SlO\.ak Geol. Mag., /0, l - 2(2004), /7-42 .... ｕｎｾ［ｈ＠ T. Raw materials in the Neolithic-Aeneolithic of the Iberian Peninsula 441 S. DOM iNGUEZ-BELLA' (coord.) & D. CALADO'; 1. L. CARDOSO' ; X. CLOP' & A. TARRINO' 'Departamen to de Ciencias de la Tierra . Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Cádiz Apdo. 40, Pueno Rea l 11 510 Cádiz, SPA IN. salvador.dorninguez @uca. es II nstil uto Portugués do Patrim oni o Arqueo lógico. IPPAR. Faro, PORTUGAL. lDepartamcn to de Historia. Universidade Aberta. Rua da Escola Politécni ca, ｮ ｾ＠ 147. 1269.001. Lisboa. PORTUGAL. ' Deparlament d'Antropologia Social i Prehistoria. Universitat Autonom a de Barcelona. Edifici B. 08193, BELLATERRA, Barcelo na, SPAlN. 'Facultad Filoso ria, Geogra ría c Historia. Departamento de Geograría, PrehisLOria y Arqu eologia. Área de Prehi slori a. 01006. Vitoria, SPAIN. Introduction S. Domínguez-BelJa • , The Iberian Pe n insula, wilh an exlen sion o r 58 1.600 km ', a great geological diversity and hundred ofarcha eological sites with rece nt prehistory chronologies, results an intcresting territor)' for the Iilhic raw materiais study and lheir use and di slribution paths along lhe dirrerenl historie periods. This indub itable interest contrasts with the scantiness of studies aboul the raw materia is used in lhe lilhic industr ies of the prehistory, especially in the Neolithic-Aeneolilhic period, whe re lhe lilhological diversily is usuall )' bigger lha n in lhe Palaeolilhic. This fact has carried oul to the pracl ical "inex islence" of this extensive territory, in a lot of lhe publications that has bee n realised over this thematic up to date in Europc, Cummins (1983). ln thi s chapter, we can on ly pretend to give first ideas or th e I)'pes or raw materials lhat appear with a greater abundance in lh e Iberian Penin sula, making a balance of lhe published resulisjust to dal e; lhe general charaele ri slies or lhe Iberian geology and whal possible trade and dislribution routes have followed man)' Df these materiais at lhe Neolilhic-Aeneolilh ic in this area. II is plain lhal lhe great number of archaeological sites and chronologies known in this territory, lhei r vast euliural, geogra phieal a nd geological diversi lY, a nd th e great va riety of sites (caves, open air settlements, burials, villages, mega liths, ele.), make that the investi ga li on lask sti ll oulsla nding is enormous and undoubtedly a ehalle nge for the future resea rchers. The Neolithie in the Iberian Peninsul a has been submitted al very traditional fo cussing and basically dominatcd by lh e cultural change in th e ce rami cs ex planations. II was believed that their provenance from th e Middle Orienl a nd lh e dirru sio nist type explana lions were reinforced, in contrast Wilh lhe Iigurian cave of Arene Candide (Italy). ln lhe 601h-70th deeades, Pellicer (1967) co nside red a triparti te sehe me (O ld , Medi um, Recent) on lhe basis or lhe studi es or caves as Ca ri güela de Pina r (Granada) or Nerja (Málaga). The studi es of th e Valencian caves (O r, Coei na, Cendres) queslioned the basis of lhe dua l model lhat domains as paradigm in the fun clionalisls explana tions, reeycled in ex plications of diffusion. A wave of advance from Middle Orient was co nsidered, lhal provide lhe Neolithic lo SW Europe and go 10 acculiurale lo lhe old hunter-galhe re r populalions. It is conside red lhal lhe Neolilhic arri ved associated to lhe card ial eera mic horizon, with gro ups lhat behaved lhe agriculiu re and lhe callle raisi ng. Olher sludies in caves as Fosca (Caslellón) studied by Carmen Olaría and Francesc Gusi, already questioned the Leva ntine model and proposed ehronologies previous 10 lhe yth mill ennium B.C. for the firsl groups of producers. The excavations of Pellicer and Acosta in the caves or Dehesi ll a, Parra lejo and Nerja in th e 80th prov ided already previous chronologies, daled al Vl !h millennium ror lhe Neolitbie in lhe Oeeidental Subbeti e. This fact carried to a reslatement of foeusing to positions more a Ulocbthonists, Pellicer (1995). Reeenl sl udi es in arehaeologieal siles of th e Cadiz and Algeciras Ba)'s, as in Embarcadero dei Rio Palmones and EI Retamar, questioned the adva nce wave models, and confi rm lhe specific weigh or lhe lil hic lechnology wilh a Epipalaeolilhic lrad ilion (geomel ri e mie rolilhs). ln lhe Vl !h and even VI[!h miLlen nium R.C. , it is possible to observe lhe wide paper or lhe vege tal resources, lhe importance of the fishing practices and a growing increase or lhe a nimais domestiealion (bovids, eap rids), toge lher with the hunting maintenance, Ramos and Lazarich (2002), sueh as rerl ec!s the Portuguese sea shell aeeumulati ons rrom lhe Bays or Lisboa, Selúbal and the Algarbe (Lagos areal. Geological Sur\'ey 01 SIOI'ak Republic. Dionjz $/Iir Publisher. Brarislam 2004 ISSN I3J 5-96X Slo\'ak Geol. Mag.. 10. J-2(2004), 1742 18 Geologica1 context of the Iberian Peninsula The Iberian Peninsula, formed by Spain, Portugal and Andorra and placed aI the SW exlreme of Europe, is a complex terrilory wirh a greal va riety of geological doma- ins, ages and lithologies. Their geological materiais included materiais from lh e Precambrian or Upper Prolerozoic (more lhat 600 million yea rs), to lhe I [olocene, grouped in grea ts units. These Units are: the Hespé- rico ar Hercynian Massif, lhe Alpine cordi lleras (Pyre nees, Betic Cordi ll eras), Cantabric Cordi llera, Iberian Syslem and Costero-Cala lana Cordillera (Fig. I ). .... Fig. /. Geological synthesis ollberian Peninsula. ln these units, wc can dirrerentiate two great groups of materiais: the Dnes lhal formed the Ilespérico ar lberian Massif, lhal cover almosl lhe west half of the [berian Peninsula, formed rundamentall y by premesozoic materiais, in general metamorphic and plutonic rocks, and affected by the Ilercynian ar Variscan orogeny, being a basement that corresponds wilh an old mountain chain formed in lhe Upper Carboniferous and after eroded; and the ones that form a second group of materiais that appear in the Peninsula and is constituted by Mesazoic and Cenozoic rocks , genera ll y sedimentary. The geological evolulion of the Iberian Peninsula has been developed during a period of 250 m.)'.. and has becn produced fundamentally by comprcssive forces, on lhe Iberian microplate, between the European and African tectonic plates, in general with materiais of marine origino The main characteristics of each of these great units are briefly, lhe following: The Hespérico Alassif was divided in 6 zones by Lotze (1945), after in 5 different zones by Julivert (1979), with limits between them subjects at controvcrsy, DallmeyerMartinez, (1990). These zones are: the Centra l Iberian Zone and four more zones: Astur-Occidental/Leonese Zone and the Cantabrian Zone at the North, and OssaMorena and Soulh Portuguese zones, al lhe South. ln the Cell/ral lberiall ZOlle (C/Z), the more exte nded (North of Portugal, Galicia, Castilla and León, Madrid, Castill a-La Mancha, Extremadura and a portion of N. Andalusia). Present Palaeozoic and Upper Proterozoic rocks , nearly always metamorphic fTOm lower to high grade (migmatites in Cen tral System) and an abunda nce ofgran iti c intrusions. ln the North occidental area (Galicia) appears a series of allochthonous nappes or ophiolitic fragments of exotic terrains, the catazona l complexes of Cabo Ortegal, Ordenes, Lalin, Braganca, Morais and the blastomylonitic bando These units appear constituted by eclogites, metagranulites, metaperidotites, metasediments and amphibo lites. Metamorphosed basaltic rocks also appear, Gillbarguchi & Arenas (1990). Metaperidotites are spinel-bearing harzburgites, dunites and pyroxenites. ln the lower zone of lhe epizonal units, present in thi s oph iolites, appear greenschist facies. Other lithologies are metabasites and blueschist (in the Morais-Braganca area) . The ASlur-OecidemaljLeonese Zone and the Call1abrian Cordillera are placed belween the Hercynic Massif materiais of Galicia and lhe Pyrenees. The metamorphism grade and number of plutonic intrusions increased lOwards the West. Present sedimentary rocks from the Lower Palaeozoic (slates, quartzites, elc.), and Precambrian rocks in two antiforms: Narcea and 0110 de Sapo. The Cantabrian cordillera has its origin in lhe folding of a Mesozoic basin. during the Alpine orogen)'. The result of lhis process is a mounlain chain parallel to the coast of the Cantabrian Sea. They present materiais from the Triass ic to the Tertiary; evaporites and detrital materiais from the Triassic; carbonated marine scdiments from the lower and middle Jurassic; fluvial and dcltaic detrital materiais from lhe upper Jurassic and CretaceOUSo Reef facies are also presem al the end of the lower Cretaceous and typical facies ofthe continental platform in lhe upper Cretaceous, and after a transgressive period, turbidites and abyssal deposits. ln the lower Tertiary, are present Iimestones with organic materiais anel detrital sediments. ln the Eocene the main orogenic folding was produced; in lhe Oligocene, amolasse sedimentation was produced into inner isolated basins just to lhe medium Miocene. wilh the deposit of post-orogenic sediments. The Ossa-Morena Melavo/canie Zone. is characterized by materiais from lhe Precambrian lO theUpper Palaeozoic, and metamorphic and granitic rocks. Near the limit belween the Central Iberian Zone and the Ossa-Morena Zone, a big batholith is placed, the Batolito de los Pedroches. Between lhis area and the South Porluguese Zone appears a narrow band or suture zone, with ophiolite type materiais in which dunite, serpentinite, metabasalt of a Precambrian age and other rocks as granites are present, with a great nappe structure. The metamorphism ofthese rocks produces greenschist with chlorite and amphibolites with garnet-staurolite. Quesada & Munha (1990). Raw materials in lhe Neo/ithic-Aeneo/ithic 01 lhe lberian Peninsula 19 ln the Soulh Porluguese Zone, one zone sutured in the South, along of the Pulo do Lobo ophiolite, outerop flysch type materiais with a low metamorphism, from final Palaeozoic (Devonian and Carbon iferous), intercalated '..vith vo leano-sedimentary materiais of a feIsic volcanism, and associated with great deposits of polymetallie su lphides (Pyritie Belt). The Alpine Cordilleras: This orogenie belt that extends from As ia Minor to Gibraltar Strait, is present in the geologieal history of Iberia in the last 200 m.y., from the end of Palaeozoie to the present. The two great Alpine cordi lleras in the lberian Peninsula are: The p)',enees. (Figs. I and 4.B) This mountain ehain, lhat sepa rates Iberia from France, is eonslituLed by a nuc1eus of materiaIs that was affected by the Hercynian orogeny and later by the Alpine orogeny. ln its Palaeozoic nucleus the metamorphic lithologies are dominant, deformed by the Hereynian orogeny and forming the basement and the maximal hcights of lhese mountains. At the North and South ofthis nueleus, Mesozoic-Palaeogene sedimen tary materiais appear, that together with the basement we re deformed by the Alpine orogeny and which form the marginal Sierras, in general of carbonates lithologies. This chain is basically formed during the Eoeene, bya contact belween the Iberian microplate and the Euro-Asiatic pia te, which generates great compressive forts due to the Iithosphere shortness and with a big folding and fracturaLion. The chain, with a WNW-ESE direction, appears divided in two, north and south zones, separated by a faulted zone. This lransform fault afrecls to Lhe lithosphere and has played an importanl role in the Iberian plate movement in front to Europe. We can separate two zones in the Pyrenees: the Oeeiden tal ar Basque-Cantabrian Pyrenees, and the Central and Oriental Pyrenees, with two zones, one sauthern ar South-Pyrenean and other northern or North-Pyrenean, which extends up to Aquitaine. ln the axial zone predominates the metamorphic rocks and granitoids, the north and south Pyrenean zones (Pre-Pyrenees) are constituted by sedimentary rocks of different lithologies, specially the Mesozoic carbonates. The Berie Cordillera. (Figs. 1 and 7) This cordillera formed in the Alpine orogeny, is extended from Gibraltar to the Balearic lslands, as well as symmetrically by the NOrLh of Africa. The Soulh ofIberia presents a Neogene sedimentary material band that constituled/formed many sedimentary basins as the Guadalquivir river basin, Vera (1988). Other band of Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments, placed on a metamorphic plate of the Hesperico Massif. These materiaIs