2021). Therefore, the organizational environment has an essential role in enhancing
lifelong learning and knowledge-related interactions, especially with the functioning of the
human resources department, which has gained attention in research and academia (Bednall,
Sanders, & Runhaar, 2014). In terms of the aging workforce, particularly important are ageinclusive practices that aim to provide equal opportunities for employees of different age
groups (Boehm & Dwertmann, 2015). The practices include recruitment policies, career
development programs, and training and development opportunities available to every
employee in the organization regardless of age. Consequently, organizations can develop an
age-friendly environment that increases employee knowledge-related interactions (Burmeister
et al., 2018).
Knowledge management has been described as one of the key components of the complex age
management model in organizations: typically, older workers tend to feel old because their
knowledge becomes obsolete or old and because of their chronological age. Nevertheless, in
practice, organizations are often more inclined to invest in younger employees when it comes
to training, learning, and development opportunities in the workplace (Žnidaršič, Kogovšek, &
Ograjenšek, 2021). Regarding the knowledge management aspect of the aging workforce, one
of the most prominent challenges today is how the knowledge of older workers nearing
retirement can be effectively transferred to benefit their younger colleagues (Pollack, 2012).
Massingham (2018) posits that knowledge management can be perceived as an effective tool
for knowledge transfer and exchange of experience among different generations of employees
in organizations. Such an answer is also necessary, as organizations must maintain their
organizational capabilities (Newman, 2011). In line with such efforts, a common approach is
to perform a diligent review of the work of older employees, revise their work procedures, and
transfer their knowledge into an explicit form such as a knowledge management system (Lave,
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Ashworth, & Gellings, 2007). Moreover, as older workers retire in large numbers, the aging of
the workforce might lead to shortages in specific skills and the overall ability of organizations
to effectively transfer knowledge across their entire workforce (Alavi & Leidner, 2001; Argote
& Ingram, 2000). As many older employees are now close to retirement, more workers are
likely to leave the workforce market.
4.1.4 Benefits of knowledge of older workers
In general, older employees can employ a few leadership and management positions within
organizations, highlighting the velocity of severe talent loss due to retirement (Berg &
Piszczek, 2022). Numerous researchers dealing with an aging workforce have expressed the
necessity of extending working lives to solve the rapid loss of older employees due to
retirement. Retention of older workers has several benefits for organizations, such as savings
related to hiring, onboarding, and training costs, as well as knowledge and skill loss to a smaller
extent (Cappelli & Novelli, 2010). Another positive outcome of extending work life is the
reduced pressure on organizations to manage problems related to retirement turnover and
provide financial stability and security for older employees who might have financial issues
upon retirement. Moreover, extending working life enables organizations to ensure appropriate
knowledge transfer between generations (Berg et al., 2020). Given the rise in the number of
older workers, it will become increasingly critical for organizations to attract and retain their
talent of older workers. In addition, many countries have recently raised public pension
retirement ages to ease the pressure on national pension systems (Chen & Turner, 2007).
Organizations that can provide a fast response related to workforce aging have the potential to
gain a long-term competitive advantage (Pollack, 2012). According to Pollack (2012),
organizations’ responses should emphasize creating a culture of knowledge sharing and
transfer. In another study conducted by Clauson et al. (2011), it was suggested that best
practices for dealing with an aging workforce in a case study from the nursing industry include
mentoring as a way of transferring knowledge within the organization. The loss or shortage of
highly skilled individuals in older workers’ retirement significantly affects organizations (Berg
& Piszczek, 2022). Older workers and their knowledge- and organization-specific
competencies make them valuable workforce members (McDaniel, Pesta, & Banks, 2012).
When discussing organizational solutions concerning an aging workforce, it is also necessary
to make a distinction based on the type of organization; namely, in the case of a more physical
labor-intensive organization, such as Mercedes-Benz, more emphasis is placed on the physical
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dimensions of an aging workforce, especially in comparison with knowledge management
activities (Streb & Voelpel, 2009). Moreover, owing to the increased experience of older
workers, workplace-related injuries may decrease as older employees tend to have a more
comprehensive and, therefore, a better understanding of the working environment (Volberg et
al., 2017). Additionally, older workers are more inclined to wear protective gear when
necessary for working tasks (Battini et al., 2018).
4.1.5 Challenges of knowledge management in the context of an aging workforce
Despite the numerous reported benefits of knowledge transfer in the existing literature, there
is a lack of practical examples of implementing programs designed to facilitate knowledge
transfer in organizations (Pollack, 2012). Another challenge is the complexity of utilizing
transferred knowledge from older workers, as a specific context may heavily influence it.
Knowledge management activities are often developed to focus mainly on transferring explicit
knowledge, while there might be shortcomings when it comes to the transfer of tacit knowledge
in individuals as a sum of their lifetime of experience. Therefore, organizations are advised to
simultaneously focus on transferring explicit and tacit knowledge (Leonard & Swap, 2004).
Moreover, only some organizations are aware of the necessity of having an overview of the
specific knowledge, skills, and competencies that are exiting the workforce with the retirement
of older employees. In practice, organizations might have the ability to overcome quantityrelated issues to retirement through hiring activities and automation of specific tasks; however,
in other examples, a more complicated knowledge transfer of tacit knowledge is necessary for
combination with other training methods to ensure adequate human capital quality within the
organization and its different departments (Berg & Piszczek, 2022).
4.2
The aging workforce in the period of digital transformation and
Industry 4.0
4.2.1 Digital transformation and aging
The third decade of the 21st century brings constant socioeconomic challenges encouraged by
technological innovations that change the socioeconomic environment and business
ecosystems (Alkaraan et al., 2022). In the third industrial revolution, organizations developed
technologies that led to a reduction in cost and complexity. In addition, technological processes
have enabled organizations to produce more technologically sophisticated and advanced
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products and services and to develop new business models (Roblek et al., 2016). In the Fourth
Industrial Revolution, or Industry 4.0, manufacturing organizations faced the challenges of
digital and green transformation (the term digital transformation is used in the text because it
goes beyond digitalization and green transformation). In the early phase of the emergence of
Industry 4.0 (2011-2015), it was assumed to be based on the technological aspect, and after
2015, this thesis changed with the presentation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
and the development of green technologies. As a result, Industry 4.0 is currently based not only
on technological (SDG 9: industry, innovation, and infrastructure) but also on environmental
(SDG 12: responsible consumption and production; SDG 13: climate action) and social aspects
(SDG 8: decent work and economic growth) (Roblek et al., 2020). Indeed, digital technology
impacts both production and environmental aspects (i.e., renewable energy and resource
efficiency) and sustainability’s technical, social, and organizational aspects. Therefore, it is
necessary for the existence and competitiveness of organizations, as well as for their resilience
and sustainable growth, to carry out digital transformation and green transformation
(Settembre-Blundo et al., 2021).
In the framework of transformation processes, niche technologies and the concept of Industry
4.0 are considered disruptive innovations. The most critical developmental step within Industry
4.0 is establishing cyber-physical systems that connect the physical environment and
cyberspace (informatization process) (Lu & Xu, 2018; Maynard, 2015). Furthermore, within
production systems, mechanisms enable human-human, human-machine, and machinemachine interactions along the entire value chain (Roblek et al., 2021). These processes impact
organizational culture and are becoming more challenging for organizations and society, as the
inclusion of humans in the processes of direct communication and cooperation with the
machine as an equal partner brings new challenges, such as employee resistance, the fear of
replacing humans with machines and technologies based on artificial intelligence, the adequacy
of skills needed to manage organizational processes in the context of smart production, and the
provision of adequate technology workers (Kiel et al., 2017; Seeber et al., 2020).
Digital transformation requires restructuring processes, increasing business agility, investing
in more organic structures, and increasing standardization, robotization, and automation to
optimize responsiveness to customer needs (Lee et al., 2021). Considering the importance of
the relationship between digital and green transformation in the context of Industry 4.0, it is
clear that the development of technological innovations represents a positive choice for the
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ecological environment. At the same time, technological innovations have become necessary
to manage processes within the ecological environment (Wang et al., 2021). It can be concluded
that green transformation occurs in parallel with the provision of resources that enable the
efficiency and agility of organizational processes to implement digital transformation (Marino
& Pariso, 2021). Therefore, both digital and green transformations will become prerequisites
for successful business operations in the future. The adoption of a circular economy as an
industrial economic model that addresses the multiple challenges of decoupling economic
growth from resource consumption, waste management, and value creation is already a viable
solution in the European Union manufacturing sector (e.g., Audi uses recycled materials in
electric car seats) (Reim et al., 2021). Organizations also combine sharing and circular models,
offering online platforms that allow them to share their products and services (e.g., B2B
business sharing equipment) (Pieroni et al., 2021).
Digital transformation has gained momentum during COVID-19 due to reduced opportunities
for socialization. COVID-19 and digitalization coincide in time and space and have a
converging meaning (Dvorak et al., 2021; Rapaccini et al., 2020). Thus, the industrial sector is
in a phase of fundamental change, stimulated on the one hand by the digitization of production
processes, and influenced by growing societal demands for comprehensive sustainability.
These demands are related to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and waste generation through
low-carbon and recycling technologies. Therefore, digitalization affects the older generation of
employees opting for retirement, resulting in organizations not retaining tacit knowledge. An
organization’s risk can emerge in this case because management relies on aging workforce
knowledge and experience. As a result, the loss of tacit knowledge significantly impacts an
organization’s technological and digital health conditions (Sundstrup et al., 2022).
Therefore, management must find a solution to retain tacit knowledge and motivate older
employees to remain committed to the firm. With the development of up-skill and re-skill
programs, organizations can not only retain older employees but also reduce the need to find
new workers with digital skills (one of the most critical organizational risks in the digital
economy). With the aim of the European industry successfully developing programs for reand upskilling, which will enable a successful course of green and digital transition, The
European Commission has launched the Pact for Skills, a shared engagement model for skills
development in Europe (European Commission, 2021a).
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4.2.2 Digital transformation model for an aging workforce
Figure 4.1 shows the processes and consequences of digital transformation that enable the
emergence of “future” organizations and their challenges (solutions to avoid or reduce risks).
Figure 4.1 helps understand the complex digital transformation process and shows its
consequences and solutions in the context of organizational change. The digital transformation
of corporate activity changes the existing business models in an agile manner. Transformational
leadership is considered crucial in these processes as the main driver of business model
transformation (Simsek et al., 2021). The outcome of business model transformation is
organizational agility, which includes three antecedents: digital technologies, relationships, and
innovation. Organizational agility positively impacts business performance (in terms of
financial and innovative performance). Agility impacts three outcomes: financial performance,
product innovation, and process innovation. Developing these three capabilities is strategic for
organizations to achieve resilient and sustainable growth (Troise et al., 2022). Digital
transformation also impacts changes in corporate culture, transforming it into a directional,
innovative, and digital organizational culture. The transformation of organizational culture
begins with digital technologies (big data, 3D/4D printers, AI, and nanotechnology).
COVID-19 only adds to the complexity of resolving critical situations related to organizational
culture. Organizations are in a situation where they need to offer hybrid ways of working. In
doing so, they must ensure that workers who run production lines work on-site and that
knowledge workers and other employees can work remotely (Jarrahi & Thomson, 2017). The
consequences of digital transformation led to changes in organizational forms and structures
that became more agile and flexible – nimble (Brosseau et al., 2019), technologies and
leadership styles (Dhamija, Chiarini, & Shapla, 2021), and future skill requirements of the job
profiles for the European manufacturing industry (Akyazi et al., 2022; Marcysiak, & Pleskacz,
2021), work and work activities (Holmquist & Sundin, 2021), and the emergence of Industry
4.0 business models (Müller, Buliga, & Voigt, 2021; Simsek et al., 2022). Digitalization and
informatization enable organizations to organize work in different workplaces. Thus, it can be
organized in more classic, collocated workplaces or purely distributed and dependent on virtual
interactions. In addition, collaboration platforms are emerging, enabling social and market
changes and providing more opportunities for distributed teams as part of how organizations
organize work (Schwartz et al., 2019).