can be grouped in two great groups: the Prebetic and the Subbetic-Penibetic, the first ones wÍlh shallow sedimentary marine materiais and the second ones with deep marine sediments, in both cases very teclonised, with nappes and folds. At the west of the chain appear the Campo de Gibraltar Units, formed by turbidiLic materiais 01' flysch type, Gutierrez Mas er ai., (1991). ln the central part and the east of the ehain, appear the metamorphic materiaIs of the inner zone, the Domain of Alborân. This region has been divided in many units: Malaguides, Alpujarrides and Nevado-Filabrides, Vera (1994), Manin-Algarra (1987). ln these, appear premesozoic and Mesozoic metamorphosed rocks, with high pressure and low temperature facies (Nevado-Filabrides) or high grade roeks (Alpujarrides) (eclogites, amphibolitcs, gneiss, schist, etc.). ln the centrai part, a great block of ultrabasic rocks (peridotiles from Ronda) appears. The Ibe,ian Co,dillera. (Fig. 1) This cordillera presents a basement of metamorphic rocks, that belongs to the Hercynian Massif and outcrops in many sites of the cordillera, over this appears a launehing levei \vith facies formed by marls and gypsums of Triassic age, over thls appears in discordance, a group of sedimentary rocks of Mesozaie age, in general carbonates, that was extended from the Cantabrian Cordillera to the Valencia Gulf, in the Mcditerranean Sea. Many intercalated voJcanic rocks occasionally appeared. ln general metamorphism doesn ' t exisL Finally, and due to a process of distension, ai ong lheir evolution, little basins filled of Tertiary materiais have been formed, as occurs in Almazan, Ateca or Teruel. The Caralonian Coas/ai Co,dillera (Fig. I and 4) presents lwo alignments parallel to the Mediterranean coast, from the Rosas Bay to the delta of the Ebro River, in the NE of Spain. It is an Alpine cordillera with Mesozoie materiais in diseordance over a Hereynian nucleus. ln many arcas of the Cordillera appear tectonic depressions (graben) filled by tertiary sediments. ln the central area, a tectonic accident, the L10bregat fault, cut in two parts the mountains alignments; at the northeast are a the Palaeozoic materiais predominate and in the Southwest area, the Mesozoic presents a progressive development up to the Ebro River delta. Alpine sedimenlary Basins. They were formed in the process of opening of the Atlantic Ocean and the movement of the Iberian microplate to lhe east generating the alpine mountains, originaled in the inner intracratonic basins, that quickly started to eroded, and foreland basins in the marginal zones 01' the continental margino From the first group are lhe Duero and Tajo Basins and from the second, the Guadalquivir and Ebro Basins. lhe volcanism in the Iberian Peninsula. A Cenozoic volcanic activity appears, which seems to be of the intraplate type, with activity areas between the Upper Miocene and lhe Quaternary, in three zones: Olot, at NE Spain, Campo de Calatrava, in the central region of Spain and Cabo de Gata, aI the SE of lhe peninsula. Volcanic materiais vary from lhe quaternary basalts in Olot, to the olivine basalts - olivine leucitites and olivine nephelinites from the Campo de Calatrava; wilh a volcanism of andesites and rhyoliles, abundance of pyroclastic episodes and the presence of domes and outflows in the Cabo de Gata area (Fig.I). S/oval< Geol. Mag" 10. / - 2(2004), 17-42 20 Northwest ofIberian Peninsula, Galicia - W. Spain, Extremadura ln these regions, with an abundant Megalithic phenomenon and different archaeological sites of the fecent prehistory, the pelrological and mineralogical studies of polished industries are praclically inexistent. Only man)' brief descriptions of the rocks in the lithic industry Df many sites have becn made just to this mament, Fábregas (1992), in Galieia. Mineralogical and chemical analy· sis Df Neolithic green beads from Galicia were made by Guitián and Vazquez Varela (1975), Vazquez Varela (1975). ln Extremadura reg ion, an area with an impor· tant megalithic phenomenon, Enriquez Navascues (1995), Bueno (2000), Bueno et aI. (2000), archaeometric analysis Df lithic industry are not made just to date and are nO\v in CQurse. North ofIberian Peninsula. Basque Country, Navarra, Aragón Andoni Tarrino Introduction From lhe beginning, the raw materiais in \vhich are manufactured the prehistoric polished materiais to attach attent ion, principally because they evidenced a great lithological diversity that seems evocated very different provenances. So, from lhe end of lhe XIX" eentury and the begin· ning of XX 1\ geologists have worked with the prehistorians in the examinalion of archaeological materiais that composed these lithic elements to attempt the characterization ofthe constituent rocks and their geological and geographical origino Among the pioneer studies in Spain, we can cile the works of Quiroga (1880) and of San Migu· e l de la Câmara (1918 and 1919). But these petrographieal studies were not continued for many reasons since this information could not be correlated \vith that one given by the geological outcrops, mainly because the basie geological works had not been done, which would have given an adjudication of the analysed rock lype with a definile geological outcrop. AI that time, works of geological cartography were beginning to start. with the creation ofthe Commission ofthe Geological Map of Spain. On lhe other hand, in those days, a great number of prehistorians still considered more important the object itself than its archaeological significance. To these obstacles we also have to add the facl that lhe analysis methods were expensive and destruclive. It is not till the 80 and 90 decades of the XX" century thal more or less systematic petrographic studies will return, in this type of materiais in Spain. We found materiais that generally present an externa I aspecl differenl to lhe fresh sam pie of lhe sarne rock when the lithic raw materiais identification of lhe polis- hed implement manufactured are approached. These lithic evidences have undergone important su rface modifications, that ma sked the mineralogical and textural cri teria that usuall y se rve for its identification due firstly to ali the transformations derivate from the mechanical abrasion during the object manufacture phases (picking and polishing fundamentally) and, secondly to ali the post-depositional processes that have been affected to the rock during their burial: patination, ox idations, dissolutions, recrystallizations, etc. in the rock-sediment interaction (fig. 2.B). These circum sta nces have motivated that it has been necessary to recurred to physico-chemical technjques of characterization, with more ar less precision for the determination of mineralogical and textural features of lhe rocks and minerais that composed the archaeological objects. Their classification are based in mineral percentages and also in chemical analysis, after a geochemical and a pelrographic sludy. Raw materials in lhe Basque Country, Navarra and Aragon regions ln the Basque Country, Navarra and Aragon, a great vacuum exists in relalion with the raw materiais determinations in which polished implements are made in lhe recent prehistory. A scarce number of publications exists on this line of investigation, so systematic studies have been dane instead. The oldest reference that approach the nalure of lhe prehistoric polished objecls from the Pyrenean region, was realized by Mortillet in 1889: "Dans la région des Pyrénées, les haches sont en pierres de cctte chaíne de montagnes, parmi lesquelles on remarque les ophites". A great part of the polished arlefaets proceeds from the casual discoverics or particular collections, general1y without a complete information about their chronologies and context. BASQUE COUNTRY ln lhe Basque counlry, data about lhe petrological fea· tures of lhe polished prehistoric induslry are also very scarce, and sometimes, lhe determinations are not very reliable. One of the firsl works lhat compile polished materiais from the Basque Country prehistoric cultures are lhe publication of Apellaniz (1973). Later, Arribas and Berganza (1984) studied 11 polished axes from diffe· rent provenances in Gipúzcoa and Bizkaia, that just this momenl are unpublished. These authors concluded thal doleriles are lhe more habitual lilhology in this group. lt is necessary to wait to the 90 decade to encounter an exhaustive work, that define, with certain warranties, the materiaIs from which the implements are elaborated, in this region. This is lhe case ofOrmazábal et ai, (1994), that studied a total of 70 polished objects, collected in surface around the Urrúnaga reservoir (Álava). From this collection, 55 are idenlified and 15 objects anel frag· ments are not identified. ln this case, implements made Raw materiais ill lhe l',/'eolithic-Aeneolilhic of lhe Iberian Peninsula 21 /D Fig. 2. A. - Perforated Axefrom lhe Do/men de Ba/enka/eku Norte (A/fzania). (Barandiaran and Valiespí, 1984) (,, "m_'_'_ , ,,-- , ' , . \ J "- 3,m Fig. 2.B.- Micrograph ofa!in sec/ion ofa do/erite type objecto ft is possible to observe an a/teraliof! layer in lhe surface (in black and reddish c%urs) of 0,7 to 1,0 mm. Thickfless. Paral/el polars. Width of photo == 2,5 mm. Fig.2.C. Dolerite type rock, with a medium tofine grain size. Crossed polars. Widlh of phoro = 2,5 mm. Fig. 2. D. - Genera/ view of the texture prese/I! in a vu/canite objecto Crossed polars. Width of photo == 2,5 mm. Fig. 2.E. - Siliceous mudstone with abundant and finle detrital quartzfragments and micaceous mineraIs (5-10 microns in diameter). Paral/el polars, Width of photo == 2,5 mm. an sedimentary rocks are dominant, with a 77,12 %. Metama rphic rocks (quartzites and si llimanite-andalusite nodules) and igneous rocks (basically dolcrites), wilh a 11,42 % in both cases, complete the register. Another group of polished industry, hus recently been studied by Fernández Eruso el ai, 2003) where 34 axes and adzes, completes ar fragmented, came across in 13 sites from Álava and the Condado de Trevino, in general from surface prospections. Ten af these sam pies were analysed by means of petrographic microscope and their mineralogical composition and texture have been characterised. This is a group basically constiluled by igneous rocks (79,4 %), with S/ovak Geol. Mag., 10, 1 2(2004), /7-42 22 a 64,7 % of dolerites (Fig. 2.C) and volcanites - basal Is (Fig. 2.D). Sedimenlary rocks are the second group, with a presence of 14,7 % (shales, mudstones - Fig. 2.E - and flint). Finally, the melamorphic rocks are less represented, with only an 5,9 %, lhal correspond with sillimaniteandalusite samples, aluminium nesosilicates, typical fram the thermal or contact metamorphism. Most of these materiais could proceed from the outcrops lhat exist in the alavese diapires, in short from the ophitic mas ses lhal exist in the Salinas de Anana, Maeslu andjor Penacerrada diapires_ As soon as, lhe more volcanic rocks, although their provenance is less evident, we can find very similar outcrops, both in the vizcainc Synclinorium as well as in lhe Palaeozoic fram lhe Pyrenean occident (easl of Gipuzkoa and north of Navarra). Non volcanic litho logies present are the flint, thal proceed fram the Trevino outcrops and the mudstones lhat can proceed fram siliceous-carbonated nodules, very abundant in the Crelaceous formations of the North of the Basque Country. ln relation with lhe polished implements made on sillimanite-andalusite metamorphic porphyrablasts, we can find lhe more neighbouring outcraps in the metamorphic aureole of lhe Penas de Aya Massif. Other possibility of source arca, \vith good sam pies of this nature, can correspond with the contact aureoles of the granilOids from lhe Orienl of Asturias, Fernandez Eraso et aI, (2003), with a farther provenance and so, their origin in tbese outcrops are much less prabably. NAVARRA An importanl old compilation of data exist for lhe Navarra territory, in relation with lhe polished materiais, realized by González Sáinz (1979) where iI is summarized lhe collection of these materiais known lo the date. 1t is composed of a total of 257 implemenls and polished fragments. The petrological composition is hardly mentioned, lhe only idenlified material is the dolerite. This is a material that is abundant in lhis territory lhat appears associated to the diapiric terrains fram the Keuper facies . SCHST . OOLERITE .OUARTZITE . VLl.CANIfE . GRANLl. ITE .SASAl T . HORNFE lS O S U"'ANIl'E '. GA "0BBRO ''''' . PHYLLITE . Fl NT O OTHERS . HORNFElS .OIOR tTE . AMPHIBOlITE . SCHl ST c n.l M \l<JT l . PORPHYRV . MI!IA.\UJl.PlG<: _ oX'KS O O THERS . Pu..T " "'C ItOI.'1<S ｆ Ｂ Ｂ ｾｍｉｔ ｾ＠ I_ WõTA'-'OIU't!1C D Ｎｯ｣ｾ＠ ｎ･ｯｉｈ Areas wilh hig1t com:enlrllbon of ｾ＠ . Pl.11I0!<1C1lOCI(S C<l\IE"S • ,lll.C ....ｾｴￇ＠ kQ("1(S . ,)"f IlUS ｉＡ _do _C"'" ｬＨＩＮｉｂｔｏｾ＠ Ｈｾ Ｎ ＢＮ＠ ｾ ｉ ｓｾ＠ DSIU."L\.m • • " M111111<>I ITE . ).!J.,,.,c; .\I! WS . OIMASE Ｎ Ｎ ｉ ｍＢｾＬｉ ｟ Ｎｌｬ ｬ ｉ ｏ ｾＭＮｊ＠ ［ ＢＧｾ＠ ｾ･ｓ ｉ ｔｅ＠ . "1.FH8OU TE . eCL.OOITE OSllLlMIlHlTE .0000TlITE . SCIIST J ｬ Ｇ ｏｾｍＧ＠ _ ..... OESlrE _ ,IJ,U'H80l.ITE . EClOGlTe DSILUw.NITE .0000rnre . SCHlST Fig. 3.- Statistical diaRfam (Qllolltitatirc pereentages (?{ Iilhologies in lhis po/i!J'hed illdustry ) (4 rock grollps Irom lhe polished /itllic jlldll.\"lry/rom Basque COlllllf); l>;'avarra. Aragón (North Spain); Cllellw and Jeruel provinces; Cala/ol/ia. Pais Valenciano and MI/reia province.(Ajier datafmm Jàrrino, C/op, Barrem et aI., Oroz.co el aI.), and {HiO ofthe areas with a hig col1eef1lfation of caves lI'ill1 Neofithic-Aeneolill1ic sires. Raw materiaIs in lhe Neolithic-Aeneolilhic oflhe lberian Peninsu/a 23 and Triassic age that outcrop main ly in the Salinas de Oro, Larraun, Azpiroz y Ayos region. Although the geographical distribution of the polished implements is very wide inside the Navarre territory, however, a larger density of findings can be appreciated in the medium-occidental Navarra, that is to say, in the nearest zones to the principal diapiric outcTOpS. One of the more interesling examples of the polished objecls from Navarra is lhe perforated axe (fig. 2.A) from the Balankaleku N. dolmen (Siena de Altzania, AIsasua) which was recovered in the archaeological survey that in 1919, D. José :vIiguel de Barandiarán togelher with T. Aranzadi and E. Eguren carried out , whose data were published later (Aranzadi et ai, 1921). Subsequent1y this finding is cited in a great number of occasions, Barandiarán (1934); Elósegui (1953); Maluquer de Motes (1962); Apellániz (1973); Vallespi (1974); Andrés Rupérez (1977); González Sainz (1979) and Barandiarán & Vallespi (1984). This type ofaxes are in general, frequent in Brittany and in the centre and north of Europe. Typologically it appears to have a c1ear relation, when it is compared wilh the series studied by Ch. T. Le Roux (1975) in Brittany and the Sena and Loira Basins. A petrographic study of this axe, was realised by the Prof. San Miguel de la Cámara, which determined thal it is an "ophite" (dolerite), and published a photography of the analysed sam pie by (Aranzadi et ai, 1921). The macroscopic examination reveals that this is a basic rock with a dark green colour and a microcrystalline texture. With the summarized data it is possible to conc1ude that it is a rock with a doleritic composition and ophitic texture, of fine grain and compalible with the basic rocks that outcrop fTOm the North of Iberian Península to the North and centre of France and Europe (diabases and dolerites) so a far origin is not discarded. ARAGÓN ln the Prehistory and Archaeology Atlas of Aragon exist a recompilation in where are placed, in a general mode, the palished materiais found in this region up to date, Utrilla (1980). At the sarne time, the most important general works are referenced, that contains more or less exlend reperlories of polished lithic products, Bosch Gimpera (1923); Ripoll (1953); Beltrán (1955) and Atrián (1960). Bul it is not just to the eighlies when a monographic work about the polished implements of the medi um course af the Cinca river (Monzón, Huesca), c1assifies the raw materiais of the objects, in sedes of archaeological sites placed in this area, Mazo and Rodanés (1986). ln this collection with a total of 158 sludied samples, 120 ofthese are c1assified. Practically the total (97,5%) of the samples are metamorphic rocks , fram a regional metamorphism origino in general schist and quartzites ; a 25 % of hornfelses and a 3,3% of igncous (diorite and Mediterranean sea Fig. 4.A. Geographical map of the North Easl areo of rhe Iberian Peninsula Cenozoic Mesozolc Pal eozoic lntruslves roda Volcanlcs rocks Fig. 4.8.- Geofogico/ sYnlhesis map ofthe sarne areo. gabbro) and sedimentary rocks (sandstone). Without more definitive data about their petrological composition, these authors proposed a Pyrenean origin, compatible with the raw materiais that appear in the Pleistocene graveis from the Cinca River terraces (slates , schists, hornfelses, volcanic and granitic rocks , sandstones), lhat were eroded and transported fTOm the Pyrenean massifs (Fig. 2). SIOWlk Geol. Mag. , 10. I 2(1004), ＱＷ ｾ ＴＲ＠ 24 North east or Iberian Península. Catalonia Xavie r Clop Situation and geologicaI context The north-east of lhe Iberian Penin sul a is characlerised by lhe ex iste nce of a great diversit y of tcrrain , landsca pes and ecologica l unit s. The re sult of a co mpl ex geological history, lh e present-day rclief o f lh e no nh-east of lhe peninsula comprises three main blocks: a) to th e north lhe re is the mass if of lhe Pyre nees, whi ch has a le ngth of 450 km from th e Mediterranea n to the Allantic, a max imum width of 150 km , and wit hin wh ich two main zo nes can be di stin gui shed. First there is lhe main range of lhe Pyrenees, const ituting lhe centrai axis of lhe mountain chain, which was in existence towards the end o f th e Palaeocene a nd whi ch was raised and fractured during lhe orogenic AJpine phase. It is here that the oldest materiais are to be fou nd, large ly metamorphosed and main1y Palaeozoics, such as granite, gneiss , slates, sch ists, marbles, etc. Then lhere are the Pre-Pyrenees, which comprise the relief on eith er side of the ce ntral Pyrenees and which \,vere formed from th e materiais lain down during the Mesozo ic and ea rl y Ce no· zo ic a nd whi ch we re fo lded and raised during the orogenic Alpine phase. Lim es to nes a re clearly th e predominant material, although in some sectors elose to the main Pyrcnean range wc also find sandstones, con· glome rates and red clays (Figs. 4.A and 4.B); b) the ranges thal run parallelto the coast and form a mountain system divided into 1wo c1early defined chains: th e Sierra Litoral (or Coas tal Range) and lhe Sierra Preli loral (or Pre-Coastal Range), whi ch are separated by a long sunke n plain, the Depresión Prelitoral (or Pre-Coastal Depression). The Sierra Prelitora l is the furt hest from the coast, the longesl (280-320 km) and highest (700- 1700 m) of these three units. ln ilS most nonherly third we find some mass ifs composed of Pala· eozo ic and grani te materiais. Further lo lhe south th ere are other massifs composed of co nglomerales, Palaeo· zoic materiaIs (slatcs), sa ndsto nes and limestones and Mesoloic marls. Fu rther south still, there are a number of ranges comprising a fairly compact mountain block of quite abr upt relief, where limes tones and sandslones are predominant, wit h a huge mass of "Ii core llas" (s lates) and granites in the cen tre. Finall y, as we get right down to the Ebro, we have one of the most abrupt massifs of the north-east of th e peninsula, formed by limestones and Mesozoic do leriles. As for the Sierra Litoral, it forms a mounlain range running along lhe coast itself, short in lenglh ( 150-160 km) and narrow (10-15 km), with altitu des varying between 300-600 m. II is large ly formed by gran ites and slates. South of the Llobregal, however, Ihere are lhe ranges oft he Garraf and the Orda l, formed by huge Iimestone masses. Between these, the Depresión Prelitoral forms a low-Iying sunken sector some 200 km in length by 20-25 km wide, whcre there are principally elays and cong)o merales (F igs. 4.A an d 4.B); c) lhe Ce ntral Depressio n, whic h lies between th e Pyrenees a nd th e Sierra Pre li tora l a nd which is formed by seri es of eroded basins separaled by different high plateaus and by an extensive plain thal opens towards the wesl. Belwee n the Pyre nees, the Iberian System and the costal ranges there is lhe Central Depression, an eXlensive area sunk in the ear)y Teniary era, slopping lOwa rds th c IVest a nd progressively filled by malerials from th e neigh bourin g hills. Towa rd s the centre of th e depression, blue a nd grey marls were deposited. Towards lhe west la rge quan titi es of gypsum were deposited. On top of these evaporitic rocks were lain significant layers of materiais brought down by rivers and streams and which constituted allernating layers of sa ndslone and e1ays (Figs. 4.A and 4.B). The hydrological network of the north east of the peninsula has c1early defined traits. The western portion of lhe zone is occupied by lhe Ebro basin, which collects the streams of numerous tributaries to its left bank, tha1 of the Segre -its source in the Pyrenees- being of particular im po rt a nce. Of the other basins, only those of the L10bregat and the Ter are of any significan! extent. The human communities (5700- 2000 BC) The first Neolithic communit ies of the north eaSl of the peninsula have been documented to lhe first half of lhe sixth mi llennium BC. They are commun ities lhal, given their mam material elements, fali within the sei of cu ltu ra l groups producing the impressed pottery of lhe western Mediterranean, specifically of cardia l pOl1ery. ln the Early Neolithic ofthe north east ofthe Iberian Peninsula three phrases are normally disti nguished, according to the changes in lhe decoralion of pottery: the cardial Early Neolithic (cca 5700-4400 BC), the epicardial Early Neolilhic (cca 5100-4000 BC) and the post-cardial Early Neolilhic (cca 4900-3500 BC). ln lhe early stages of the Neo lithi c in the region, usuall y lermed the cardial Early Neo lithic, the human communities were probably formed by small groups of individuais who established lhemselves both in open air siles (La Draga, Plansallosa, Barranc d'en Fabra, Guixeres de Vilobí...) and in caves and shellers (Cova de Fontmajor, Cova dei Frare, Cova Gran, Cova Freda, Bauma dei Serrat dei Pont,.. ). These communities, sedentary or sem i-sedentary, \Vere farmers and herders, their subsistence activities being characterised by the variety of spe· cies exploited in each case. Hunting and gathering, of progressively diminishing importance, wou ld have complemented their diet. Although burial remains of the period are scarce, it should be noted tha1 towards its end we find the first evidence of mega lithic struclures, well documentcd in the megalithic burial site at Tavertet. Their material cultu rc was largcly composed of ela)' pots, varying in size , for cooking, storage or transponing different food products; a largely laminar stone-working Rol\' malerials in lhe NeQlilhicAeneolilhic 01 lhe Iberiall Pellinsufa 25 industry, with which they produced arrow-heads, awls, sick le blades, etc.; a co nside rable number of elements that come und e r lh e tcrm polished toais, such as axes, chisels, planes, etc.; a bane industry comprising needles, spaLulas. bradawls, etc.; a sign ifica nt number of orn amentai objecls, made from differe nt raw materiais, 5uch as bone, shell a nd different minerais, elc. The Middle Neolithic (cca 4400-3200 BC) was the real "Golden Age" in lh e recenl prehistory of lhe north easl of lhe lberian Pcninsu la. For one thin g, it saw th e abandonment of lhe most 1110unlainous areas a nd lhe co ncentration ofpopulat ion o n th e most fertile plains ofthe region. Sites suc h as Bobila Madurell and Ca N' lsach enable us to determine th e charactcrislics 01' open-air settl e me nts, as well as th e main lraits o f their subsistence activities, with agricu lture and herdin g now well-established. Significant developmenls in burial practices are well-documented both in ope n-air burial si tes such as Bobila Madurell and Cam i de Can Grau and in th e development of megalithic barrow burials in the extreme north-east of lhe region and in the cysls of lhe cen tral plateau. The materiais of th e Middle Neotithic enable us to observe lhat the region was full)' integrated in lhe major nctworks of the circulation of goods lha! existed at this time in th e western Mediterranean and which permitted the distribution 01' different types 01' elements of mineral origin such as flint, obsidian a nd possibly ce rtain 1ypes of rocks used in lhe making of polished toais, such as jades. The north-east of the peninsula was able to bring lO these trade nctworks variscite, a mineral element used in the praduction a r ornamental objccts and whi ch was obta ined fram the mines at Gava (Barcelona), undoubtedly one of lhe most important sites of recent prehistory, not just in th e peninsula north-east by also in Western Europe. Both lhe