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Figure 4.1 Digital transformation model
Source: Own work.
The digital transformation led to changes in the social contract between employees and
employers, as it gave rise to new forms of work and allowed organizations to hire independent
contractors and employ forms such as gig workers and crowdsourcing, in addition to the
traditional form of full-time employment (Schwartz et al., 2019). In addition, the COVID-19
pandemic has accelerated automation, technology-enabled division of labor, and algorithmic
workforce management (across all platforms) (Bhargava et al., 2021). As a result, production
processes and forms of work have changed and will continue to do so. The consequences of
digital transformation are already evident in the changes in an organization’s employment
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policies. For example, organizations are laying off workers who do not have the necessary
skills to do the job under new conditions while hiring employees with the required knowledge
and skills.
Digitalization also affects management practices. In highly digitized organizations, managers
are more likely to allow their employees to work autonomously. While greater autonomy is
generally seen as beneficial to workers, digitally driven work arrangements can lead to lowerquality work for workers whose personal preferences in work organizations do not fit this
management style (Nudurupati et al., 2021; Pinchot & Soltanifar, 2021). Furthermore, the
digital transformation of business activities is agilely changing the existing business models
(Klos et al., 2021). Moreover, green digital transformation mobilizes investments in R&D for
clean digital technologies and their adoption, human capital, and research (Chatzistamoulou &
Tyllianakis, 2022; Garrido-Prada et al., 2021).
Transformational leadership is crucial in these processes as a key driver of business model
transformation (Simsek et al., 2021). Traditional business models have been transformed into
the industrial sector. The emergence of green business concepts influences production
processes to focus on energy optimization, reuse, and recycling waste materials (Hasan et al.,
2019). Thus, new business models are based on the automation of business processes and
circular economic principles (Munsamy, Telukdarie, & Fresner, 2019). In addition, digital and
related production technologies have become critical factors in ensuring the successful
implementation of new business models. Moreover, Industry 4.0 strives to balance the business
models of other organizations in the ecosystem (Oztemel & Gursev, 2020). It should be noted
that digital platforms have become an essential business model in the context of Industry 4.0.
They appear in various sectors, including retail, education, healthcare, transportation,
agricultural technology, financial technology, and real estate. In addition, digital platforms are
transforming the labor market by encouraging the adoption of nonstandard forms of work (e.g.,
gig workers) (Roblek et al., 2020).
The changing understanding of work and the emergence of new forms and conditions of work
and organizational structures, such as digital platforms, have raised questions about precarity,
erosion of existing workers’ rights, and social protection in the EU. The issue of attracting and
retaining young talent and increasing population aging exacerbates the problem and deals with
the consequences of an aging workforce. The common thread is the question of the position of
the older workforce in an era of digital and green transformation (risk). It is assumed that the
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development of age management models (Calzavara et al., 2020; Holmquist & Sundin, 2022)
and the emergence of new, more flexible forms of employment are necessitated by the
redefinition of work that we see as problem-solving in the digital economy (Parent-Rocheleau
& Parker, 2022). Furthermore, as organizations increasingly face labor shortages, care must be
taken to ensure the competitiveness of the older workforce. Therefore, the organization’s
management must promote worker education, training, and retraining. Management must also
ensure a suitable working environment and reduce the health risk that will enable an aging
workforce to remain active in the labor market and postpone retirement.
In the complex environment of organizations undergoing digital transformation, two
phenomena can be observed that pose a fundamental challenge to management, which can
respond by devising age-management strategies or models. It can be a significant challenge
because of the burden of the large amounts of information that workers face in the workplace.
In the business environment, we see exponential growth in information, which often results in
employees not being able to find the information they need, despite the increasingly digital
environment. When the amount of information needed to work quickly and collaborate better
to complete assigned tasks increases, it creates a challenging scenario for older workers. Owe
to the growing need for employees with up-to-date information and technology knowledge,
organizations are increasingly choosing to hire younger generations, which often leads to
challenges in meeting the diverse needs of the multigenerational workforce (Dwyer &
Azevedo, 2016). People over 50 did not grow up as “digital natives”. Therefore, technology is
less likely to fit them than younger generations, who grow up with smartphones and other ICT
solutions (Roblek et al., 2019).
Therefore, it is necessary to draw attention to age discrimination in employment in technical
occupations (Morrow-Howell et al., 2020). In this way, the organization will maintain and take
care of the training of the aging workforce employed by the organization for many years so
that their knowledge is preserved. It should be emphasized that management must ensure that
the aging workforce is properly motivated to feel in control of adapting to technological
development. It is also crucial for organizations and employees that the government provide
strategies for introducing lifelong learning and skills programs that enable people without
digital skills or who lack digital skills to remain competitive in the HR market. With an aging
population and shortage of employees with adequate digital skills, it makes sense for
organizations to invest in the aging workforce and allow them to acquire relevant skills in new
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technologies and the demands of the data economy. It would also make sense to promote
apprenticeships for older workers, in which the organization allows them to develop their skills.
Under so-called digital apprenticeships, aging workers would gain knowledge in cybersecurity,
software, big data analytics, and artificial intelligence (Hughes, 2021). Training for an aging
workforce, rather than just younger talent, would allow organizations to develop their
workforce continuously. In this way, we could first redirect personnel from areas at risk of
extinction to advanced technological areas within the organization. Of course, a prerequisite
for an aging workforce is that they are willing to develop their skills and feel the need for
continuing education. As a first step, organizations must become aware of the importance of
older workers in retaining knowledge and addressing workforce shortages and incorporate age
management practices into corporate strategies (Merkel, Ruokolainen, & Holman, 2019).
4.2.3 Opportunity areas for emergence of age management solutions and practices
Organizations face the disruption of traditional business processes, disruptive digital
technologies, and an aging workforce. In addition, artificial intelligence and the metaverse as
a new virtual reality are expected to increasingly transform and augment organizational
processes and dynamic capabilities around 2030 (Lee, 2022). Both current and future
organizational changes require management and leaders to address changing business
strategies, redefine the socially responsible role of organizations, consider redesigning business
and profit models, and, last but not least, the role of employees in this process. With the
increasingly accelerated digital transformation and the emergence of smart factories,
management needs to prepare organizational scenarios based on (i) the redefinition of work:
the emergence of human-machine and machine-machine collaboration has implications for the
redefinition of work, as robots will replace humans, especially in repetitive and routine work.
The expanded role of humans in work processes should therefore focus on solving problems
and complex situations and resolving human relationships, and algorithmic management has
implications for the creation of new jobs (Almeida et al., 2020; Parent-Rocheleau & Parker,
2022); (ii) The redefinition of the workplace: COVID-19, the development of Internet
technology, and the emergence of cyber-physical systems have increased the importance of
telework, digital ecosystems, and digital work platforms (gig economy) after 2020 (SettembreBlundo et al., 2021).
In addition, digital work platforms enable organizations to improve performance (Cenamor et
al., 2019) and change both the form of the organization and the conditions of work and
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employment (Gawer, 2022). New types of work (jobs), working conditions, and workplace
forms as drivers of organizational change must enable decent work in the cyber world.
Management must be prepared for the consequences of digital transformation and the
emergence of new organizational forms. As organizations increasingly need to retain an aging
workforce, management must develop strategies that enable the aging workforce to remain
competitive and as healthy or vital as possible. The solutions and practices available for the
management are listed in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Management aging management solutions and practices
Aging management
solutions and
Sources
Goals
practices
re-skilling Minocha,
These programs have to run through digital platforms,
programs to increase McNulty
& thus enabling generations 40, 50, and 60-year-olds to
Develop
digital skills
Evans,
2015; become acquainted with collaborative platforms. In
Osatis
& doing so, it makes sense for a generation of
Asavanirandorn,
millennials or even the Z generation to work as a
2022
mentor to older generations such as X and baby
boomers. This way, management will also positively
reduce intergenerational tensions
Connecting
careers Charalampous et Designing a career advancement policy for the aging
with knowledge of the al., 2019; Van Der workforce following their career goals by acquiring
use
of
new Lippe & Lippényi, appropriate knowledge that enables them to use
technologies at work
2020
modern technologies in their work (e.g., Big Data
analytical tools, augmented reality, knowledge of the
use of blockchain technologies, human and robot
participation in the performance of work, use of
digital
communication
platforms,
paperless
processes)
Encouraged
collaborative
collaboration
employees
Trees, 2015; Le et Unifying all communication channels (offline and
al.,
2020; online communications) of employees with the
of Newman & Ford, organization. It makes sense to give employees access
2021
to tools and business information anytime. Using
tools will lead to intergenerational cooperation and
reduce intergenerational friction, as employees in all
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age groups will be able to cooperate and be constantly
involved in the organizations’ operations and foster
an innovative culture for radical and incremental
innovations. The constant involvement of employees
will also ensure employee satisfaction. Software must
streamline work processes while reducing user
barriers, which is essential for the aging workforce
Promoting
hybrid Fayard, Weeks, & Knowledge management workers should be able to do
work and emergence Khan,
of cultural space
Malik
2020; most of their work in telework and augmented reality.
Kim, Their office visit is intended for unstructured
&
2020
collaboration with co-workers and management. A
classic office needs to become a place to encourage
employee creativity. It is thus intended for socializing
employees, encouraging cooperation, and learning
about new technological solutions (e.g., younger
employees mentor older colleagues in inter-personal
contact). At the same time, employees in production
processes have to do most of it in the organization.
Therefore, depending on the content of the work, it is
necessary to ensure that employees work in work
environments that allow them to stay connected in
distributed and virtual work locations while balancing
privacy, customers/organizations, and operational
risk. Such environments give the aging workforce the
freedom to live while keeping them connected to coworkers and career goals.
Older
health
workers’ Dahl et al., (2022); To ensure the implementation of sustainable social
prevention Dietzel
et
al. approaches, SDG 8.8 requires organizations to
and safety in the (2021); Sundstrup actively establish programs that address employee
workplace
et al. (2022)
health and safety in the workplace. Organizations
have prevention programs to protect workers from
occupational
diseases.
Hybrid
work
increases
employee health problems, such as stress, eye
diseases, spinal cord injuries, and the problem of
separating professional from private life. Considering
the increased use of digital technologies, the
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phenomenon of so-called digital dementia and
pseudo-debility information is worth mentioning.
These are phenomena where the degradation of
human intellectual and creative abilities occurs. The
phenomenon occurs in people addicted to boarding
and digital technologies
Source: Own work.
4.2.4 The transition from Industry 4.0 to Industry 5.0 and HRM
Industry 4.0 refers to established concepts such as the Internet of Things, Internet of
Everything, CPS, Smart Factory, Big Data, Cloud Computing, and Cybersecurity. These
concepts are essential in ensuring production efficiency and reducing production costs
(Nahavandi, 2019). However, the role of the upcoming fifth industrial revolution, or Industry
5.0, goes beyond the content of Industry 4.0. Industry 5.0 focuses on establishing metaverse,
interacting with machines, semi-finished products, individual machine parts, robots, and
people. For this process to succeed, the use of Big Data is essential. To this end, technology
and human resources must be equipped with skills to manage systems to collect and process
large amounts of data in real-time (Büchi, Cugno, & Castagnoli, 2020). Furthermore, the
collaboration between humans and intelligent machines opens up countless possibilities in
manufacturing. Although use cases for the Industry 5.0 concept are still in their infancy today,
manufacturers should actively develop ways to integrate this combination and maximize its
unique benefits. Add to this the rapid advances in artificial intelligence, machine learning
(ML), robotics, the Internet of Things (IoT), autonomous vehicles and cars, 3D and 4D printing,
virtual and augmented reality, wearable materials, additive manufacturing, nanotechnology,
biotechnology, energy storage, and quantum computing (European Commission, 2021b).