sum of burial evidence known in the whole of lhe region as well as the presence of its own mines allow us to argue that by this stage there was already a certa in amount of development of internal social differences. The Late Neol ithie and the Chaicolithi c ex tend from the final cen turi es of the six th millennium to circa 2000 Be. The human comm un iti es appear to have braken down again into unils of smaller size and occupy the whole ofthe region, including mountainous areas, again. The large number of si tes documented suggests that significant demographic grawt h occurred. Apar! from that, whi le il seems tha! there were no great changes in the archilecture of living structures, whi ch were very simple in nature and following lhe traditions begun in lhe Early Neolith ic, as far as burial practices were concerned we see a spectacu lar increase in the number of burial structures, among which the 1110st sign ifi cant fact, apart fram the ex tcnt 01' collective burials. is probably the diverse typology ofbu ri al sites. Different types 01' megalithic and para-megalithic burials were used: caves and natural shelters. str uctures of o ri ginally domestic use, etc. Of particular note in lhe material culture is, first of ali , the development of metal-working, with simpl e teehnology, for lhe praduction of sumptuary items. Bul we should also note lhe presence of a series of objects making up what has been ealled th e Campan iform "pack", ch ief a mong which is Campaniform poltery. The Campaniform phase (circa 2800-2200 BC) shows that the region continued to be part)' to contemporary phenomena occurring in large areas of Europe. Raw materiais used in making polished tools From the beginnings of prehistoric scientific research in Catalonia, researchers were aware 01' the importance of determining lhe raw material used in lhe making of polished toais and its possible origins. However, despite the fact that some prehistorians were fully aware of lhe importanee that ought to be given in this sense to both petrographic analysis and lhe necessity Df collaborating with specialist geologists, Serra-Rafols (1930), for decades lhe delerminalion of raw materiaIs, when i1 was carried OUl, was done so aI macroscopic leveis and invariably for a small number 01' polished tools. II was 1'101 until the 1980s tha! some researchers began to carry out studies of a certain rigour, using proper analytic methods, particularly taking thin sections, Bosch (1984); Alvarez (1986-1989). The characterisation 01' raw materiais via the laking of thin sect ions bas been up until now th e most wide ly used a nalytic practice, Alvarez & Clop (1994) and (1998); Clop & Alvarez (1998); Clop/ Alvare7jReehe (2000); Casas (2000). Only in the occasional relatively recen t study, and in ver)' specific cases, have other sorts 01' ana lysis been made, such as X-ray diffraetion and microprobe analysis, Clop & Alvarez (1998); Casas (2000). The work carried out in lhe las1 1wenty year5 provides us wilh an overview that, although it still leaves many questions unanswered, allows us to put forward a number ofworking hypotheses based on ver)' significant data obtained in the different studies made, often methodological practices of considcrable variety. Thus, on the one hand, we have lhe studies made during the 1980s of extensive collections of polished tools that made it possible to observe the possible diversi ty of raw materiais used, as well as to c1arify a number of specific questions such as lhe possible use of volcanic materiais in lhe making of polished lools, an assertion that had been repeatedly made and which these studies made it possible to diseard, Bosch (1984); Alvarez (19861989). The problem that these studies oflarge collections af polished tools raise is thal lhe material elements anaIysed do not come fram known , well-documented archaeological contexts, which places major restrictions on their use with regard to concrete historical knowledge 01' the human societics that produced and used them. During the 19905, a major change in strategy was proposed, with the study of sels coming fram particular sites being tack led. We now have studies of the characteris1ics Slo\'ak Geai. Mag.., /0. / - 2(2004), 17 42 26 of the polished tools of some of the most important Neolithi c si tes excavated in the late 1980s, such as lhe lake se ttlement of La Draga (Girona), ClopjAlvarezjReche (2000), Bosch et aI., (2000), the open air Neo lithic settlemeot of Plansallosa (Girona), Clop & A1varez ( 1998) and the Gava mines (Barcelona), A1varez & Clop (1994 and 1998), Bosch and Estrada (1994). It should be nOled thal in lhe case af Plansa l[osa a possible uworkshop" for lhe making of polished lools was localed, as appeared lo be indicaled bl' lhe finding of protoll'pes aI different slages of production, Bosch el aI., (1998). The sLUdl' of the materiais recovered from a Calalan Middle Ncolithic burial sl ruclure should be added to lhe mentioned st udies, allhough iI is rather less significanl, Casas (2000). These studies logether mean that wc have well-defined selS which can be situated in precise historical contexts. Ali in ali, although lhe lisl of sludies made so far is nol particularl}' long one, lhe known data mean we can establish which were lhe main raw materiais used and which faw materiais were in minority use, establisb in some cases lhe possible zone of origin and what may have happened during certain chronological periods, such as in lhe final stages ofthe Earl)' Neo lithic and the Midd le Neolilhic. Apart from lhat, however, lhere are still manl' other aspects to be clarified, such as what happened during th e Lale Neolithic and during the Calcolithic, and determining with a high degree of certaint)' tbe possible origins of many particular materiais, etc. For lhe north-east of the lberian Peninsula wc have altogether, at this tim e, published data referring to a total of 409 tools which can be ineluded under the term pOlished toais, with the characterisation of their raw materiais based on rigorous scientific analysis. The studies of th e characteristics of ali of these stone tools have permitted the idenlification of 16 rock ll'pes. This significant variely, however, has lO be Qualified when it is observed that of the 409 tools studi ed 365 were made from rocks of metamorphic origin , which means an almosl total predominance of material Df this so rt as opposed to the possible use of rocks of igneous or sedimentarl' origin (Fig. 3, Catalonia). If the materiais used are analysed in furlher detail, ii can be seen that hornfelses are undoubtedly the characterislic material for the making of polished tools in the north-east of the Iberian Peninsula (Fig. S.A). A 90% of the individual items anaIl'sed were made from hornfelses. The next most used rock type, diorites, accounl for just 3%of the total so far analysed, while the remaining rock types are present in proportions lhat , at most, account for 1% of the sample. The huge predominance in lhe use of hornfelses is reflected both in the stud)' of large collect ions of materiais and in some of lhe particular siles slUdied, as in the open-air settlement of Plansallosa and in the Gava mines. ln the laHer case, for example, hornfelses were the raw material used in the production of 90 of the 104 tools so far studied, which include bOlh classic forms of polished tools and tl'pes more speeificalll' related to mine-\Vorkings (min ing picks, hammers,.. ). Hornfelses are also prese nt, although on a very much mino rity scale, at th e La Draga site and is absent at Bobila d'en Joca. I-Iornfels is a rock of metamorphic origin formed of fine-grain ed detritic rocks to be found on the edge of Hercyn ian granite massifs. lt is a very hard, non-schist rock, fine grained and of concave c1eavage, composed of a mosaic of grains of more or less similar size of no particular orienlalion . It displays abundant biotites and opaque minerais such as ilmenite and some iron ox ides. The hornfe)ses analysed show, in general, Lhe typical mineralogieal charaeteristics, with enough AIO to be able to form cordierite and andalusite crystals. ln fact , the presence of th ese two minerais has often been cons idered suffi eien tll' important to be ab le to defined specific subgroups in the study of the raw materiaIs of sites Iike those of Minas de Gava and Plansallosa. I-Iornfelses often reveai porphl'roblasts which give them a mottled appearance (Fig. SAl. This faet, together with the appearance that tends to have been produced by hammering during the process of manufacturing, meant lhat for many years researchers confused this material with basalt, "de visu" on ly idenlificalion hav ing been made. This confusion, which began to be eliminated in the 1980s, Maluquer (1979-1980), Valdés (1981-1982), Álvarez (1986-1989). sti ll persists in lhe imagination of some researchers who mechanically repeat erroneous conceptions that, like this, are inherited from research that was marked for a long time by the use of procedures lacking in scientific rigour. I-I ornfels is a rock that is relativell' frequent in the north-east of the lberian Peninsula. It can be found irregu larll' distributed along the fringes ofthe central ax is of the Pyrenees and of lhe mountain chains dose to the coast in lhe region (Figs. 4.A and 4.B). It can also be found in the form of erratic pebbles in the detrital formations originating in the transpOrl and sedimentation of materiais in many beds of many rivers originating in the Pyrenees, such as lhe Segre and lhe Ter and manl' of their main tributaries. It is interesling to note that hornfels seems to be the characteristie material in lhe making of polished tools in the peninsular north-easl , when it is to be found much less in neighbouring regions in wh ich extensive study has been made of polished tools, Ricq-De Bouard (1996), Orozco (2000). To dale, however, the studies of characleristics made in lhe north-easl of the peninsula have not permitted the location of any possible specific source ar area of origin for hornfels, a task which it is to be hoped will be tackled in lhe not too distant future in order to clarify whether there was extensive exploitation or whether, on the contrary, it was concentrated in very precise poims, as weJl as whelher or not use was made of materiaIs found in secondary positions ar whether materiais in primary positions were exp loited. As regards its possible circu lation, in the region of the Valencian Levant the possibilitl' has been raised that the hornfcls tools that have been identified ma)' have been produced from raw material o riginating in the coaslal mountain chains close Raw maferiab' in the Neo/ithic-Aeneo/ithic oflhe Iberian Peninsula 27 fig. 5. A.- Mierograph of a IlOrnfel with Jarge andalusite crystals. Crossed poJars. Widrh of pil oto '" 6 mm.; SampJe from a min ing pick f rom Minos de Gava (Barcelona). Fig. 5. B.- Micrograph of a calei/ie amphibolire. Sample fro m a planefrom Minas de Gava (Barcelona). Crossed po/ars. Widrh of pholO=6 mm. to lhe Ebro, a hypothesis lhal should also be exa mined in th e future, Orozco (2000). Diorites comprise, quantitatively, the second group of materiais identified, although th ey represe nt just 3% of the LOtai of th e samples analysed LO da te. Diorite is an intrusive magmatic rock which displays plagioclases and hornblendes as its essential components. Oiorites fo rm accumulations on lhe margins of zones ofigneous rocks, parti cularl y granites and granodiorites or transiLi onal facies on th e edge of ga bbroic masses. It is, in ge neral terms, a very rare rock, generally originating in the hybridisati on of more bas ic rocks. It is to be fo und in geological regions similar to th ose in which hornfelses are to be found. ln lhe case of the archaeological materiais of the peninsular north-east it is imeresting to note that diorites have been identi fied in th e Minas de Gava, at Bob ila d'en Joca and in two find s included in the collections studi ed during lhe 1980s. To dale, fro m th e da ta ava ilab le, it seems that its presence is concentrated particu larly along lhe Catalan coast and central pre-coastal zone. It is interesting to note that the diorites identified have been used in the production ofaxes but their use has not been identifi ed so far in th e production of items specifically for mining tools at the Gava mines. The lhird group in importance of materiais is co mprised by th e amphiboliles. This lerm is used to ind icale certain rocks produced by a medium grade metamorphism that display. as their principal components, amphibolitcs and plagioclases. Their identification as a raw malerial used in lhe making of polished lools in lhe north-east of the lberian Peninsula, it should be said, is rece nt, since the end of the 1990s. Since their ini tial identificalion in lhe region, lhe presence ofamphiboli tes has bee n shown to be recurrent in ali the sites specifi calIy sludied. Thus we find items made fro m amphib olile at La Draga, Plansall osa, Minas de Gava and Bobila d'e n loca. To be more precise, and as seems to indicaled by Xray di ffracti on in lhe cases of Plansallosa and Bobila d'en Joca, th ese are generall y calcite amphibolites (Fig. 5.B). Determination 01' their possible origin invol ves, at presenl, great difficullies. While amphiboliles have been found on th e soulhern side oflhe Pyrenees in the form of radial disseminations of low-grade metaphoric rocks and retrograde metaphorie rocks, large speeimens in suffieient volum e for making polished tools have nol been found . We kn ow that amphiboHte was a raw materia l used significa ntl y durin g th e ea rly slages of lhe Neolilhic in neighbouring areas in lhe south of Fran ce, Ricq-De Bouard (1996) where, howeve r, despite ex tensive pros pective work, neither primary ar secondary deposits have been foun d fTOm which pieces of the necessary size for the makin g of polished tools could have been oblained. Parti cul ar com ment should be made regardi ng th e polished tools made from jades . ln one of lhe firs! scientifica ll y rigoTOus studies made in the region, Al varez (1 986-1 989), attentio n was drawn to the use of such raw material, although lhe affirmatian was based on nvisuft determinat ions given the diffieu lties posed by carr ying out analys is, however small, of archaeologica l pieces. The stud y made at Babila d'en Joca, Casas (2000) included th e analys is of two pieces made fro m jades of great purity and whose possible source area is still to be determined. ln any case, delermining more precisely lhe quantitati ve importance of the presence of items made from jades as well as establishing there possibl e origin, is surely one of the cen tra l is sues in the development of fu ture studies in the region. The Iist of lhe other materia is iden Lified so far allows us to observe both their divers ily as we ll as lheir ap parently relati vely scarce presence. The materiaIs are as fo llows (in pa renthesis, the n umber of too ls ide n tified to da te): - Metamo rphi c rocks: schist (5), fi brolite (2), diabase (I), calei u m sili cale ska rn (1), slate (1), phylli te (1), calcaschists (I); quart zi te (I). - Igneo us rocks: porp hyry (5), do leril e (2), microtona lile (1) ; - Sedi mentary rocks: sandstone (3). Slovak GeaI. MaiL 10, Ｑ ｾ ＲＨＰＴＩＮ＠ 17-4] 28 The materiais stu dy made from particular sites (La Draga, Plansallosa, Mines de Gava and Bobila d'en Joca) allows chronological evalu at ion lo be made. ln lh e first place, lhe absence of data on lhe precise timing of lhe ea rli est polished toais in lhe region shou ld be noted, as we ll as on the characteristics of its carly stages. Second· Iy, the studies carried oul at La Draga and Plansallosa provide data on lhe epicardial Early Neolithic (circa 5100-4000 BC). ln these sites there is a clear predominance of lhe use of raw materiais of metamorphic origin, principally hornfelses and sch ists, wilh amphibo lites also being presento Data from lhe Minas de Gava and Bobila d'cn Joca give us an idea of lhe faw materials used during the Middle Neo lithic (circa 4400-3200 BC). Raw materiais fram metamorphic rocks cont inue to prcdominate, particu larl)' hornfelses. However, a certain amount of difference according to the specific use of the archaeological site can be proposed , as suggesled by lhe absence of hornfelses in a burial sile like that or Bobila d'cn Joca. The possible difference dcpending on the social use or each site is a1so a lin e orwork to be developed more fully in lhe future. Apart from lhal, it should be nOled lhat amphibolites continued to be used and we now find tool s made from jades \",hich , according to the schemes currenOy in use , may have reac hed lhe north-east or lhe penins ul a within lhe extensive trade zones of the different types of products thal have been documenled during the fourth and third millennium BC in western Europe. ln thi s sense, it is interesting to note lhat amphibolites were used extensively during the Early and Middle Neolithic in the soulh ofFrance, Ricq-Oe Bouard ( 1996). East of the lberian Península, Pais Valenciano S. Dominguez-Bella Geographical context The País Va lenciano ar Leva nte, is a geographical region that occupies a band along lhe Spanish Medite rranean coast. Their geology is based in lhe presence of materiais from the Iberian Cordillera (Fig. 1), and a prcdominance ofsedimentary Mesozoic rocks, in general of carbonated lithologies (in many cases karslified , Fig.3), with the occasional presence of little outcrops of Palaeozoie matcria ls and ignco us rocks. These last ones are of two types: subvolcanic rocks as dolerites or diabases, related with Mesozoic episodes; and a recenl volcanism. \vith quaternary basalts. Archaeological sites from the Neolithic-Aeneolithic of Levante, East Spain The archaeological register of lhe reeent prehistory presents different leveis from the Neolithic I (7000-5800 RP. ca L); Neolithic II (5500-4000 B.P. caL); and a Campaniform I-Iorizo n, (4000-3890 B.P. caL); in Orozco (1998), and a greal number of caves. Dolerites - diabases, wi th holocrystalline, fine ar medium grain and inequigranular (Iarge crysta)s of pyroxene e nclosing, eilher wholly or partially, laths of plagioclase fe ldspar) ophiticsuboph itic texture, are found in lhe archaeological register of this region, Orozco (1993) and (2000). The metamorphic lithologies, with much more diversity that igneous roeks, present amphibolites, eclogites, schist and objects made in si llimanite, a high metamorphie grade lypical mineral , Orozco (1993 and 1998). Dolerites or diabases outcrops are present in many points or thi s Mediterranean band, intruded in sedimentary evaparitic sediments ofTriassie age (Keuper facies). Other igneous materiaIs present in lhe regional geology are the quaternary basalts, not employed as raw mater ial in lhe Prehislory of this area, Orozco (1993). The local metamorphic materiais outcrops, plaeed al the North of this region, present petrological and mineralogical fealures that do not correspond with those or the archaeological materiais, so the origin ofthese raw materiais can be allochlhonous to lhis area. Materiais as the schist bracelets are common in the Neolithic I phase and disappear in subsequent stages, Orozco (1998). ln the Neolithic II phase, lhe lithological diversity is much more extend in the zo ne, as result not only of a catchment of local lithologies if not by inlerchange a long lrade routes, of allochlhonous products as sillimanites, eclogites, amphi bolites s.s. and calcium amphibolites, that th e geological features of the studied mate riais suggest to Bernabeu & Orozco (1989-90) a greal similarit y with the high grade melamorphism from Southeast Spain areas, in lhe inner domains of the Betic Cordilleras. ln the Campaniform horizon lhis lendency is inereased. As example oft he lithological abundances in this geographical region, in Orozco (1993) are published lhe study oflWO archaeologieal sites wilh a chronology of III rd millennium B.C., th e villages of Jovades (Cocentaina, Alacanl) and Arenal de la CosIa (Onlinyent, Valencia) (Fig. 3., Easl Spain). Central lberian Península, Castilla-La Maneha & Mureia S. Domínguez-Bella. Situation and geologieal eontext ln this geographical area, we have on ly information about raw materiais of archaeological sites in the Cuenca, Madrid and a part of Murcia provinces, placed in the cenlral-SE part of Iber ian Pcninsula. The geological substrate of th ese areas is eonstituted by the Iberian Cordillera materiais, in general of carbonated eharacter and Mesozoic age and by the Tajo Basin materiaIs, a Tertiary basin of the central Spain (Fig. 1). RaM' materiaIs ;fI lhe Neolithic-AefIeolithic of lhe IberiofI Pemnsula 29 Arch aeological siles from lhe Neolithic-Aeneolitic in Central Spain ln this area, with a greal pOlentiality of lithological colours, al\Vays with the typical fibrous aspcct (fibrolite) and made from mineral nodules of rela tive size. These resources for the tools manufacture, as occurs with the sil liman ite and other Iithologies metamorphie and igneous, works about raw materiais eharaclerizat ion in polished industry of lhe recent prehistory hard ly exist. We authors proposed for these axes a allochthonous origin, in the Somosierra area, Ce ntral System of Spain, even though other possible source areas can exisLin the Ilesperico Massif or Hereynian baseme nt (Ga licia, Portugal, only can cite the papers of Atrian (1960), Delibes (1974), Barrera and Navarrete (1980) Barrera ( 1984), Barrera et aL (1987), about lhe polished lithic industry from Teru- Salamanca, Zamora, Pyre nees) (Fig,!). Cueva de Juan Barbero (Tielmes, Madrid). The petrological analysis res ult s published by Barrera (1984), in this settlement from th e ea rl y mela llurgical el, lhe Tierra de Campos area in Castilla, sites fTOm Cuenca, Madrid and Mureia provinces, respecti ve ly. ln the Fig, 3 appears lhe different lithologies a nd percentages of these materiais cited by these authors. ln lhe sites from Cuenca province, auributed [O a rece nL prehistory present whitish, greenish , bluish, ye llowish and brownish period of Central Spain , show the presence of sillim anite, meladiabase with prismatie plagiocJase aggregates and amphibole cryslals. pseudomorphizing at pyroxenes, wilh opaque minerais. Metagabbro. of medium-fine (Barrera & Navarrele, 1980), axes and mazes are presenl, grain, equigranular, for m ed by plagioclase, greenish in them we can observe the presence of melamorphic, plutonic, volcanie, in veins and othcrs rocks. Among lhe lithologies more lIsuall y appeared: amphibolites, thermal metamorphosed or speckling slates, sill imanile, sandstone, meta-gabbro, quanz dolerite, limburgites. The limburgiles, vo lcanic rocks form ed by iddingsitized olivinc phenocrysta ls, in a matrix of c1inopyroxene, opaque minerais and interstitial zeolites and carbonates. Its origin is clearly related with lhe alkaline vo lcanism of amphibole and great opaque minerais. Quartz greywackes , with light sc histos it y. e longa ted quartz, rock frag- ments and tourmaline, zircon, opaq ue minerais, ch lorite and muscovite-sericite as aceessories, also appear. Northeast of lhe Mureia province (Cehegín-CaravacaMoratalla areal, Central Spain, Barrera el aI., (1987), sludied a group of archaeo logi- cal sites, which included caves, open air vi llages and one dolmen, probably with Aeneolithic chronologies, The Ca mpo de Calatrava (Ciudad Real), 200 km, 10 th e SW polished lithic industr y is formed by axes, chisels, mazes, The metagabbros, equ igranular with medi um and fine grain, very homogeneous. formed by very abundant amp- mill hands, ball , pe nd an t, ch isel a nd olhers, As result of hiboles, plagioclase, ga rn et a nd residual C\inopyroxe ne, with accessories: epidote, museovite. ehlorite, opaque, albite, c1inozoisite and carbonates. A second group of melagabbros do not present garnet; in both cases they seem allochthonous lithologies that ca n come from the Sierra Nevada malerials, placed m ore than 300 km at th e petrologic ana lysis that (hese authors ca rried OU L, appears: sedimentary roeks, fossiliferous limestones and calearenites; metamo rphic rocks of si llimanite ty pe, amphibolites and garnet metagabbros; vo lea nie rocks af basalt type ; rocks plutonic and subvo lcanic, of diabases type, quartz diaba ses ga bbros and quartz gabbros and finall ya sample of chert, (Fig, 3, Murcia). south . Amphibolites, many times very rich in actinolite, are in this case orthoderivates of igneous basie rocks, Wi lh a great quantilY of opaque minerais. their minera lo- ln retalion with the raw materiais provenance in this area, these authors praposed an autoehthonous origin gy are form ed funda me ntall y by amphibole (hornblendeactinolite)(this one bel\Veen a 50 a nd a 90 %) and and ca1carenites) and lhe pllltonic and subvolcanic rocks plagioclase, with opaque minera is, sphene and rarel y quartz, zircon, cpidote, elinozoisi tc, biotite and chlorite. The possible source areas for these roeks are Sierra Nevada at the soulh or lhe Hesperieo Mass if at the west. Other melamorphic Iithology are lhe chiaslol itic slales. typ ieal of lhe contact or thermic metamorphism, where andalusite and cord ieri te appear, with a quartz·micaceous matri x of fine grai n, porphyritie texture, quite schi stose. The most similar liLhologies to these and wilh more geographical proxi mity, are the metamorphic outcrops gy. Chert sa m pie are of unkn own originoThc metamorphic lithologies as si llim an ite have an allochthonous around the gra niti c Ba lolito de los Pedroch es, in lhe :-Jorth of Anda lusia (a prox, 250 km to th e SW), even though th ey could proceed from other zones of th e Hes- Portugal perico Massif, in Lhe westem peninsular parI. As rock in ve ins, only has appeared a quartz-doleritc or quartz-diabase, with clinopyroxene and plagioclase, opaquc minerais and quart z as accessories; and fine gra in diabase for th e carbonated lithologies (foss iliferous limestones (do le rites "ophites", diabases), present in the loca l geo lo- origin , probably from lhe Cenlral System or oth er western areas o f Hercyni an MassiC Amphiboliles have also a no n local origin, probably from Sierra Nevada, aI the South, Finally, lhe unique sample of olivi ne basalt is also alJochthonous, very si milar to th e vo1canic materiais 01' lhe Ca mpo de Calatrava area, 190 km at th e West of this region. David Calado a nd Joao Luis Cardoso TllE ALGARVE AND EXT REMADURA REGIONS lexture, Its o ri gin could be regional, in the Iberia n Co r- The distribution of exogenolls artefacls in settlements and graves previous lO lh e middle ofth e V h millennia BC in SW Atlantic Europe seems to be limited lo the exchan- dillera. Sillimanite objects. very abundant in these sites. ge of so me specific e leme nt s, Calado et aL (2003), The Slovak Geol. Mag. , 10, 1- 2(2004). 