The understanding of Industry 5.0 must focus on the fact that it aims to help and support
humans and enable them, not replace them. Robots will not replace humans. Companies do not
see increasing robotization, including software, as an opportunity to eliminate large numbers
of employees or replace them with smart machines that do not need breaks, do not know about
vacations, and do not know about unions. In the case of a robot doing repetitive tasks on an
assembly line, it is a human service. Manufacturers, recognizing the value of human intuition
and problem-solving skills, are eager to outsource physically demanding and/or mindless
repetitive tasks to machines. There are not many smart factories that do entirely without
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humans. Well, there are almost none. Organizations have realized that for more complex tasks,
they also need people who know how to think and react appropriately in a new situation - not
just how they were “programmed” to do it (Roblek, Erenda, & Meško, 2020).
In recent years, HRM practices have emerged that show how age management strategies can
be implemented in organizations. For example, it can be seen that in smart factories, where
automation is causing downsizing at the production level and where online control and remote
maintenance capabilities will reduce the need for managers in the workflow, management can
make age-related skill shifts in production control. The function is gaining importance due to
robotics and automation. Thus, senior positions can be established to ensure production flora
and remote control of robotics performance (Cagle, Yılmaz, & Doğru, 2020).
Document of the European Commission about Industry 5.0 focuses on creating a more
sustainable, resilient, and people-centric industry. Industry 5.0 thus focuses on shaping future
economic and technological development and orienting industrial policy in the context of the
future European society. These factors also have environmental, social, and fundamental rights.
The document emphasizes that Industry 5.0 should be understood neither as a chronological
continuation of the industry 4.0 paradigm nor as an alternative. The document is therefore
defined as follows (European Commission, 2021b): “The result of a forward-looking process
contributes to how European industry and emerging societal trends and needs coexist.”
4.3
Sustainable leadership practices of the life-phase-oriented staff
development
4.3.1
Introduction of the life-phase-oriented staff development
In the 19th century, men in Europe reached an average age of 35 years, and women had an
average age of just under 40 years. However, life expectancy has risen, and over the last 25
years, this trend has continued; therefore, we have an average life expectancy of 79 years for
men and almost 84 years for women. The life expectancy of females in Japan is 88 years in
Japan (United Nations, 2022). The population’s age structure used to be in the so-called
“beehive shape,” which demonstrates a population that is neither increasing nor decreasing.
The slow convergence of this age structure results from a high life expectancy, with a constant
birth rate of just over two children per woman on average. However, over the last three decades,
most central European countries have shifted away from this ideal. Instead, their age structures
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have taken on the “onion shape” feared by demographers. The reason for this development is
a lower birth rate, combined with an increase in life expectancy. One evident consequence of
this is an aging population (Troger, 2021, p. 5).
The impact of an increase in human life expectancy on the global aging trend can be seen in
the old age dependency ratio, defined as the ratio between the number of older people who are
generally inactive (65 years and older) and the number of people of working age (15–64 years).
The EU’s old-age dependency ratio has increased from 25.9% in 20013 to 34.8% in 2020,4
which is expected to be 57% in 21005 (Eurostat, 2022a). As of January 1, 2020, some of the
highest shares in the EU were concentrated in eastern Germany, Greece, Spain, France, Italy,
Portugal, and Finland. The regions with the highest shares are predominantly rural,
mountainous, and relatively remote, making it more likely that younger people have left the
region to continue their studies but seek employment (Eurostat, 2022a). Within the EU regions,
the highest level of old-age dependency (78.3%) was recorded in Evrytania, a mountainous
region in central Greece. The northwestern Belgian region of Arr followed.
Conversely, the lowest shares in the EU were recorded in the distant French regions of Mayotte
(6.1%), Guyana (11.7%), and the Spanish region of Fuerteventura (16.5%). In the next three
decades, the level of older dependency is expected to increase in all 1,169 regions of the EU,
except for Harz, the westernmost region of Sachsen-Anhalt in Germany. At the EU level, the
ratio is projected to reach 56.7% by 1 January 2050, when fewer than two working-age adults
will be for each older person. Furthermore, the projections indicate that the old-age dependency
ratio will have risen to at least 50% in the vast majority (974) of EU regions. At the EU level,
this ratio is expected to reach 56.7% by January 1, 2050, with fewer than two working-age
adults for every older person. Projections show that the dependency ratio of the older will
increase to at least 50% in the vast majority (974) of EU regions (Eurostat, 2022a).
Looking at the proportion of people aged 65 and older in the total population, Italy (24%),
Finland and Greece (both 23%), and Portugal, Germany, and Bulgaria (all 22%) had the highest
proportions, while Ireland and Luxembourg (both 15%) had the lowest. From 2001 to 2021,
3
In 2001, there were slightly fewer than four adults of working age (20–26) for every person aged 65 years or
more (Eurostat, 2022).
4
In 2020, there were slightly fewer than three adults of working age for every person aged 65 years or more
(Eurostat, 2022).
5
This means that there will be fewer than two people for every elderly person aged 65 years and over (Eurostat,
2022).
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the proportion of persons aged 65 and over increased in all EU Member States. The highest
increase was recorded in Finland (+8%), and the lowest was in Luxembourg (+1%) (Eurostat,
2022b). In contrast, Angola (2.5%) and Sierra Leone (1.9%) have low proportions of older
citizens (Troger, 2021, p. 6). In terms of young people, the proportion of the total population
under 20 is highest in Ireland (27%), France (24%), and Sweden (23%), while the proportion
is lowest in Malta, Italy, and Germany (18% each). Over the 2001–2021 period, a decline in
the proportion of young people was observed in all Member States, with the most significant
decreases in Malta (-10%) and Cyprus (-9%) and the smallest in Sweden and Belgium (both 1%) (Eurostat, 2022b). During the COVID-19 pandemic, older people were most endangered
as they were at risk of suffering symptoms of prolonged COVID-19 or death. That is why many
older workers decided (if they could) to retire early: “about 90% of the people who left the
state’s workforce are over 55 years old” (Chris Clark, Head of Georgia’s (USA) Chamber of
Commerce in Smith & Gilbert, 2022, p. 15).
4.3.2
Core skills required for sustainable development
Primary skills and competencies required for the so-called “green jobs” by the skill level of
occupation are stated as (ILO, 2019, p. 30): 1) required across the labor force (environmental
awareness and protection; adaptability and transferability skills; teamwork and empowerment
skills; resilience, grit; negotiation and communication skills; entrepreneurial and
entrepreneurship skills; occupational safety and health); 2) required in medium to high-skilled
occupations (analytical thinking; systems analysis; risk management analysis; lower, middle
and top management skills, leadership skills; innovation, creativity skills; marketing,
promotion, public relations skills; networking, computer skills; leadership development and
nurturing skills).
The cost and benefits to the organization in developing skills can include any or all of the stated
(Martin, 2001, p. 168): speed and ease of fitting into physical/intellectual demands of the
position, ease of fitting in the social structure, skills that need to be extended for (immediate)
needs, training required for development, prospects for advanced performance levels beyond
minimum standards, the introduction of ideas, and time of supervision required. Two skills
tests are usually used to test employee-specific and general competency tests, but they do not
provide long-term quality performance on workplace tasks. For example, the tests do not reveal
performance on complex tasks, the integration of individual skills, flexibility and adaptability,
endurance, motivation, commitment, or team suitability (Martin, 2001, p. 19).
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4.3.3
111
Multiple intelligences and older person’s development
The contemporary theory of multiple intelligences, developed by Harvard University’s
Professor Howard Gardner (Gardner, 1983; 1993; 1995; 1999; 2007; 2010; Gardner & Hatch,
1989; Gardner, Kornhaber, & Wake, 1996; Gardner & Moran, 2006) argues that we possess
different profiles of intelligence, among the original ones, are seven aspects of intelligence
(defined by Prof. Gardner), which can be integrated into the development of older people. Table
4.2 presents all seven original intelligence aspects and describes how we can develop them for
older workers. Developmental activities for older people are proposed based on principles and
lifestyle: “make healthy choices easy” (Marshall & Altpeter, 2005; Thaler & Sunstein, 2021).
Furthermore, safety measures and healthy aging must be prioritized when developing multiple
intelligences, avoiding disease, encouraging encouragement with life, and maintaining high
cognitive and physical function, autonomy, dignity, participation, fairness, and security
(Marshall & Altpeter, 2005).
Prof. Howard Gardner notes that there has not been any research on multiple intelligences at
one age; therefore, many research opportunities exist where he offers some guidelines for
future research studies (Gardner, May 30, 2022, personal correspondence; used with
permission): “As one age, it is difficult to alter the relations among intelligence. Presumably,
one remains strong in the areas where one was strong, so long as the intelligence is exercised
regularly. It is doubtful, as one age, that one can significantly strengthen an intelligence in
which one is weak. Furthermore, it has been weak throughout one’s life. Of course, you are
welcome to exercise intelligence in which you are weak. It can be fun, and you might learn
something. Nevertheless, if you do not have solid spatial intelligence, do not expect it to be
enhanced significantly just because you practice spatial problems. Instead, it is probably best
to know your intellectual strengths, use them to help you accomplish what you want, and ‘trade’
areas of strength with others. Thus, for example, if you are strong in musical intelligence and
your partner is strong in spatial intelligence, you can help the other in areas where they need
help and secure help in areas where you are not strong.”
Our intelligence is not entirely fixed when born but can be developed (Gardner in Lunenburg,
2011). It also needs to be mentioned that intelligence and cultural diversity, to a large extent,
are products of our (local, global) environment and upbringing (Wilson & Mujtaba, 2007, p.
16). What is considered “smart” or intelligent may not be so in another community circle or
culture. However, the fact remains that we can nurture our specter of multiple intelligences
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throughout our lives. We may be more prone to developing some aspects of intelligence than
others. An example of a healthy aging strategy can be the promotion of physical activity
(Marshall & Altpeter, 2005). In promoting and developing the kinesthetic intelligence of older
employees, management is responsible for promoting an overall “movement” culture within
the organization and the local community. We must design a “movement-friendly working
environment” for our sedentary lifestyle (Štemberger, 2019; Štemberger, 2022; Table 4.3). We
sit 9–10 hours/day, 5–6 hours/day with lower movement activity, and 20 minutes/day with
higher movement activity (Štemberger, 2019). We should make recreational and relaxation
breaks during our meetings (active breaks should last 20–30 minutes; e.g., walking home from
work). Every 45 minutes, one minute should be given for health promotion: raise awareness in
your meetings; there is always someone who has to start; be the leader! The aim is to: 1)
Humanize our life and work (do not exploit or exhaust people); 2) Prepare for later usage in
everyday life; 3) Increase productivity; 4) Gain knowledge about our own body and mind, and
5) Shape habits (Štemberger, 2019).
Table 4.2 Multiple intelligence development of older
Description
intelligence
Linguistic
Skill
in
language
of Example of developmental activities for Authors
the older worker:
the How can I incorporate spoken or written Gardner (2009,
word in the training? Workshop on public p. 6); Vincent
speaking to represent the organization in & Ross (2001,
public
(e.g.,
giving
interviews, p. 38)
collaborating at round tables, etc.). Have
them
debate
essential
issues,
write
instructions for others to follow, explain
how to work out a problem, and solve
problems with a partner
Logical
Skill in logical- How
can
I
incorporate
numbers, Gardner (2009,
in p. 6); Vincent
mathematical
calculations,
operations
training?: Workshop on preparing an & Ross (2001,
or
critical
thinking
p. 38)
annual report of the organization.
“Have
them
compare
and
contrast
situations, find problem patterns, create
outlines, create time sequence charts, and
show cause and effect relations.”
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Intrapersonal Understanding
How can I stimulate personal feelings or Gardner (2009,
oneself
memories or give older workers choices in p. 6)
training?: Diary writing as data preparation
for organization’s celebration event (e.g.,
anniversary, etc.)
Interpersonal
Understanding of How can I promote cooperative learning or Gardner (2009,
others
large-group simulation in older workers’ p. 6); Ulibarri
PPCO
training?:
formula
of et al. (2019)
intergenerational collaboration as part of
the organizational routine.
Kinesthetic
Use of the whole How can I include the whole body or hands- Gardner (2009,
body or parts of on experiences in training?: a) Develop an p. 6); Marshall
the body to solve activity-friendly community that enables &
problems
or
Altpeter
to good walking trails, well-designed, well- (2005)
make (new) things
constructed, well maintained, safe bike
trails, and long-duration traffic lights for
older people; b) signs at elevators and
staircases that encourage people to walk
and exercise; c) provide locker rooms and
shower facilities in the organization; d)
partnership
with
recreation
agencies,
disability agencies; continuing education
programs and older volunteer programs
Spatial
Perception of the How can I incorporate visual aids, Green
et
al.
visual-spatial
visualization, or visual color organizers in (2005, p. 353);
environment
and training?: Specially targeted programs, (Grebennikova,
the
ability
change
perceptions
Nikitina,
to such as art therapy
&
Gardenova
those
(2019)
into
(new) form, color,
space,
and
relationships
Musical
Capacity
perceive,
discriminate,
transform,
to How
can
I
incorporate
music
or Green
et
al.
environmental sounds into the training?: (2005, p. 353)
Event with favorite music of employees,
and arranged in chronological periods.
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express
diverse
musical
forms
through rhythms,
pitches, melodies,
and tones
Source: Own work.
Habits define and shape our lives. Therefore, we need a “Habit: mind switch” by which nudges
such as stairs that count calories can be helpful. “No matter how slow you go, you are still
beating everybody on the couch.” You can use “Minute for health videos” on the internet. You
do not have to go fast; you have to go. Time management tip: work + recreation (stabilization
pillow on the chair; balance board for sitting/standing). We recommend watching an inspiring
video of the piano staircase (Piano staircase, 2022). We need to make movement part of our
lives, and not merely incorporate physical exercises into our schedules.
Table 4.3 Developing kinesthetic intelligence in the older workforce
1. How do you recommend integrating the promotion of physical activity for older
workers in the working environment?
Associate Professor Vesna Štemberger, Ph.D.: There are several types of strategies that are
appropriate to improve the quality and quantity of physical activity in our workplace:
1) ENVIRONMENT THAT ENCOURAGES MOVEMENT: Environments are
designed to encourage or discourage movement. In the workplace, such
environments can be designed in pretty straightforward ways. For example, elevators
can be equipped with motivational messages about the importance of walking for
health and preserving nature by reducing electricity consumption. On the stairs, we
can put signs about calorie consumption, health benefits, etc. Posters encouraging a
healthy lifestyle can be placed on the walls. Motivational signs of this type can also
be placed in the office. In the office, a fitness ball can be used in addition to chairs
for sitting, or work can be done while standing. Some of the traditional desks in the
office can be replaced by so-called kinetic desks, which allow working while
standing.
2) SPACE AND EQUIPMENT FOR WORKPLACE EXERCISING: If it is possible to
set up a small fitness room at the workplace, it makes sense to make use of it, because
this way you can work out before or after working hours, and often you can take a
break during work and do a short workout.
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3) ACTIVE TRANSPORT: If possible, walk, bike, or use other active transportation to
get to work. If this is not possible and you are driving, taking the train or bus to work,
try parking your car in the back of the parking lot and get off at a stop before your
usual stop and walk the rest of the way.
4) ACTIVE BREAK: An active break is an organized (guided) break between work to
improve physical and mental health. This type of break lasts up to 30 minutes and is
professionally guided. The workday may include one longer break or two shorter
breaks (10–15 minutes), and this break must be integrated into the schedule/work
plan to allow all workers to participate. As a general rule, all individuals can (and
should) participate in this break, regardless of fitness level or athletic ability, as the
break should be tailored to different individuals. The active break activities can be
done in the clothes the individual comes to work in, or the individual can change into
something more comfortable. The content of the active break can vary but generally
involves physical activity (stretching exercises, strength exercises, aerobic
exercises), meditation (with guidance), or breathing exercises. If possible, the content
should be diverse so that each individual can find an activity closer to their
personality and makes them feel better. The active break should be conducted in a
common place, such as a classroom, gym, large office, boardroom, nature, etc. It is
crucial that the space be large enough for all participants and always available during
the active break. If possible, the active break should be led by a qualified person
(sports educator, kinesiologist, possibly physiotherapist) or someone who has
completed additional training in this area.
5) ONE MINUTE FOR HEALTH: A health minute or so-called micro-break is a short
break during (sedentary) work, in reality lasting up to five minutes. A health minute
can be guided, or individuals can take a short break between work. For example, we
should take a break from sedentary work every 30 minutes and do some movement
exercises during this break, or we can take a break when we feel that we cannot
concentrate anymore, our concentration has decreased, we have become sleepy, we
have pain in our lower back or neck, etc. A break can include stretching,
strengthening, simple dances, and meditation.
2. What are the benefits of physical activity for older workers?
Associate Professor Vesna Štemberger, Ph.D.: The benefits of physical activity in a
predominantly sedentary population are many and undoubtedly include reduced fatigue, as
the high cognitive demands, workload, and lack of breaks during mental work place a heavy
burden on the individual. In addition, individuals who regularly incorporate physical activity
into their daily routines tend to be in better moods, describe their overall well-being as better
than individuals who are not physically active, and their actual health is also better. Physical
activity also contributes significantly to keeping the musculoskeletal system (primarily the
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spine) healthy, reducing the number of sick days, lowering the risk of chronic noncommunicable diseases, and increasing overall daily physical activity.
3. Do you have any recommendations for older workers on how to age healthily?
Associate Professor Vesna Štemberger, Ph.D.: I can give general recommendations, but they
are not helpful if the person does not have the right skills. In such a case, it is imperative to
find professionals (trained kinesiologists, nutritionists, etc.) who can advise and give us the
appropriate knowledge. It is essential to change the lifestyle, not just short-term measures
that do not significantly impact the whole human system. In any case, a proper diet is
essential, balanced, and does not consist of various short and restrictive diets (an exception
is medical reasons that require certain restrictions). Regular physical activity includes
aerobic, strength, and balance exercises. If you have not been physically active, consult a
physician before beginning exercise. Exercise can also be incorporated into daily routines
(e.g., health minutes) during sedentary activities (e.g., sitting while watching TV can be
interrupted by standing up and continuing to watch; similarly, reading books or any other
activity that is otherwise sedentary). Another vital point is knowledge and awareness of the
importance of relaxation, as stress in our life can be an essential risk factor for health.
Sufficient rest (sleep) is also important, as the body regenerates during sleep.
4. Here are a few exercises that workers can use in their daily lives to move more:
Associate Professor Vesna Štemberger, Ph.D.:
EXAMPLES OF EXERCISES THAT CAN BE CARRIED OUT DURING THE
WORKING PROCESS:
Exercises suitable for use in confined spaces, especially sitting and standing. Exercises that
can be done while seated, such as those involving the neck, elbow, and wrist, are appropriate.
The five-minute cycle should include a one-minute warm-up exercise. This is followed by a
series of upper body exercises that should activate as many muscle groups as possible. This
is followed by a series of exercises for the middle of the body and a series for the lower half
of the body. When performing the entire cycle, we should include exercises that work the
whole body and promote blood circulation.
Examples of warm-up exercises
Walking on the spot with different variations:
Walking on the spot, walking with knees raised, walking on tiptoes, walking on heels, etc.
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Standing on one leg
Stand on one leg, lift the other leg off the floor and move it slightly forward. It is important
to stand with the other foot on the whole foot, straight, facing forward. Hold the position for
20 seconds and then switch legs.
Swing the leg backward and forwards
Standing on the whole foot of one leg, bend the other leg at the knee and lift it as high as
possible, then swing it back and bend it again. Perform the exercise slowly. Repeat the
exercise 6 times with each leg.
Turn the leg to the side
Standing on the entire foot of one leg, bend the other leg at the knee and raise it as high as
possible, then roll it to the side and return it to the starting position. Repeat the exercise 6
times with each leg.
Examples of neck exercises
Raise shoulders
Perform the exercise while standing or sitting. As you inhale, raise your shoulders as high as
possible towards your ears; as you exhale, lower them. The exercise is designed to warm up
and strengthen the neck muscles. Do 6 to 8 repetitions.
Forward bending of the head
Perform this exercise while standing or sitting. The arms hang relaxed at the side of the body
(while standing) or rest on the thighs (while sitting). Lower the head until you feel and hold
a stretch in the back of the head, then raise the head to the starting position. Repeat the
exercise 3 to 6 times.
Tilting the head sideways
Perform the exercise while standing or sitting. First, arms hang relaxed at the side of the
body (while standing) or rest on the thighs (while sitting). Next, tilt the head to the side so it
is as close to the shoulder as possible, and hold it. In the final position, the arm can be used
to reinforce the stretch. Perform three repetitions on each side.
Head rotation
Perform the exercise while standing or sitting. First, turn the head to the left side as far as
possible and hold it, then turn the head to the right side. Repeat the exercise 3 times on each
side. You can increase the stretch in the final position by pressing the hand on the chin.
Looking at the shoulders
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Perform the exercise while standing or sitting. Turn your head and look at your shoulders at
the same time. Hold the position for a few seconds. One palm is placed on the opposite
shoulder. Repeat the exercise 3 times on each side.
Resistance on the forehead and back of the head
The exercise is performed while standing or sitting. First, place your hand on your forehead
and apply pressure to your arm, returning the pressure with your hand. The neck should not
move during this process, then be released. Then place both hands on the buttocks and push
the head back to apply resistance to the buttocks. Repeat the exercise 3 times. This exercise
is designed to strengthen the muscles of the cervical spine. Be sure to maintain a neutral neck
posture during this exercise.
Exercise 1: Resistance to the forehead and back of the head
Exercises for elbow and wrist
Different positions of the wrist
Sit at a table and place your arm, so your hand and wrist are above the table’s edge (starting
position). From this position, please raise your hand and hold it, then lower your hand and
hold it, return to the starting position, and move your hand to the right side and hold it, then
to the left side and hold it. Repeat the entire series of exercises two times with each hand.
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Exercise 2: Different wrist positions
Exercise 3: Rotation of the elbows
Place your elbows on the table in front of you, forearms vertically up and palms together.
Rotate the forearms first to one side and then to the other. Hold the final position for 5
seconds. Repeat the exercise 6 times.
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Exercise 4: Stretching the hand
Interlace the fingers, turn the palms outward, and extend the arms. Hold the final position
for 20 seconds.
Shoulder and shoulder girdle exercises
Simple swing exercise
Lean on the table with one arm, and let the other arm hang down in a relaxed position. With
the arm relaxed, swing back and forth, left and right, round, clockwise, anticlockwise. Keep
the arm and shoulder muscles completely relaxed.
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Exercise 5: Swing exercise
Circling the shoulders
Perform the exercise standing or sitting. On an inhalation, lift the shoulders and round them
five times backward and five times forwards.
Swinging arms
Perform this exercise standing or sitting. Place the fingers on the shoulders and swing the
elbows back and forth. Do 6 to 10 repetitions.
Exercise 6: Arm swing
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Raising the folded arms
Perform this exercise standing or sitting. Fold your arms and raise them above your head,
rotating your palms towards the ceiling as far as possible, then lower them back to the starting
position. Repeat the exercise 5 times.
Exercise 7: Raising the folded arms
Grasping hands behind the back
Perform the exercise standing or sitting. Alternate between folding the arms behind the back;
if unable to do so, try to get as close to this position as possible. Repeat 5 times with each
arm.
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Exercise 8: Hands behind the back
Hands-on palm
Perform the exercise standing or sitting. Bend the arms at right angles and bring the palms
of the hands close to the body, squeeze the palms together and hold for about 6 seconds, then
release. Repeat the exercise 6 times.
Exercise 9: Pressing palm against palm
Abdominal and back exercises
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Exercise to strengthen the inner walls of the abdominal muscles.
The exercise can be performed in a standing or sitting position. Tighten the gluteal muscles,
pull the abdomen inwards during the inhalation, and relax during the exhalation. Perform the
exercise two times for six repetitions.