17-42 30 polished stone artefaels se em lo follow a pattern of production ove r other stones existing nearby. ln the Caldeirao cave, in Estremadura, Central Portugal, Zilhao, (1992), lhe sole artefacts with a proven distanl origin are the marine shell beads used for neeklaces. The polished ston e beads recove red aI Caldeirao, which could be from distam origins, are made of variscite and muscovite. Variscite may perhaps be found at the Silurian strata from th e Zézere river basin, some 20 km away from the cave, Real (1992) and the muscovile may also be found at a relatively short distance away, Real (1992). However, at the moment the nearest place where variscite was positively recorded is in the Carboniferous metavolcan ic complex of Ossa-Morena. AJso, we have no everyday use (Fig. 6), consist ofaxes in basanite, alkaline basalt and greywacke, ali oflhem very common lilhologies within a radius of a few km fram the settlement site. Arm rings in bituminous black slate constitute the adornment artefacts. The black slate was never identified in th e Algarve Palaeozoic strata, the nearest known place with lhis kind of rock being the Devonian carboniferous strata from the Bordeira antiform, 20 kms NW of the setUement site. The surface-polished largo phallic stand ing stones (menhirs) with high relief symbolic decorations are a product of oolithic Jurassic limestone from the Dogger (Aalonian-Batonian), which oeeurs within a couple of km from the setUement site, Calado el ai. (2001). • ? , ?. CALDEIRÃO ｾ ￇｅｃｉａ＠ ., J ALCAlAA QUINTA QUEIMADA CACELA Mediterranean rea AJlantic Ocean r l F(r;. 6. - Geographical map of POl'lugal wit" fh e arclweological si/es cited. Stolle axes of basal/ mu! limes/olle alld arm rillg of hlack sla/eIrom Quillta da Queimada (South Porlflgal), V! -V milfelllliums B.C evidence of variscite mining in SW Iberia before the last quarter of the IV millennia BC. Thus, we ma)' assume that the artefacts in variscite and muscovile might have been produced from surface-collected small blocks of these minerais. The polished stone implements of everyday use, tike axes and ad zes, are made of stones common to this region. ln the Algarve, Southern Portugal, an analysis was made from ali the stone implements collected at the VI" millennia BC setllement site with standing stones at the Quinta da Queimada. The polished stone artefacts of Belween the middle of lhe V and the middle of lhe IV" millennia BC, the period usuaJly called "Middle Neolithic" , there has been until now an important gap in lhe knowledge of SW Iberian prehistory with special emphasis to Portugal. ln lhe Algarve, knowledge about this period is reslrained to the second phase of the already destroyed seulement site of Caramujeira, Gomes et aI. (1978); Calado (2000a) and (2000b). However, in La Dehesa, a settlement site from the neighbouring Spanish pravince of Huelva, which has similar characte ri stics to the second phase of Caramujeira, we observed at the sur· Raw materiais in the Neolühic-Aeneo/ühic of the Iberian Peninsula 31 face fragmenls of chert and red jasper, which could oo ly come from lhe Palaeozoic slrala, 40 kms lo lhe North. From lhe middle of lhe ｉｖ ｾ＠ mille nni a iI is regarded in the archaeological data from SW lberia slrang evidence of social stralification that culmioates in the middle of the IIl'dmillennia in pri stin e centralized politicai orga nizations in Andalusia and Algarve. Together with lhe increase of politicai ce ntralism and social stratification, ii has been verified Ihal existed lhe developmenl of a slahle and com plex dist ribution system of exogenous artefacls, embodying an exchange network th at stretches, at leasl, over lhe who le o f Iberia a nd Norlh Africa. The arlefaclS made fram exogenous materiais fram far away regions are com mon io the megalithic graves in lilloral Algarve (Fig. 6), like Cacei a and Alcalar, Veiga ( 1886, 1889): black slale, amber, amp hi bolile, serpemine, variscite, marble, cherty OOlilhic limestooe, gold, copper and ivory. The nearest place where black slale occurs natu rall y is in the Ossa-Morena complex, more Iha n 100 km 10 lhe Norlh, or in lhe Bordeira anl iform. The amber, recovered in Alcalar, is very seldom found in Iberia, just occurring in lhe Cretaceous formations from Álava (Basque Coun lry), Na,,"rra, Canlabria, Aslur ias, Aragón, in general almosl 1000 km lO lhe NW. The amphibolile, a wide ly used rock in lhe produclion of polished adzes and axes during this period, seems to be nonexistent in the Algarve and ilS origin may have been the already desc ribed Ossa-Morena complex. The serpenline, know n from polished beads, mighl have come from Ronda Massif or Sicrra Nevada Belic Un ils, in Andalusia; or Ceuta, in North Africa, but it may also have existed in the Ossa-Morena complex. The variscite, widely used in the praduclion of beads, occurs in lhe OssaMorena region, prchistoric mines being known of at Encinasola, Andalusia, Nocele and Linares (J 999). The fine marble, used mainly for lhe produclion of smal! polished vessels is unknown in lhe Algarve, its possible origin being in cenlral Porlugal or in Sierra de los Filabres area, aI lhe Easl of Andalusia. From lhe middle oflhe III'" millennium BC onwards lhe f1inl seems lo be wideIy subsliluled by cherly oolilhic limeslone for lhe produclion of broad blades. The cherty oolilh ic limeslone is presently known to occur only in lhe zone of Estepa Morón de la Fronlera, in Andalusia, Nocele el aI. (1995). The go lel may also have come from Anda lusia (Spain), since Ca la - Almaden de la Plala area, in Sierra Morena, aI lhe North of Sevi lle a nd Huelva provinces, is lhe closesl place wilh mineral veins of a calibre good enough to produce arlefacls by cold hammering like lhe ones ex isting in Alca lar. Othe r possible provenance arca is lhe NOrlh of Exl remadura region (Spain), wilh presence of native gold nuggets in many rivers. However, the possibilit)' can not be excluded Ihat after lhe 111 m millennium BC lhe local populations already knew lhe lechnique of gold sme lling. The copper is common in lhe Palaeozoic strala fram inland Algarve and was extensively mined. The ivory, unquestionably African in origin, is known from lhe megalilhic graves from Cace la (Fig. 6). ln Estremadura, central Portugal, the sel of artefacts from graves and seul emenls from lhe middle of lhe IV millennia SC onwards includes axes and adzes in amphibolhes and fibrolite, beads in variscite, lignite, fluorite and calcite, micro blade cores in rock crystal and artefacls in coppe r and ivory. The amphiboliles from lhe axes collecled norlh ofl he Tejo River seems lo come from lhe Montemor-o-Novo / Abrantes regioo, while the amph iboliles from lhe polished axes soulh of lhe river show a basaltic-andesitic compos ition with a low degree af metamorphism, being sim ilar to the rocks of the sarne Iype from lhe Ossa-Morena complex. However, lhe rock used in the adzes is composed of a fine texture, prababIy correspondenl wilh basic vulcanile found wilhin lhe veios af lhe Sines massif. The fibralite , a mineral with a high degree ofmelamorphism is unknown in Portugal, Ferreira (1953), seeming, however, to exist in the Spanish parI of lhe Ossa-Morena complex and olher places in Spain, specially in Guadarrama massif. The variscite beads, Ca nelhas (1973), aI leasl lhe ones of larger ca li bre, seem incompatible with the thin mineral veins idenlified in lhe melasedimemary Silurian geologic formations fram Northern Portugal , Meireles et aI. (1997). References exist of variscite mines in use during lhe Roman epoch nearby Zamora, Campa no el aI. (1985). However, lhe on ly regislered prehisloric variscile mines in SW Iberia are in Encinasola, Andalusia, Nocele (2001); Dominguez Bella el aI. (2002). The f1uorile is known from Iwo large beads found aI lhe Lapa do Bugio, Cardoso ( 1992) and lhe Casa da Moura caves, Carreira and Cardoso, (2001/ 2002). This mineral nol exisls in lhe region, its prabable origin bei ng lhe granite - pegmatites fram Panasqueira. A1so lhe large rock crystal cores may come from lhe granile - pegmatiles aI Beira AlIa. The lignile and lhe calcile, also used in lhe produclion ofbeads are common ali ove r Estremadura. The copper is common in lhe fonified settlements Lcceia type fram lhe middle of lhe m ' millennium BC onwards, Cardoso el aI. , ( 1995), Cardoso and Guerra (1997-98; Fig. 6). The chem ical analysis from Leceia copper confirms an origin from lhe melallic polysulphides pyrile belt Ihal slrelches from lhe Algarve lO lhe AlIO Alenlejo. The lerrilorial range enclosed in lhis complex system of arteract and raw materiais distribution is well exemplified by the African ivory pin found at Leceia site in leveIs fram the first half of lhe III" millennia B.e., Cardoso (1997), Cardoso (1999-2000). ln conclusion, in Portugal , before lhe middle of lhe V millennium BC a pattern clearly emerges of extensive use of local rock Iypes for lhe produclion of polished implemenls. During lhe second half of lhe V and firsl half of lhe IV'" millennia BC iI is possible lo idemify a pattern of use of some raw materiais collected some dozens of km fram lhe settlernents. From late lV'h millenn ia Be onwards an intricate exchange network af allochlhonous malerials slrelching Ihrough Iberia and North Africa was developed. The exlenl of Ihis exchange nelwork is we ll exemplified by lhe amber found aI lhe Slol'ok Geol. Mag., 10. J- 2(1004), / 7 42 32 A1calar graves, in th e Algarve, anIy evident in geological outcrops af man)' areas af Iberia (Basque Country, Aragóo, Cantabria, Asturias) ar in far away European regions; and the ivory, undoubtedly of African origin, found ai Leceia, in lhe Estremadura and Cacela, in lhe Algarve (Fig. 6). South of the Iberian Peninsula, Andalusia S. Domínguez-Bclla Siluation and geological conlexl The South of lhe Ibe ri an Peninsula, placed ai lhe nonh of Gibraltar Slrail, lhe occidenlal Mediterranean Sea and lhe AlIantic Oceao, present lhree great morphologic units, praclically coincidenl with lhe geological unils: Si erra Morena, al the North and NE, with a medium levei of 600 m and maximums jusI to 1323 m; lhe Guadalquivir Basin, along lhe Guadalquivir river flu vial plain, fram Sierra de Cazorla to Danana salt marsh and the 8etic CordiUera, a mounlainous relief with the maximum altitudes of lhe Iberian Pe ninsula, in Sierra Nevada (Mulhacén, 3481 m). The geological fealures and maleriais of lhese zones are described before (Fig. I and Fig. 7). _.q .. -_. . ['_....- ....._. c-..w_ .... Ｎｾ＠ _｟ｾ＠ _ ......