Ankle exercises
Different foot positions
Sitting (can also be on a chair), legs extended, feet and toes pulled towards you and held for
5 seconds, feet pushed away from you and held again for 5 seconds, then feet turned inwards
and held and then outwards held. Repeat 2 to 3 times.
Exercise 10: Foot positions
Caterpillar
By flexing and extending the toes, move the foot backward and forward like a caterpillar.
Repeat the exercise 3 times with each foot. The exercise can also be done sitting on a chair.
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Exercise 11: Caterpillar
Toe contraction
This exercise can be done sitting or standing. Lift the toes off the ground, with the center of
gravity on the heel, bend the toes and hold them in this position for 5 seconds. Repeat the
exercise 6 times.
Exercise 12: Toe contraction
Shifting weight from one foot to the other
In the standing position, transfer weight from one foot to the other. The greater the spacing
between the feet, and the longer you hold the position, the more complex the exercise will
be. Transfer the weight five times on each leg.
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Exercise 13: Transferring weight from one leg to the other
Lifting on toes
In the standing position, lift yourself up on your toes, hold, and release. Repeat the exercise
6 to 10 times.
Exercise 14: Lifting onto toes
Exercises for the gluteal muscles
Sumo squat
This exercise is performed in a standing position. Place the feet shoulder-width apart and
point them slightly outwards, extend the arms out and point them towards the floor between
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the thighs, and push up with the knees, ensuring the back is straight all the time. Repeat the
exercise 6 to 10 times.
Exercise 15: Sumo squat
Source: Expert opinion by associate professor Vesna Štemberger, Ph.D. (Faculty for the education University of
Ljubljana). They are used with permission. The illustrations are by Luka Leitinger and also used with
permission by prof. Dr. Štemberger (Štemberger, July 7th, 2022). Own work.
In regards to the development of musical intelligence, Assistant Professor Katarina Habe
(April 17th, 2019) advises 1) When you wish to be creative and are looking for inspiration, try
listening very quietly in the background to the following video on tetabrainway Powerful
healing teta meditation (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zDJcVpW-3YI); 2) When you
wish to concentrate on a specific task, try listening very quietly to the following video on alpha
brain music Study music Alpha waves (https://youtu.be/WPni755-Krg).
Ageism can lead us to judgments and policy decisions based upon our stereotypes and involves
discrimination, placing older people in a marginal social (as well as emotional) position
(Scharlach et al., 2000). Regarding developing interpersonal intelligence, feedback is often a
painful experience for younger and older generations. That is why we propose incorporating
the PPCO formula of intergenerational collaboration into the organizational routine. Ulibarri
et al. (2019) recommend including different stakeholders in our process. Bourla (a manager
from Pfizer) warned in Davos, Switzerland, that “people are ready to compromise and lower
the bar: maybe we can accept a few more old people dying (rather) than have to work with a
mask” (Khalaf et al., 2022). Interpersonal intelligence toward older people is demonstrated in
our response to safety measures. If something might be uncomfortable for us, such as video
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calls or wearing masks, the alternative of not protecting others might be deadly for others,
especially the older and ill members of our society.
You can regularly check how you are progressing in the development of, for example,
sustainable leadership in your organization with the PPCO formula as follows (Ulibarri et al.,
2019):
P - Plus (I like it (in your project management…));
P-- Potential (where I see Potential (in the way we work …));
C - Concern, what worries me (regarding the use of funds…);
O - how to Overcome problems/obstacles, how I think we can improve the situation (e.g.,
the organizational climate in the department).
The essence of the PPCO formula is to start with two positive aspects, and you must also
provide one solution for each concern. Otherwise, it would be best if you did not express
concern. In this way, it provides incredibly constructive feedback and a helpful attitude. Think
about your communication: do you want to improve your situation, form a
creative/productive/supportive long-term working relationship, or give yourself a breather
(once)?
Intrapersonal intelligence is the ability to understand oneself. What are our interests and
personal goals? A highly intrapersonal intelligent person is good at understanding oneself,
focusing inwards on own feelings, aspirations, obstacles, and dreams, following instincts,
pursuing own interests/goals, and being original, creative, and entrepreneurial (Vincent &
Ross, 2001, p. 39). For us to improve our intrapersonal intelligence, keeping a diary and
reflecting on our learning and development is recommended.
Linguistic intelligence can be promoted among older people by regularly designing storytelling events. Older workers have many good and bad experiences and can now share them
with younger generations. Advice or reflection on the past can be good guidance for the
younger generation. Considering that times are changing, it is also valuable to see that some
things, such as the value of grit and self-confidence, are necessary to overcome challenges.
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In developing logical intelligence, creative activities of older people bring cognitive benefits
and well-being, which are likely to slow down the process of (cognitive) aging and bring
(mental) clarity and increased awareness (Grebennikova et al., 2019): “Besides creativity and
social life, the other factor that helps to preserve high cognitive status in the old age is the
intellectually challenging activity” (Hultsch, 1999 in Grebennikova et al., 2019, p. 79). “The
cognitive capacities of elderly adults differ depending on the profession or other activities that
engage the brain. For example, people with a high level of cognitive stimulation at work were
associated with a higher cognitive function than participants with a lower level of cognitive
stimulation. Other studies provided strong evidence that workers in jobs with a high mental
workload were prospectively associated with a high level of cognitive function” (Grebennikova
et al., 2019, p. 79). “It was shown that the intensity of social life, the existence, and maintenance
of a hobby, lower level of stress, more mental and physical activity are strongly associated with
lower cognitive decline in elderly” (Grebennikova et al., 2019, p. 80). Creative expression
through art benefits older people and the community, especially in therapeutic programs that
use the creative arts to stimulate visual intelligence (Grebennikova et al., 2019).
Professor Gardner (2020), in his book, provides an overview of his professional and personal
path as the John H. and Elisabeth A. Hobbs Research Professor of Cognition and Education at
the Harvard Graduate School of Education and the head of the Steering Committee of Harvard
Project Zero (favorite thoughts from the book selected by the authors; used with permission
from Professor Gardner, June 2nd, 2022): “I have had the privilege of being able to lead a life
of the mind and to put forth syntheses that make sense to me, and, at least at times, to others as
well. And if I continue to be fortunate, I’ll be able to continue to do this for a while and to
support others – students near and mentees far and correspondents wherever-who seek to do
the same. Indeed, there is an apparent advantage to the synthesizing impulse, which I had
certainly not anticipated when I was younger. …One might even call it wisdom. … And that’s
because the synthesis depends crucially on the quality of the questions asked and on the reasons
that they are being asked. … I have sought to carry out syntheses that are useful; to indicate
how I have done them; if fortunate, to affect or even change the conversation, and to be open
to that change bringing about yet other changes, which we might not have anticipated. …
Should you have the privilege of changing the conversation, be grateful. Don’t assume that you
can control the ensuing conversation – you will, in all likelihood, fail – but you do have a
responsibility to help guide it in productive ways. … The cycle continues.”
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4.3.4
Age-appropriate education, development, older nurturing, and managerial training
policy
The link between the two categories (age-appropriate and aging-appropriate learning) is the
motivation to perform, which is a question of the employee’s attitude. For example, ageappropriate staff development enables new skills development for employees who have not
received training for several years and for whom no complementary training activities were
planned until their retirement. In contrast, age-appropriate learning is limited to teaching
specific content to age-homogeneous groups to the use of certain didactic elements to reinforce
the learning process. Such programs are called, for example, “silver aging” or “50+ programs”
(Troger, 2021, p. 185).
Age-appropriate education, development, nurturing older people, and managerial training
policies must overcome prejudices by managers, leaders, human resource experts, and
colleagues of different generations. The self-image of older employees also needs to be
changed sometimes, or interest for lifelong learning (re)awakened and stimulated with concrete
promotional activities and developmental support. Furthermore, to prevent ghettoization, we
need to pay attention to regular and encouraging interaction with other age groups to share
experiences, joys, and hardships in the learning process and learn materials and (personal)
lessons learned. In addition, cooperation between human resource managers and line managers
from different departments needs to be developed (Troger, 2021, p. 186).
Older employees need to be given opportunities to build on their experiences and share their
knowledge and upskill or reskill in a meaningful context for them and the organization.
Therefore, the learning materials must be well-structured and have many practical and valuable
examples from specific working life. Many times, older employees are no longer used to
learning and must learn how to learn again. Therefore, it is recommended that before
teaching content, consideration needs to be given to the appropriate learning strategies (table
4.4). Activating self-directed learning methods will work much better than externally
controlled teaching of learning materials and situations (Troger, 2021, p. 186).
We received an expert opinion from Assistant Professor Patrick Figge, Ph.D., which describes
the organizational learning challenges for an aging workforce (Table 4.4).
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Table 4.4 Organizational learning challenges for an aging workforce
1. As an expert in collective knowledge, how do you perceive the knowledge older
workers bring to the organization?
Asst. Prof. Patrick Figge: The more prominent part first: Every individual in an organization,
regardless of age, potentially holds valuable and challenging knowledge to replace. This is
problematic when the knowledge of older workers – who will retire in the foreseeable future
– is tacit, difficult to codify, and therefore difficult to transfer via written records. Instead,
such knowledge has to be transferred by other methods, such as joint work in transition
periods or mentoring relationships. Sometimes, it even has to be rebuilt from the ground up.
So, the bad news is this: when workers retire, despite all efforts to mitigate the loss of expert
knowledge, some of it will be lost. Nevertheless, there is good news as well: the retirement
of older employees is more predictable than regular employee turnover. Therefore,
organizations can better plan for their departure and act accordingly.
Furthermore, now to the less obvious part: Besides the expert knowledge that individuals
hold, other kinds of knowledge are also at stake. Exceptionally experienced workers with a
longer tenure have built rich social knowledge. They have built networks inside the
organization and connections with important external partners. They have deep process
knowledge and meta-knowledge, such as why a specific decision has been made, why a
particular process was designed in this specific way, and which colleagues or external
partners hold essential knowledge. Collective knowledge – knowledge that does not reside
within a single individual but instead emerges from complex social processes – must be
rebuilt. Sticking with previous collective processes will lead to inefficiencies and is
ultimately detrimental to performance: organizations need to make sure that the “old-timers”
(the remaining employees) and the “newcomers” (potential new hires) re-learn how to work
together in the absence of the retired workers.
2. How can organizations retain the knowledge of older workers?
Asst. Prof. Figge: As discussed, the good thing is that the departure of retirees is more
plannable than attrition for most other reasons. Organizations should use this to their
advantage and, first and foremost, create transparency over who is retiring and when. In
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terms of specific measures that organizations can take there are plenty. Maybe the most
important is a systematic selection from and combination of several of these measures that
fit best to the specific situation and context of the organization. For instance, flexible work
models seem promising: Some retirees may be willing to stay part-time and even feel
appreciated and derive meaning from being able to contribute further and from working
alongside their successors. Finally, a more comprehensive view of knowledge retention is
not only about the outflow of knowledge from retiring workers. With the workforce aging,
employees working longer, and a more age-diverse workforce, life-long learning to stay “upto-date” on (technological) developments and intergenerational knowledge exchange
become even more critical.
3. How do different generations of workers learn?
Asst. Prof. Figge: For tacit, challenging-to-codify knowledge, younger workers often learn
from more experienced workers in an apprenticeship or mentoring model. Importantly, these
relationships are not always hierarchical and can be bidirectional. When learning from
experience, an important mode is “vicarious learning,” learning from someone else’s
experience. In intergenerational learning tandems, both sides can profit from the experience
that the other side brings to the table and the different views and ways to extract lessons from
those experiences. For instance, younger workers may be more up to date on technological
developments and new work practices. However, older workers may have seen several
comparable cycles of technology introduction, which may lend themselves to drawing
similar conclusions for the current developments. Jointly learning from those diverse and
shared experiences can be valuable.
4. What do you recommend to human resource managers responsible for older
manufacturing workers?
Asst. Prof. Figge: We see exciting developments in robotics: robots are becoming more
flexible and are increasingly working alongside human workers (taking over specific tasks)
rather than replacing them (taking over entire jobs). Some of these developments may
potentially lessen the burden of physically strenuous labor. Of course, workers need to learn
to work alongside “cobots,” which requires adapting their work and learning to interact with
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their new “colleagues.” Nevertheless, developments such as low-code or no-code
programming environments may enable more employees to be trained. Significantly older
workers would profit from lifting the burden of physical labor and often have deep
procedural knowledge and extensive experience that can be useful in developing such new
coworking systems.
Source: Expert opinion by Assistant Professor Patrick Figge, Ph.D. (Chair for Organisation, Technology
Management, and Entrepreneurship, School of Business, Economics and Information Systems, University of
Passau, Germany). The material was used with permission (Figge, June 2 nd, 2022).
Older employees need to be co-designers of the educational activities from the start. This
starts with the design of content and the course materials, where the older employees’
experiences from professional practice can be helpful. In addition, from a didactic point of
view, exercises with a high degree of realism and a solid reference to the older participants’
life and working environment are needed (Troger, 2021, p. 186-187).
Human resource experts should create a state of “relaxed alertness” (Fogarty & Stoehr, 2008,
p. 5) in which older employees are regularly involved and meaningfully engaged in learning.
Learning is stimulated by challenges and inhibited by threats (Caine in Fogarty & Stoehr, 2008,
p. 4). Our brains optimally function when it is in front of a challenge. However, they perform
less well under perceived threats. Tests, quizzes, or exams are often perceived as threats. For
example, a portfolio development project is a more nonthreatening, challenging way of
learning (Fogarty & Stoehr, 2008, p. 4). In order to help older workers learn and explore topics
in greater detail, Gardner (in Williams, 2002, p. 22) argues for various ways to represent the
study topic and demonstrate that one has understood the topic material. Caine and Caine (1991,
p. 50 in Williams, 2002, p. 29) propose that “real-life experience becomes the organizer for
education.”
Older workers have rich experiences. Therefore, they would be recommended to keep a
collection of exemplary work (portfolio) (Bellanca, Chapman, & Swartz; 1997, p. 207). A
portfolio is a good tool for collecting and presenting examples of what one can do. It can be
used when seeking a mentor, applying for a job, preparing for an exhibition, or (re) gaining
self-esteem in the “cult of youth,” showing that aging also brings more (good) work done, such
as the example of ancient societies demonstrates where older people were respected for their
wisdom (Sveiby, 2013). The portfolio is many times used as a tool in performance reviews.
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Human resource managers invite employees to prepare a self-assessment for the year when it
is time for the annual performance review. Employees then prepare a written self-evaluation
describing what they have accomplished in the past. Before the performance review, the boss
considers the portfolio with the employer’s self-evaluation as a guide (Bellanca, Chapman, &
Swartz; 1997, p. 207).
4.3.5
Human management practices of older workers and succession management
We can design a system that enables the upskilling or reskilling of older workers, but the
motivation needs to be present on their side: as one saying goes: “You can lead the horse to the
water, but you cannot force it to drink” (Kishimi & Koga, 2019). Organizations need to rethink
and develop a sustainable (in our sense, age-appropriate) approach to staff development
and training (Troger, 2021, p. 187). A unique leadership challenge is the development of a
culture of care (Troger, 2021, p. 173). A new learning culture means learning becomes an
integral part of work (Troger, 2021, p. 187). The basis for systematic succession planning
needs to be an age structure analysis performed at regular intervals and compared with the
skills profiles of the individual and organizational areas (Troger, 2021, p. 192). A study was
done by WFPMA and the Boston Consulting Group (BCG) organization. Called “People
Create Value”, the study attempts to explain how organizations can adjust their human resource
practices to unstable times. The study results have shown that half of the organizations find
successors for top leadership positions outside of the organization. Talent planning needs to be
integrated into leadership development programs and standardized. The human resource
management challenge is the talent development of young and older workers, which will
support business growth. However, organizations find it difficult to have a clear and precise
understanding of age structure and employee competencies that they need for strategic resource
planning (Štakul Petkovšek, 2010, p. 26).
One Slovenian example of good succession management is the organization Krka which was
led until 2022 by three top managers: Andrijanič, Kovačič, and Colarič, from the local
environment, who learned in the organization before taking on the CEO position. The stability
of leadership and the ability of the top leadership team to encourage, through work and
experiences, younger generations of managers to develop their abilities are two critical
elements of a sound succession system (Štakul Petkovšek, 2010, p. 26).
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Recommendations for succession planning (Žezlina, 2009, p. 22) establish key leadership
metrics that are necessary for the organization to know which competencies are needed for
success: (1) find future leaders and motivate them: organizations need to have a developed
system with which they find “stars” among employees and provides that they are ready for key
positions. If the organization understand the talents and interests of employees, they can give
them tasks full of challenge, which motivate people more than a reward system; (2) succession
planning is a process that is performed “top-down”, meaning that top management leads and
supervises; HR department analyzes, and lower managers evaluate and give feedback; (3)
succession planning needs to be aligned with corporate culture. Attention needs to be given to
the fundamental values of the organization; (4) results need to be measured and desired
behavior rewarded since succession planning can only be successful the results of performance
are checked.
Associate Professor Jože Ramovš, Ph.D., Head of the Anton Trstenjak Institute of Gerontology
and Intergenerational Relations the leading Slovenian national scientific, research, expert,
pedagogical, consulting and end-user institution within gerontology and good intergenerational
relations field in Slovenia, actively develops awareness about the potentials of older population
and also offers training programs for older workforce in organizations (Ramovš, 2022, May
30th; used with permission): “The Anton Trstenjak Institute for Gerontology and
Intergenerational Coexistence has responded to the challenge of aging employees with the
following three programs: (1) Professional assistance to the organization in order to develop a
strategical approach to age management; (2) Training for managers according to Institute’s
original method of group social learning: a group of eight managers, three learning meetings
of five hours at intervals of one week, with original manual; (3) Training for employees aged
50+ according to the same method: group of up to 12 employees, three training meetings of
five hours at intervals of one week, manual. Furthermore, in addition to active aging and
successful participation after age 50, each participant receives a book on healthy aging when
learning materials.”
Professor Ramovš reflected on his experience of delivering training for the older workforce in
Slovenian organizations (Ramovš, 2022; used with permission): “We have perfect experience
with these training because our group training is based on good experiences of older employees,
on mastering methods for processing bad experiences and solving participants’ specific issues
in this field, while we give participants all the necessary expertise in the form of teaching
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materials. Participants master the study materials methodically, according to their needs in the
weeks between learning meetings, and they exchange the acquired knowledge at learning
meetings. The Slovenian insurance organization Zavarovalnica Triglav stands out among the
organizations with which the Anton Trstenjak Institute cooperated. One essential realization is
that elderly employees need to be trained to protect and promote overall health according to
the WHO definition (i.e., physical health), for which there is much general knowledge, as well
as mental and social health. Another important finding about the training of employees over 50
years old is that there must be a balance between two emphases: (1) high-quality and
satisfactory work and cooperation with young people in the service until retirement and (2)
long-term (for some already close) preparation for the retirement transition. The most
demanding turning point in life and for a healthy and quality life is the third period of life after
retirement. Furthermore: the training of older employees succeeds if it is based on their training
to facilitate and better transfer their work experience and loyalty to younger employees and
training to receive new knowledge from younger ones; in short, for better cooperation between
generations of employees.”
4.3.6
Sustainable leadership practices designed for older workers
Stakeholders of sustainable leadership development (Avery & Bergsteiner, 2022) for older
employees, such as educators, researchers, and practitioners, need to collaborate in designing
an appropriate working environmen. That is why we have included summaries of experts in
the field advising a suitable leadership model (Gardner, Fischer, & Hunt, 2009; Gardner et al.,
2010) for older workers (Table 4.5).
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Table 4.5 Sustainable leadership of older workers
1. How would you present the key points of sustainable leadership?
Sustainable leadership is:
•
Evidence-based, e.g., it is not ideology-driven, which makes it verifiable and
falsifiable.
•
Holistic, e.g., it considers individuals, groups/teams, organizations, and countries.
•
Long-term focused, e.g., it does in the short term what is best for the long term by
delivering sustainable economic, social, and environmental outcomes.
•
Balanced, e.g., it pays equal attention to technical and soft skills.
•
Stakeholder-focused, e.g., it respects and considers the needs and wellbeing of all
those affected by the organization’s operations, products, and services.
2. How can managers implement sustainable leadership practices - adjusted for older
workers?
In situations in which sustainable leadership practices are not evident, by following
traditional change-management practices, e.g., by setting up a particular change
management group within the organization; having senior management visibly involved in
the change management program (CMP); by doing a SWOT analysis (or similar); where
such need becomes apparent, explaining the need for the CMP; obtaining consensus on the
nature and tempo of any change; allowing for the unique needs of defined categories of
employees (e.g., women, older people, disabled, young, etc.); monitoring and where
necessary making modifications to the CMP; celebrating milestones, etc.
3. What are the benefits of developing a succession system?
It provides a visible career path for all employees; allows the organization to predict,
monitor, and address personnel needs, including identifying individuals’ training needs; it
identifies internal candidates that can quickly fill vacant positions; helps attract talent, which
is essential in a tight labor market.
4. How do you advise managers can take better care of older workers in manufacturing
systems?
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Find out their particular needs from them and modify the workplace and work processes
accordingly.
5. What are the benefits of intergenerational collaboration? What are the most common
challenges?
The workforce comprises three generations who all need to collaborate for the organization
to function. Significant benefits come from applying different skills and perspectives to
organizational issues and the resulting innovation, apart from the fact that the new entrants
into the workforce come from the younger generations. There have been complaints about
the younger generation for millennia, so it is certainly nothing new! Common challenges
arise mainly from the different values and experiences shaping each generation. Familiarity
with ICT and social media are examples of how younger workers differ from many of their
older colleagues today. Many managers report that they are concerned about differences
between generations in the workplace, but the research evidence for those differences is not
as clear. Therefore, we should be cautious about overgeneralizing from superficial
differences between generations to more profound matters of motivation and competence.
Source: Expert opinion by Honorary full professor Gayle Avery, Ph.D. (Macquarie Business School, Macquarie
University, Sydney, Australia) and prof. Dr. Harald Bergsteiner, Ph.D. (co-founders of the Institute for
Sustainable Leadership). They are used with the authors’ permission. Own work.
The following section is intended to stimulate interest in sustainable leadership development
of human resource managers and other experts so that they have a guideline on preparing a
systematic framework for advancing or implementing sustainable leadership practices for older
workers. The basis is the theory of sustainable leadership (Avery, 2004; Avery & Bergsteiner,
2011a, 2011b, 2011c; Avery & Hughes, 2013; Butt, More, & Avery, 2012; Kramar, 2013). The
research design is prepared in a way to stimulate the entire range leadership community
(Avolio, 2011; Pollman & Bhattacharya, 2016; Robinson Hickman, 2010). The older
employees possess a lifelong pool of experiences, especially overcoming many professional
challenges and gaining a more comprehensive insight into possible solutions to leadership
challenges; therefore, we especially dedicate our attention to leadership practices connected to
the multiple intelligences of older people, such as intra- and interpersonal intelligence. At the
same time, it is essential to dedicate attention to tailor-made training for developing digital
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competencies of older workers needed in contemporary working settings (Radovan & Kristl,
2020; Seelos & Mair, 2016).
The recommendation is that we do not implement all 23 practices (Figure 4.2) simultaneously
but gradually, starting with fundamental practices and then advancing to higher practices,
targeted at the challenges the organization experiences.
Figure 4.2 Sustainable leadership model
Source: Bergsteiner. (2022). Used with author permission.
Co-founders of the Institute for Sustainable Leadership, Prof. Gayle Avery, Ph.D., and Prof.