__-_. .. ＢＬＺｾＭＧ＠ Raw malerials used in making polished lools and prove- nance areas Archaeological siles fram rhe Neolilhic-Aeneolilhic of Wesl AndalLlsia - EI Jadramil (Arcos de la Frontera, Cádiz), is basically an agricultural seul emenl Lazarich (2003), of the 111II millenniums B.C. in the Campina area of Cádiz. Between 1980 and 1998 a greal number of silo type struclures, silo-artificial caves and pits, have been excavated. The polished lithic induslry recovered represents a total of 85 objects, with presence ofaxes, chise ls, grooved mining stone hammers, percusor, smooth ers, mullers, 100m weights, idols, pendants, archer bracelets and one Slone coup that have been studied by Dominguez-BeUa (2003). The petrologic study of these materiaIs revea ls a great diversity of raw materiais, with the presence or dolerites, sandstones, amphibolites, limestonc-dolomite, biocalcarenite, marls, micaceous slate and nini (Fig. 7 EI Jadramil). Dolerite, is lhe most common raw material in this archaeological sile (55 ,29 % ), with this malerial is elaborated the grooved slone hammers (Fig.8.C), lhe greal axes (Fig. 8.A), wedges, mullels, etc. Amphiboliles: (rep resents lhe 5,88 %), many Iypes of amphiboli- ..... Ｎｾ＠ . -.ou.. .-.-. .00l1.... Ｎ .-stOOOll!«IlOWlTII ｾＬ＠ Ｎ Ｍｾ＠ . 00000000tA$tLl "eca.oolrTl _..__. ._.c.. lbetian Massif ｾＢＬ｟＠ __ , .._. .ocu.... " ICou.oooTllTl! ._. Ｎ ｾ Ｌ＠ Ｎ ｾＬ＠ Ｎ ｾ＠ uEÇWOo'1 Ｎ ｾ＠ Ｎ Ｍｾ＠ N ....... _ _ _ • a Ｎ "*-"'" ROd<$ ｉ ｾ ｟ Ｎ＠ • P_1n /;.1 Flytd'I....- '* Ｎ ｆ ｾ＠ .-._, '" UMlSTQHII ｾＢ＠ Ｎ ｾ＠ - _ .. 0000_'1_, .DOL ........ .ou.IIT1l1'l: P,._<Mi ,. . ._'0l0I Ｎｾﾭ '· ...... TONI Ｎ ｾ＠ ｾＬ＠ . - . . ... 1"1 ｉｾＺ￧Ｎ＠ 7.- Geological ,\yf1tlte.\·j,\ map aJ AI/dall/sia (Sollfh Spaill) and percemage.\" vJ lithologies iII lI/(lI/Y archaeological site.\· oJ tllis geoel ai.). graphical arca (aJter data [rom CarrilJ/l cf aI.: Damíllgllez-Bclla; Domillgllcz-Bella et ai.; Sierra Ra.,; materiaIs in lhe Neu/ilhic-Aeneu/ilhic uf lhe lberian Peninst/!(j 33 Fig. 8.A. - Do/erite axe. El ladramil. Arcos de la Fromera, Cadiz (SW Spa;,,). Fig. 8.8.- GrolfP of amphibolite and dolerite adzes. EI ladramil. Arcos de /a Frontera, Cadiz (SW Spain). Fig. 8. C -Dolerite grooved mining hammer. EI ladramil. Arcos de la Frontera, Cadiz (SW Spain) Fig. 8.D. - Great plale Qf sandslOne. EI ladramil. Arcos de la Fronlera, Cadiz (SW Spain).(JII-1! millennium E.C) tes appears especially in the manufacture af polished axes, adzes (Fig.8.B), and chisels. Sandstonc (18,82 %); they are present in palettes or great size plates (Fig.8.D), and many other objects as mullets, 100m weights, pendants and idals. Limestones-dolomites (14,12 %), in this kind of materiais appcars elaboraled objects as smoothers, idols, palettes and a stone coup made by turning. Flint: only an objecl, probably used as smoother, represcnl the 1,18 % 01' the lotaI. Micaceous slate, mar! - marly Iimestone and biocalcarenite present low percentages. Moreover afthese lithologies appear pendants, bracelets, etc., made in bone or shell, as well as many metallic objects. The utility of lhe grooved stone mining hammers, continue to be an incognita in this site. These hammers, habitual in mining activities in the recenl prehislOry 01' Europe, Craddock (1995), resulls strange in a theoretical agricultural site, so their use, in a mining activity, related with the vertical pits ofthis site, appears to be quite possible in relatian with the extraction of a type af raw material, a compact biocalcarenite (Dominguez-Bella, 2003). ln relation with the possible source areas for the raw materiais of the polished industry, we can differentiate the mentioned lilhologies. Amphiboliles, with grecnish to blackish tones, normally are utilised in the elaboration ofaxes and they are rocks with a clear allochthonous characLer in this site, while as possible source areas we can suggest the Palaeozaic materiaIs from lhe Ossa - Morena zone, aI lhe norlh 01' lhe Guadalquivir valley, in the actual provinces ofI-Iuelva and Badajoz, or lhe centre and soulh of Portugal, Read et aI. (1997), Lillios (1997). Dolerites, which appear as the most important lithology and constituting an important part of the axes and practically the totality of the grooves mining hammers, are rocks \-vith a possible local origin, associated to the Mesozoic dolerites placed intro Triassic materiais (Keuper facies) autcrops in this area. ｓｉｑｾＧｯｫ＠ Geol. Mag., 10. 1- 2(2004), /742 34 Sandstones are present in the rnills, mullets, paJettcs or great size plates, and many other objects as 100m weigh ts, pendants and idols. They are Aljibe Sandslones, materiais of Mioce ne age lhat are abundant in this regian. LimeslOnes are of differenl lypes and origin s; their uses are co ncentred in lh e smoolhe rs for ce ramic manufacture and in lhe elaboration of stane mortars or vesse ls, present in other zones ofthe SW as Huelva province, Nocete et aI. (199 5) with an origin probably allochthonous. Biocalcarenite, are probably a loca l raw material, from the Upper Mioce ne outcrops, freq uent in lhe geological context of this area. Oth er lithologies, minority in th e polished industry of th is sile, 5uch as slate, phyllite, fiint, e lC., are Palaeozaie materi ais and their ori gin can be re lated with imported materiaIs ar with lh e catchment o f a rolling SLOne Df pebblc or th ese, fram the quater nary terraces leveis, and nint related with Mesozaic carbonated o utcrops in the Beti c Cordi llera. - The Atlantic Band of Cádiz area (SSW Spain) placed between the Gibraltar Strait and th e mout h of the Guada lquivir River, in the western end of Belic Cordi lleras, is a limit zone with lhe Guada lquivir Bas in, as th e North limit of this. Their geology co mprised three great groups of materiais with different ages and lithologies (Fig. 7: Geological map). First grou p are constituted by th e materiais from the Medium Subbeti c, bas icalll' elays and gyps ums from th e South-Iberian Triass ic (Ke uper facies) in which are also frequent the prese nce of subvo lca nic rocks, dolerites (rocks cammonly kn awn as "ophites"), aIso intrudes Jurassie and Cretaceous materiais. The second group are formed by materi ais from lhe Camp o de Gibraltar Units, const ituted fundamentall y by the "Alji be Sandstoncs", with clayey inlercalations, ofMioce ne age, placed speciall y in the East area o f this zone (territory of La Janda). Finally, post-orogenic materiais, of MiocenePl iocene age (basicall y biocalcarenites), d istributed in different outcrops and which, in genera l, produces table relieves. Archaeological maleria ls (polished lithic tools) from Sa n Fernando, Chielana de la Frontera, Con il de la Frontera, Medina Sidoni a and Vejer (s urface surveys), Ramos et aI., ( 1998) and from the strat ified leveis of two excavations of open air settlements: EI Estanqu illo (wi th chronologies between IV'" and 11"' millenniums B.C.) (Ramos, 1993), and th e sites of Las Vi nas and Cantarranas, in EI Puerto de Santa Maria (Cád iz), Valverde (1993); Ruiz Fernández (1986); are studied (mi neralogical, pe trological and archaeological characterization) by Dominguez-Bella (1999); Domínguez-Bella et aI., (2000), Domínguez-Bella et aI. (2002b), Ramos et aI. , (1997). The petrological st ud y of these materiais reveals that igneolls, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks appear: Igneous rocks: ln the studied po lished industry only fine-medium grain dolerites Ｈｾ＠ < I mm) have been identified , as many cases of coarse grain size Ｈｾ＠ > 2 mm) ; in ge neral , with ophitic texture, elinopyroxene partia lly altered to actin olile; plagioelase, also partiall y transformed in ep idOle; titanomagnetite or leucoxe ne as accessory (Fig. 9.A). Metamo rphic rocks: Many types of metamorp hi c li thologies are present in this st udy. Amongst th em detach the artefacts made in amphibolites, quartzites, mica-schists, metapelites (s.s.) and orthogneis. Implements made in sillimanite (va r, fibrolite) are a1so prese nt and relatively frequents. Sedimentary rocks: Both detrit al rocks (lutites, sandstones and conglomerates) as we ll as carbonated rocks (limestones 5.5. and nummulitic ca1carenites) are idenlified. Sandstones present in general quartz predominance, with the presence of fe ldspars, and e1ay minerais, ox ides, zircon and lOurma line, as accessory minerais (Fig. 9.B). Furth ermore, many smoot hers made in gree njasper and many fragments ofblackjasper, are documented, - Alberite I Dolmen (Villama rt in , Cád iz). Neolithic. V- IV millenniums B.C. This dolmen is a good exampie of lhe Megalith.ic phenomenon in the South of Iberian Pen insul a. It was excavaled in 1993 by RamosMun oz and Giles (1996) and shows a typical corridor structure, oriented E-W, and a final chamber with on1y two inhumations. Walls are decorated in re lief and painted with red pigments. The materiais reCQvered from this excavation consist in a necklace wi lh 1200 beads of shell , bone, stone (130 gree n beads of va riscite and 1wo beads in amber). Polished axe, adze and gauge, many big nint kni ves (20 cm in long), one idol in sLOne, one big crysta l of quartz, a stone palette and a mllllet for pigment preparation, wit h presence in it of powdered hematile and cin nabar. Materiais and possible provenance areas are studied by Dominguez-Bella and Morata (1995 and 1996), and they confirm lhe ex istence in this geographical area of a developed network of interchange for a great nllmber of exolic materiai s, Dom inguez-Bella et aI. (2002a), related with a peculiar status of prestige in many indi vidua is of lhe social groups that Iive in this area at V- IV millenniums B.C. Petrological characteriza tion of lhese materiais give as result lhe prese nce of do leri te in a big axe (aprox.: 50 cm long) and the palette and mu llet for pigmen t preparation; an amphibolite axe-adze (Fig. 9.C); a gauge made in metavolcanic turf (Fig. 9.D); variscite, limestone and amber beads, a big crysta l of quartz and certain quantity of powdered red ochre (hematite and cinnaba r). The raw material sources for lhe majority ofthese materiais present an origin at hundred or more kilometres of distance at the North of Cad iz, Dominguez-Bella and Morata (1995, 1996). Archaeological sites from the III-II millennium transition in Central Andalusia. Province of Jaén ln this geographical area, in the centre of Guadalquivir Valley, a 10t or important archaeological sites exist, in Raw maferiais in file Neo/irhic-Aeneo/ilhic o/lhe Iberian Peninsufa 35 Fig. 9.A. - Mierograph of a fin seclion of a dolerite axe. AI/anlie Balld ofCádiz (SW Spain). Crossed polars. Widrh ofphoTO = 6 mm. ｾＮ <;: Fig. 9.8. - Micrograph of a mllllel made iII sandslone. Las Vinas. Ctidiz (SW Spain). Crossed polars. Width of photo = 6 mm. Ｍ ｾ＠ 1M t cM : 11) *' e Fig. 9.C.- Microgroph of o fin seeriol1 of ali amphibolite axec Alberite I Dolmeu, Cád;z (SW Spain). Crossed polars. Widtil of photo = 6mm. general open air settlements and villages, as occur in EI Berrai sile, (Porcuna, Jaén); with the presence of sedimentary (red, brown and grey sandstones and many flint); metamorphic (quarlzite) and igneous (dolerites), in general of local origin (dolerite from oulCrops placed ;1 ..... $$1 Fig. 9.D.- Micrograph offin section ofa gauge made iII a volcanic tuff, ligthly meramorphized. Alberite I Dolmen. Neolirhic. polars. Width of piloto == ｃｲｯｳｾＬ･､＠ 6 mm. at lhe South of El Berrai) and quartzites, sa ndston es and flint of local secondary origin, associated to quaternary fluvial deposits of the Salado river, near lhe archaeological sile, Sanchez and Dominguez-Bella (2001). SloI'ak G(>ol. Mag. , 10. I 1(004). 