Harald Bergsteiner, Ph.D., shared the key facts about their sustainable leadership model, which
we summarize below (Bergsteiner, 2022) and expand to aid human managers in their
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relationship building and development of the older workforce: The Sustainable Leadership
Pyramid aims to ensure that relevant Lower-level Practices needed to support the emergence
of Higher-Level Practices are in place. Foundation Practices can be introduced at any time.
For example, an organization can develop and offer training programs or take a stakeholder
perspective at its discretion. However, trust (a Higher-Level Practice) cannot simply be
developed by implementing a high-trust policy and resourcing it in the way that skills can be
developed through well-designed and funded training programs. Creating trust is complex,
depends on the combined functioning of many Foundation Practices, and takes much time to
grow. Among other things, engendering trust requires staff to be trained and developed, the
firm must recruit and retain staff whose own values fit with the organization’s values, and offer
internal succession plans so that people see a future in staying with their employer who respects
and includes diverse employees, is ethical and well-governed, makes organizational
adjustments in a consultative way, acts responsibly towards the environment and society,
considers the interests of multiple stakeholders, and works towards a shared purpose and vision.
Therefore, trust is classified as a Higher-Level Practice because it comes from a combination
of multiple Foundation Practices (Bergsteiner, 2022).
Combinations of the Foundation and Higher-Level Practices underpin the three Key
Performance Drivers. In addition to having a skilled and motivated workforce, achieving high
levels of innovation requires invoking Higher-Level Practices, such as having a team
orientation, empowering people to make decisions, managing and sharing knowledge, and
developing trust. In short, each Key Performance Driver emerges from a different combination
of the Foundation and Higher-level Practices. As we have seen, each level of the Sustainable
Leadership Pyramid builds on practices below it; conversely, each level enables the next higher
level of practices to emerge. In addition to these step-by-step effects, research shows that some
practices have a direct positive effect on practices that are two or even three levels higher on
the pyramid. For example, developing people has positively impacted employee engagement
and innovation (Bergsteiner, 2022).
Interactions between the various practices go bottom-up and top-down, and practices on the
same level also influence each other. An example of this comes from the interactions between
the three Key Performance Drivers, with highly engaged employees being more creative and
caring more about quality. Each Key Performance Driver contributes to organizational
performance outcomes; combined, the effect is potentiated. Similarly, looking at the Higher140
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Level Practices; without trust, intrinsic motivation and team orientation will likely suffer, the
organizational culture will sour, people will be less likely to share knowledge, and management
will be less inclined to allow employees to self-manage. Thus, the system is dynamic and
mutually reinforcing as bundles of practices consistently work in sync to deliver high
performance (Bergsteiner, 2022).
4.3.7
The research design for self-assessment carried out by the organization’s managers
In the following, we present a model that can guide interested experts in their efforts towards
relationship building among different generations in the organization, based on the updated
sustainable leadership model (Bergsteiner, 2022). Table 4.6 presents a case study analysis of
23 sustainable leadership practices for retaining the skills and knowledge of older workers
(Avery & Bernstein, 2011a).
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Table 4.6 Self-assessment checklist for sustainable leadership Practices - adjusted for
organization’s relationship and attitude towards older workers
Case
Sustainable
Questions for the respondent
evidence
Sustainable leadership
organization
(usually CEO, human resource
within the
elements
(“honeybee
manager, PR manager,
selected
philosophy”)
department heads, etc.)
(your*)
organization:
Foundation practices
1. Leadership
Seeks cooperation
What is leadership and culture like in
your organization? How does the HR
culture
department
nurture
relationships
between leadership and employees
and among different generations? Do
younger workers seek advice from
older workers; how do you enable the
system
of
those
kinds
of
collaborations?
2.
Talent
Values talent and Do you consider talent to be
recruiting and long tenure at all associated with age? What is the
retaining staff
levels (Avery & average
working
period
of
an
Bergsteiner, 2022) employee in your organization? Do
you promote within if you have a
chance? How long is an average
worker
employed
organization?
How
at
your
many
older
workers did the organization employ
in the last 30 years? How old is an
average worker in the organization?
3. Developing
Develops
How do you develop your older
people
everyone
workers? What kind of practices does
continuously
continuously
an
organization
that
focus
on
developing older workers have?
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4. Internal
Promotes
succession
within
planning
possible
143
from How does the promotion system
wherever work in your organization? How are
older
workers
succession
involved
system?
Is
in
the
there
succession management in place in
the organization?
5. Respect,
Concerned about What are the groups that you nurture
diversity, and employees’
welfare
inclusion
within your diversity program? How
do you take care of your (older)
employees? How do you reward
(older) employees? Do you value
older workers working for you? How
is this seen? Bonuses?
6. Ethics
and Doing the right What are your key values of the
virtues
thing is an explicit organization? How do you act in
core value (Avery ethical dilemmas? Where do you see
&
Bergsteiner, your key responsibility? Do you
2022)
remember any ethical dilemmas
regarding older workers?
7. Good
CEO works as a What is governance like in your
governance
top team member organization? What is the CEO’s job?
and
or speaker (Avery What is the attitude of the CEO
accountability
&
Bergsteiner, towards older workers?
2022)
8. Long-term
Prefers the long What are the organization’s long-
horizon
term over the short term goals? Do you prefer having
term (Avery & long-term relations with your staff?
Bergsteiner, 2022) Why?
9. Considered
Change
organizational
evolving
change
considered
is
an What is your organization’s relation
and to changes? How do you prepare your
staff for changes? How do you
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process (Avery & implement
changes?
Are
you
Bergsteiner, 2022) prepared for trends, cobots, and
similar? Which trends are you
following,
and
how
are
you
adjusting?
10. Independence
from
Seeks
maximum How do you keep your financial
outside independence
interference
from
independence?
Do
you
seek
others independence from others?
(Avery
&
Bergsteiner, 2022)
11. Environmental Protects
responsibility
the How does your work position take
environment
care of the environment? Are older
workers
less
environmentally
responsible than young?
12. Social
responsibility
Values people and How are you part of the local
the
community community? How do you give back
(Avery
& to the local community? Do you see
Bergsteiner, 2022) your organization’s obligation to
behave responsibly towards older
workers as your social responsibility?
How
do
you
practice
social
responsibility towards older workers?
13. Broad
Everyone matters
Who are your stakeholders? Which
stakeholder
stakeholders can help you show care
focus
for older workers? Which are your
primary and secondary stakeholders?
14. Strong shared A shared view of How do you develop a vision? How
solid purpose the purpose and do you see your staff in the next ten
and vision
future is essential, years? What will your workforce
and vision is a need to learn in 10 years? Which
strategic
(Avery
tool skills will be necessary to upskill?
&
Bergsteiner, 2022)
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Higher-level practices
15. Intrinsic
motivation
Consensual
devolved
and What motivates leaders in your
organization?
What
motivates
employees? How do you make
decisions in your organization? How
do differences between the older and
the younger appear/hinder/promote
the decision-making process? For
example, are decisions made mainly
through older or younger workers?
Why? Do you incorporate any
systematic HR practices to include
views of different generations?
16. Selfmanagement
Staff are mostly How do your workers care for
self-managing
themselves, their time, and energy
management? How do you delegate
tasks to your subordinates; Do you
have any health-promotion initiatives
in your organization? Are any of the
HR activities specially targeted for
older
workers?
Do
you
have
segments of older workers that you
provide special attention to?
17. Team
orientation
Teams
are How does work in teams take place in
extensive
and your organization? What kind of
empowered
(Avery
teams
do
you
have
in
your
& organization? Do you have an age-
Bergsteiner, 2022) sensitive
team
policy
in
your
organization? Do you prefer working
with same-aged workers? How do
you structure your teams? Have you
experienced any setbacks or benefits
working in intergenerational teams?
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Conflicts – more or less if people are
working in intergenerational teams?
18. Enabling
culture
An
enabling, How
widely
would
you
shared organizational
culture
describe
culture
in
the
your
organization? Would you say that
your organizational culture prefers
young workers? Does your culture
hire/welcome older workers? Who
are the heroes of your organizational
culture? Name some rituals of your
organizational culture.
19. Knowledge
Spreads
How do you share knowledge among
retention and throughout
sharing
the workers of different generations?
organization
(Avery
How can older workers share their
& knowledge with younger workers?
Bergsteiner, 2022) HRM transfer system?
20. Trust
High trust through How do you build trust among (older)
relationships and workers and top leadership? Do you
(Avery trust older workers that they are
goodwill
&
Bergsteiner, capable of high-performance tasks
2022)
and jobs?
Do you trust
your
employee that he will keep you when
you are older?
Key performance drivers
21. Innovation
Vital,
systemic, How do you take care of the
strategic
creativity of (older) workers? How do
is you implement technology into your
innovation
evident
levels
at
all working
process?
Are
younger
workers more innovative, according
to your experiences (than older
workers in your organization)? How
do you enable the innovation process
in
your
organization?
What
innovative HR practices, products,
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and services can you describe from
your organization?
22. Staff
engagement
Values
emotionally
committed
of How do you take care of staff
engagement of older workers? How
staff do you motivate your older workers?
and the resulting Do you feel committed to your team?
commitment
23. Quality
Embedded in the How do you care for the quality of
culture
your work processes and products?
Are older workers more dedicated to
quality or less than younger workers?
Source. Adopted and advanced according to Avery & Bergsteiner (2022). Own work.
4.3.8
Concluding remark
Older employees need to be perceived as partners (Vincent & Ross, 2001) in establishing a
trustworthy learning organization that upskills younger and older employees. Individual
members of the organization (such as teams) have varying degrees of multiple intelligences,
which may be used to enhance team members’ contribution to the team (Green et al., 2005). It
is an exciting and accurate observation that our intellectual intelligence might get us hired.
However, our interpersonal intelligence might get us promoted to senior positions (Silberman,
2001, p. 266). Therefore, developing multiple intelligences makes sense for several reasons.
On the one hand, we develop our potential; on the other, training our multiple intelligences also
adds value to the organization, especially if we are able (as a community of leaders and
employees) to design such a mutually complementary workforce. Leadership development,
training, style of empowering professional leadership, and older nurturing need to be also
offered to older workers (adjusted to their capabilities and needs) as means to overcome
common assumptions and (negative) stereotypes that serve as barriers to the emergence of
seniors as leaders and perceive the older as weak or hindrance (Cusak, 1994). If treated as
weak, one tends to become that way. However, the reverse is possible by empowering and
investing time, energy, and money into developing (also) the older workforce. Productive
outcomes are also possible from good collaboration, sound advice, and impressive results.
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utilization. Journal of Science and Technology Policy Management, 9(3), 310-328.
158Žezlina, J. (2009, November 30th). Do you have a successor for your position? (Ali že
imate naslednika za svoje delovno mesto?). Finance, 232, p. 22.
159Žnidaršič, J., Kogovšek, M., & Ograjenšek, I. (2021). It Is Never too Late to Learn: The
Role of Organizational Support in Older Employees’ Learning. Revija za Socijalnu
Politiku, 28(2), 239-259.
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About the authors
Vlado Dimovski, Ph.D., is a full professor in the field of management
and organization at the University of Ljubljana, School of Economics
and Business, Department of Management and Organization. In 1984 he
graduated from the Faculty of Economics, Department of National
Economy, and in 1989 at the Faculty of Arts, Department of Philosophy.
He continued his studies at the Faculty of Economics, where he also
received his master’s degree in 1988. In 1990, he began his doctoral
studies in management and business finance at Cleveland State University in the USA and
completed it in 1994. His primary areas of expertise are organizational learning, knowledge
management, and leadership. Prof. Dimovski is Vice President of Adriatic Council, which is a
leading “pressure group,” devoted to the elimination of poverty, protection of human rights,
preservation of the environment, and building a strong, competitive economies in the Adriatic
Region, building and deepening democratic societies, based on cooperation with committed
and respectable national governments. He was Advisor to the Prime Minister (2005–2006 and
2018–2020) of the Government of the Republic of North Macedonia, with the main task to
consult and advise the prime minister on economic reforms in order to enhance the integration
of the North Macedonia into EU, to help establish the negotiating team for accession process,
to participate in the work of Economic Council of the prime minister, to prepare briefs and
reports for the accession to NATO and EU, and to organize high-level conferences. Since 2014,
he has been Head of Economics and Business Department of the International Institute for the
Middle East and Balkan Studies (IFIMES). Among his socio-economic or cultural
achievements he has been Advisor to the Prime Minister for Energy (2009), Government of
the Republic of Slovenia, Founder and Advisor (2008) of the International Youth Foundation
(IYF), Youth Employability Programme for European North Macedonia, Advisor for Pension
Reform Development in Kosovo (2007–2008), and Blue Ribbon Commission for North
Macedonia, Expert (2006–2007) under the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP),
in 2004 he was a member of Reflection group of the President of the European Commission,
coordinated by the Institute of Human Sciences – The Spiritual and Cultural Dimension of
Europe. He was Minister of Labor, Family, and Social Affairs of the Republic of Slovenia
(2000–2004). He acted as the Expert and Member of Advisory Body of the Economic Expert
Council for the Minister of Finance (2000). He was Founder and President (1997–2000) of the
Centre for International Competitiveness in Slovenia, Consultant on Managing Regulatory
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Towards an integrated theory of aging
Policies and Reforms in East Asia, EDI Advisor (1995–1997) at World Bank, State Secretary
for Industry of the Republic of Slovenia (1995–1997), Teaching Assistant (1990–1994) at
Cleveland State University, USA and Research Assistant (1984) at the International Centre for
Promotion Organizations (ICPE), UN Agency. Prof. Dimovski is a globally renowned scholar:
he is and was Visiting Professor at ESPN, Brazil (2020- ), Vilnius University, Lithuania (2020–
), Luiss University – Libera Università Internazionale degli Studi Sociali Guido Carli, Italy
(2018), MIB Trieste School of Management, Italy (2018-), Alma Mater Europea, Slovenia
(2018–), University of Klagenfurt, Austria (2017), Rhodes University, South Africa (2017),
ISM University, Lithuania (2014–), University of Los Andes, Colombia (2013–2014),
Belgrade Banking Academy, Serbia (2013–), University of Maribor, Slovenia (2012–2013),
University of Rijeka, Croatia (2011–), University of Greenwich, United Kingdom (2007–
2010), New York University Skopje, North Macedonia (2006- 2007) and Case Western
Reserve University, United States (1999).
Sandra Penger, Ph.D., is a Full Professor of Management and
Organization at the Academic Unit for management and organization
at the School of Economics and Business, University of Ljubljana,
with more than 25 years of working experience in higher education,
research, and consulting. Her research interests primarily focus on
leadership, management, authentic leadership, positive psychology
in leadership, employee motivation, and advanced management
concepts in the era of digitalization, aging, and sustainable development (aging of the
workforce, time management, self-organization, empowerment, mindfulness, workplace
wellbeing, etc.). She has published over 100 original scientific papers/scientific conference
contributions/scientific monographs/reviewed university books and participated in national and
international projects. She has also published her work in scientific journals (also SCI and SSCI
ranged) and presented her scientific research at foreign and local conferences. She has
published in established international SSCI research journals, including Journal of East
European management studies, European Journal of Innovation Management, Australian
Journal of Management, Economic and Business Review, Economic Research, Proceedings of
Rijeka Faculty of Economics, as well as scientific monographs in established international
publishing organizations (Pearson Education and Emerald Publishing). She teaches both
graduate and undergraduate courses related to management and leadership principles in
general. She obtained her Ph.D. degree from the School of Economics and Business, University
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About the authors
161
of Ljubljana, in 2006. Since October 1999, Dr. Penger has been employed at the School of
Economics and Business, University of Ljubljana, since May 2014 as Associate Professor in
Management and as a full member of the Academic Unit for Management and Organization.
During her academic career at the School of Economics and Business, University of Ljubljana,
she served as Vice-Chair of the Academic Unit for Management and Organization (2009–2011,
2011–2013). Since 2017 Dr. Penger has been program director of the Leadership Academy at
the School of Economics and Business, University of Ljubljana.
Judita Peterlin, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor of Management and
Organization. She graduated from the Faculty of the social sciences
University of Ljubljana and completed her Master’s degree at the Faculty
of Economics University of Ljubljana. In 2014 she finished her doctoral
studies at the Faculty of Economics University of Ljubljana. She gained
her knowledge also at several international institutions, including the
European Institute for Advanced Studies in Management (Brussels,
Belgium), Lehigh University, Iacocca Institute (Bethlehem, USA), WSBNLU University (Nowy Sacz, Poland), St. Gallen University (St. Gallen, Schwitzerland) and
Macquarie University, Macquarie Business School (Sydney, Australia). She is employed at the
School of Economics and Business, University of Ljubljana in the unit for management and
organization, where she currently collaborates at the (under)graduate courses Management in
English language, Foundations of Management, Foundations of Management and
Organization, Advanced Management, Management in Healthcare, Strategic Leadership, and
Responsibility. Her main research interest is the development of the leadership theory,
leadership development, social innovation, and management learning, for which she has
extensive research publications in Slovene and English language. She has received several
awards, among the latest are the 2019 Pedagogical award University of Ljubljana School of
Economics and Business, Entrenova 2019 Award: Best Cutting-Edge Technology Paper:
Value-Based Management Education: The Case of Health Care Management Course,
Outstanding Reviewer Award at Academy of management conference 2017 in Atlanta (USA),
Best Paper at the Academy of Management 2016, Institute for Sustainable Leadership
Conference Scholarship Winner 2015 and the Entrenova 2015 Award for Intelligent Systems
in Tourism Best Paper Award. She is a member of PRME CEE committee, Eco-council of the
University of Ljubljana School of Economics and Business, council of the Center for Social
Entrepreneurship University of Ljubljana. She has published in co-authorship with her mentor
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and colleagues several scientific monographs, among others, Advanced Management and
Leadership Practice. Judita also co-coordinates Eco-reading club at the University of Ljubljana
School of Economics and Business, which promotes reading culture among students and staff
on the topic of sustainable development (e-tutor: https://vodici.cek.ef.uni-lj.si/eko).
Barbara Grah, Ph.D., is a researcher and an assistant professor of management and
organization at the School of Economics and Business, University of
Ljubljana. Barbara teaches the Foundations of management and
organization, Foundations of Management, Learning and knowledge
management, Strategic management 1, Advanced management,
Business Excellence Management, and Internships courses. Barbara
obtained her Ph.D. in 2016, and her research interests are organization
design, leadership, learning organization as well as age management,
sustainability and post-COVID recovery. She has published numerous original scientific
papers/conference contributions/monographs, reviewed university textbooks, and participated
in national and international projects.
Vasja Roblek, MPhil, is a researcher and consultant. He received his
B.A. degree in Banking at the Faculty of Economics, University of
Ljubljana, and MSc degree in Management at the Faculty of
Management, University of Primorska. He is currently completing his
Ph.D. at the Faculty of Organizational Studies in Novo Mesto. His main
areas of expertise are digital transformation, information society,
knowledge management, smart technologies, and systemic approaches.
He conducts research and consulting for various international organizations. He has published
36 scientific papers in international journals and several book chapters and co-authored one
book on sustainable development. He also regularly attends international scientific conferences
in management, systemic theory, and ICT. He is actively engaged in different R&D projects in
smart cities and informatization.
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About the authors
163
Maja Meško, Ph.D., has held a position as a full professor of
management at the Faculty of Management, Department of
Management, University of Primorska, and a full professor of human
resources management at the Faculty of Organizational Sciences,
University of Maribor. She also has a certificate for associate professor
of kinesiology (science in sport) at the Faculty of Sport, University of
Ljubljana. She completed her Bachelor’s studies in psychology at the
Faculty of Arts in Ljubljana and finished her Doctoral study of Kinesiology at the Faculty of
Sports, University of Ljubljana. Her main teaching and research areas include management,
psychology in management, organizational culture, health, and health management, for which
she authored or coauthored various scientific papers. She is also actively engaged in national
and international R&D projects.
Darja Peljhan, Ph.D., is a full professor at the School of Economics
and Business, University of Ljubljana (SEB LU). She is a member of
the Academic Unit for Management and Organization and an associate
member of the Academic Unit for Accounting and Auditing. She
teaches the following courses: Introduction to Business, Business
Performance Analysis, Accounting Information for Decision Making
and Accounting for managers. She is a visiting professor at the
University of Rijeka, Faculty of Economics and at the University of
Zagreb, Faculty of Economics and Business. As a visiting scholar she also visited the
University of Warsaw, the University of Greenwich Business School in London and the
University of Sarajevo, School of Economics and Business and received training at the
European Institute for Advanced Studies and Management in Brussels. Her research interests
are in the areas of management control systems and performance measurement and
management in the context of managerial decision making. She regularly presents her research
findings at conferences and publishes them in articles and monographs. She was awarded the
“Excellent in science 2018” prize by the Slovenian Research Agency (ARRS). She is a member
of the European Accounting Association (EAA), the Management Control Association (MCA),
the American Accounting Association (AAA) and a member of the Slovenian Academy of
Management (SAM). She is a member of the research group (ARRS program) “The Impact of
Corporate Governance, Organizational Learning, and Knowledge Management on
Organizations in Ageing Societies” (funded by the Slovenian Research Agency - ARRS) and
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Towards an integrated theory of aging
cooperates in the international project MAIA – Models and Methods for an active ageing
workforce: an international academy (funded by the Horizon 2020 programme of the European
Union). She is a member of the editorial team of the Economic and Business Review
(AJG/ABS) and the Journal of Management and Business Administration Central Europe
(ESCI, Scopus). She works as a reviewer for several international journals in the fields of
management and management accounting and as a reviewer and evaluator for foreign
academies and agencies for science and higher education. She has participated in several basic
and applied research projects. Recently, she was a member of the international Erasmus+
project “Social Return on Investment: enhancing knowledge and skills for social impact”
(SROI) and an external researcher in the Globalinto project (funded by the Horizon 2020
programme of the European Union). Her current research focuses on risk management systems
as part of management control and their interaction with strategy implementation.
Simon Colnar, Ph.D., is a Researcher and Assistant Professor at
the School of Economics and Business, University of Ljubljana. He
teaches Organization and Management, Learning and Knowledge
Management and Advanced Management. He graduated and
received his Master’s and Ph.D. degree in Business from the
School of Economics and Business, University of Ljubljana. His
main research interests are Knowledge Management, Social Work
and Age Management. His other research interests include Healthcare, Long-term Care and
Leadership. Simon received the Best Cutting-Edge Technology Paper at the Entrenova 2019
conference and is a member of the Beta Gamma Sigma Society. Simon also collaborates on the
ARRS research and infrastructure program The Impact of Corporate Governance,
Organizational Learning, and Knowledge Management on Modern Organization and is part of
bilateral projects with Croatia and Turkey. In the past Simon also worked on ARRS research
projects Creating Social Value with Age-Friendly Housing Stock Management in Lifetime
Neighborhoods and Development of Social Infrastructure and Services for Community Based
Long-term Care. Within the scope of the international Adrion Interreg project SI4CARE,
Simon is the leader of work package communication and the president of the steering group.
Simon is also part of the international project MAIA – Models and Methods for an active ageing
workforce: an international academy where he collaborates on the work package International
Retirement Policies and Benchmarking on Ageing Workforce Management Practices.
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Professor Howard Gardner, Ph.D.,
“Keep workers who have relevant intelligences and pair them with workers who have
complementary intelligences”. Full Professor Howard Gardner, Ph.D., John H. and
Elisabeth A. Hobbs Research Professor of Cognition and Education at the Harvard Graduate
School of Education, Harvard University.
This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020
research and innovation program under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant
agreement No 873077: https://maiaproject.eu/.
The content does not represent the official position of the European Union
and/or the Agency. The Agency is not responsible for any use that may be
made of the information it contains.
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