17 42 36 Archaeological sites from the VI-II millenniums in Central Andalusia. Malaga Province - The Ronda Basin a rea (Malaga), is slightly placed aL Lhe SouLh or the Central Andalusia, over a postorogeni c sedimentary basin, form ed by malasses, gcneratcd by lhe fast erosion of lhe Betic alpine chain. The most abundant materiais are the molasses of Lhe Upper Mioce ne; flyschs mat e riais, dominaLed by the Aljibe sandstones, limeston es, dolomites and ma ris from the Subbetico anel Penibctico, with ages fram Jurassic to Cretaceous; dolomiles, clays anel gypsums of lhe Triassic (Kcupcr facies), wilh dolerite outcrops included, Palaeozoic materiais (s lates, greywackes, limestones, phyllites, schislS, gneises and mi gmatites) from th e Malaguide and Alpuj arrid e anel lhe peridotit es of lhe Serrania de Ronda. A study of Sierra et aI. (1994), on a sa mple of 250 stone objccts shows lhe presence of dolerites as predomi- nant igneous-subvo lcanic rocks, employed in lhe elaboration of big axes; also sedi mentary rocks as sa ndstones, limestones (det rital Iimestone, lim estone with microrossiIs); and metamorphic rocks as quanzites, gne ises, schist, si llimanite. amphibolite and amphibolite gneises. Basa lt, ga bbro, gneiss with ga rn et, marble, apliLe, pegmatit e, and qua rtz-sc hist, occasionally appear (Fig. 7 Ronda Basin). Dolerites, sa ndstones, many lim estones. present a cl ear local origino Other lithologies have possibly an allochthonous origi no Ardales - Rio Turón Valley. This area of the NorLh of Lhe Malaga province is placed aL the East of the Depresión de Ronda. in a slrategic palh of communication belween lhe coast and the Guadalquivir Basin , along the Guadalteba and Guadalhorce Ri vers. A considerable number of open air sett lcments. workshops and vi llages from III 'd to ll nd millenniums, with silos, artificial caves, ele. are doeumenled. The polished industry prese nt a dominance of igneous subvolcanic rocks, with a 70 % of dolerites, with typieal min eralogical and lextural features of these roeks associated wiLh Triass ic materiais in the Betic co rdill eras. Amphibolites represent a 11 ,54 %. Sandstones, calca reous sa ndstones, milky quart z from metamorphic rocks veins and a mullet of magnetite also appear, DominguezBella eLa I. , (2001c; Fig. 7: Ardales). Oth er pres Lige maLeriais as green micas or marble appear in eollar beads and ston e bracelels (Fig. lO.C-D). Pe rid otites are not present in the archaeological register even though there are ou tcrops of this material presem in this area. Archaeological sites from the NeolithicAeneolithic of East Andalusia. Province of Granada. This geographical a rea, placed near lhe central part of the Beti c Cordi llera, is domi nated by the Sierra "'evada mountains and many planar allu via l extensions in La Vega, etc. A good exam ple ofth e petrological studi es a pplied to the eharacteriza tion of polished industries in lhe rece nt prehistory 01' thi s area, are the sludi es of Ca rrion a nd Gomez (J 983). The domin ant lithologies in Lhis area, in the different periods of Neolithic and Acneolilhi c, ca n be see n in (Fig.7 Montefri o, Ca ri guela and Haza de Ocon, S E. Spain), in which three exa mples of a rchaeologieal sites appear from three differe nt chronologies (Earl y- Medium Neolilhic, in Cueva de la Cariguela. Pinar); (Final NeoliLhic in Los CasLillejos, MonLefrio) and (Aeneolithic in Haza de Ocon, Pinar), ali in Granada province (S E. Spain). DoleriLes a nd amphibolites are the dominant lithologies, with a great use of metamorphic rocks as schislS, eclogites, and phyllite, ali with a regional origin, associated to the nuclells ZQne of lhe Betic Cordill e ra , in Sierra Nevada. li is remarkable Lhe presence ofse rpen tinite in the last periods of th e recent preh istory, a material also present in the arca of Sierra Nevada and of volcanic rocks as the olivine basalls. andesites, meLabasites and ga bb ros. Finally, th e prese nce of ma rble in Lhe Early Neo li thi c a nd in th e Ae neolithic or this a rea, and ils highly relation with the bracelets and coll ar beads elaboration, is an inleresting questiono ln the archaeological registe r of the Cueva de la Carigue la, Ca rri on and Gomez (1983) es timated thaL two types of marbles are present; one of these Wi lh a provenance centred in lhe Nevado-Filabride Comp lex, in Sierra Nevada, a very important zone of marble outcrops, with famous 10ca Jiti es of anden t and actual production of marbles, as Macael. The ot her 50 %, acco rd ing to these au lh ors, has an allochlhonolls origino in the Sierra Morena area, placed at 150 km to lh e wesl. Dolerites are also materiais with an allochthonous origin, placed as we ll in lhe Sierra Morena area. Amphibolitcs are also used in lhe arLcfaCl manufacture, lheir petrologieal fca lures indicate an origi n placed at Sierra Morena, with a poor qualit y and a bad finished, and an olhcr group wilh an origi n in Sierra Nevada, wi th best quality in lhe raw material. ln Lhe Middle Neolithic, marbles, a mph ibol ites and eclogites have a regional origin, in Sie rra Nevada area. with meta basites-metagabbros from the Subbetic Un its and many "ophites" from Sierra Morena. ln th e Late Neo lithic of Lhe Los Cas till ejos village, the amphibolites are lhe mos! used Iilhologies, wi th a local origi n; lhe rest of Jithologies, have a grea t va riety and proceed from Sierra Morena, Subbet ic a nd Alpuja rrid e (sch isls), Carrion and Go mez (1983). ln th e Aeneolithic ort he Haza de Ocon (open ai r settlemenL) and oth er sites as Pena de los Gita nos, amphiboliles are abundant, wi th doleri tes, sch islS and olivine basalts lhat proceed from the Campo de Ca lat rava voleanic area, in CenLraI Spain, placed many hu ndreds of km aL the Nor Lh . OLher sedi me nt ary lithologies as limestones and greywacke are also present in these industries. This temporal conti nuous relation between Sierra Morena and Gra nada area is an inleresling question lO develop future invesligations aboul lhe trade routes for this circulat ion of lithic materiais along the prchisLory. Raw I1/Glerials in lhe Neoli,hic-Aen(!olilhic o/lhe Iberian Penillsula 37 Fig. IO.A. - Sillimanite /iale adze. Cadiz proviflce (SW Spain). Neolithic. (4 cm. long). Fig. 10.B. Micrograph of a lin sec/ion of the some object, witll the typical fibrolite nodules aspecto Crossed polars. Widlh of piloto "" /,5 mm. Fig. IO.C.- Marble braceIe!. Ardales (Málaga, SW Spaill){aprox. 9cl1I. diameler) Fig. IO.D. - MicrograpJt of a tJtin sectiot1 of ("is bracelel. Crossed po/ars. Widlh of phOlO '" 8 mm. Neolithic. General remarks about raw materiais use in Spain ai, (1998), etc. H oweve r, in man)' geographic arcas and for many temporal periods 01' lhe recent Prehistory, it is not strange the presence of olivine basalts type volcanic rocks, as the ones proceeding rrom the Campo de Calatrava vo\canic area, Central Spain. lhe basalts, reported by Philips (1975), are also ver)' abundant in the axcs manufacture in the Barcelona region or the volcanic metaturrs as the one appeared in the Dolmen or Alberite I (Neolithic), surely coming rrom the volcano-sedimentary materiais 01' the Ossa-Morena Zone, a1 the South ar Hesperica Massir (Fig. 9.0). ln same cases these lithologies are used in the manufacture of objects as lhe grooved mining hammers, Noccte and Linares (1999), Oomínguez-Bella (2003; Fig.8.C), 01' great resistance to the mechanical impact, gcnera\ly made in dolerites or porphyry dolerites, as occurs in lhe copper mining activity 01' the recent prehistory in Sierra Morena arca (North Andalusia), Domínguez-Bella et al., (200Ib). Preslige objects also were made in dolerite, sueh as the plate or palette, ror red pigments preparation , s. Oominguez-Bclla From lhe statistical sludies made on lhe possible relalions between the lithology and the typo logy or the lithic implements, wc can deduce as first conclusion , lhe ex iSlence of a predominance of lithologies with high resistance to the wear and a good mechanical behaviour (not rragile, high or mcclium-high hardness, good polish, etc.), Oomínguez-Bella et aI. (2000). Among this type or lithologies, igneous rocks predominate, in general dolerites (Fig. 9.A) and diabases, wide ly clistributed by ali the Iberian Peninsula and specially in the Triassic units or the External Zones or the Belic Cordilleras, Morata (1993). This type or igneous rocks are frequcnt practically in many zones ofthe lberian Pcninsula, specially in South anel SE Spain, Dominguez-Bella and Morata (1998), Dominguez-Bella et aI. (2002b), Carrion and Gomez (1983), Pérez Rodriguez et Slovak Geol. Mag. , 10, 1- 2(1004), /7-42 38 from th e burial chamber of the Alberite I dolmen. The peridolites, a high hardness lithology, as they appear in the Serrania de Ronda, in Andalusia, have hardly becn ulilised as raw material in lhe prehistory, perhaps beca use in lh e surface Df lh e oulcrops, the rock s appeared strongly serpentinized, Sierra et aI., (1994). Pegmatites and aplites have identical or similar uses to the alrea dy mentioned for lhe subvolca ni c rocks, ii is a150 possible to quote other materiais as lhe massive quartz fram hydrothermal ve ins, lhat are ve ry used in lh e Tecent Prehistory, specia ll y in lhe manufacture af objects south half of the Pen insula , as ane af lh e raw mate ria is basic in the elaboration o f stone bracelets (Fig. IO.C-O), whose aesthelic change along th e Neolithic and Aeneolithic, or id ols and pendants. Sedim e ntary rocks are widely eXlcnded in lhe pe nin· sular archaeo logical registe r; th ey cou ld be lithologies generall y utilised in th e man ufact ure of objects for milling works (Fig.8.D; sandstones, conglomerates, greywackes, bio-calcarenites - Fig.9.B), decorative or o f perso nal adornment (coll ar beads in limeston e). Also in objeets associated to other aClivities as the 100m weights (limes· related with lh e milling processes, as wc ca n observe in tones, dolomites), th e "a rcher bracelets" (sa nd y Iimesto- Neolithic-Aeneolithic sites as Ardales (Málaga). The metamorphic lithologies are also very abundant nes, (limestones, flint, jasper), idols (alabaster, limestones), in lhe raw materiais register of lhe peninsula, being stone cups or mortars (marmoreallimestones) Nocete et dominated by th e amphibo lites (Fig.9.C), of different aI., (1995), Oomínguez-Bella (2003), etc. types and o ri gin s, specia ll y in the East part af Po rtugal and Wesl Spain, also in oth eTo utcrops o fth e inne r zo nes Jaspers, with differe nt co lo rati ons and textures ) appe· ar in too ls, usually o f littl e s ize and wit h a wide and var i· ed dislribution, in ge nera l around or near lhe possible so urce areas, as the OssawMorena Zo ne, in lh e SW penin· suIar. It is very scarce in the Betic Cordi ll e ra geological of the Betic Co rdillera. They appeared in th e arehaeologica l register af alm ast ali the lberian Peninsula, ex isting an impo rtant distribution phenome no n of this type af materiais, Philips (1994), as was deduced from th e source areas and archaeolagica l di stribution correlation, Car· rion and Gomez (1983), Cardoso et aI., (1995), Read et aI., (1997), Ri sch (1995). These litho logies are very employed fo r the cutting tools manufacture, made by th e polishing technique (axes, adzes, ch isels, ga uges, etc.). Othe r metamorphic Iithologies as are lhe schisl and sla· tes (black slates, chiastolitic slates, etc.) appear eq ually very dislribuled, they are speeially used in lh e manufacture of certain objects such as "archer bracelets", typical in lhe Wesl and Soulh of Iberi an Peninsul a or th e stone braceleis, ve ry abundant in Andalus ia and Levam, having been loca li zed areas of supp ly raw materiais and of lran sformation o f lh e same, as occurs with lh e slates ex tracti o n and manufac ture area o f Cabecicos Negras in Almería, (SE Spain), Ooni et aI., (1999). Eclogite appears s lates, schi sts), lh e sm oot he rs for ceramic materiais, with a probably allochthonous ori gin in many archaeologicaJ sites of the South ; probably in lhe Hercynian Massif. It is also cited in olher Ibe rian zones as Catalonia. Othe r min era is, racks and fossil resins, as the va ri scite, jet o r amber, appear wilh certam frequency in the rece nt Prehistory of the Iberian Peninsula. Tbe most frequ ent is the variscite, Munoz-Amilibia (1971) Salvado CaneIhas (197 3) Fernández and Pérez Ca namares (1988) Blaseo et aI., (1992) Domínguez-Bella and Morata (1995 and 1996) Guerra et aI., (1995) Rojo et aI., (1995) Edo et aI., (1997) Oominguez-Bella el aI. , (2002a) Pozo et aI., (2002), already treated in ex tension in an other chapter of this book. Amber, aithough not very studied in the Iberian Pen insula (Oom inguez-Bella and Morata 1995), has alm ost exclusive ly in th e manufaclure o f axes and adzes , in areas of th e SE peninsular, in relation with lhe source areas ofS ierra Nevada , in lh e inner o f lhe Betie Cordillc· ra ; othe r poss ibl e source areas are th e o utcraps fram lhe bee n cited in many megalithic burials as the Dolmen of Alberite I in Andalusia , where two recovered collar beads mad e in amber have been identified as Sim etite, an NW of th e peninsula. Hornfelses are an abundant litho- after the ir compa ra tive study with many geologic refe rence materia is from Eurape and Iberi an Pe ninsu la, Domín· logy in many areas, as occu r in the NE af th e peni nsula, where lhey we re empl oyed in th e manufacture of mining picks, etc., Alvarez and Clop (1994 and 1998). On th e oth er hand, many lithologies a bit less frequen t, as the si llimanit e, gene rall y co rrespond with toa is of little size and a very good finishing (Fig. IO.A-B), although in many cases we re e labarated with lhis lith o logy "prest ige o r ee remo nial" axes, as the o nes that appear in the Ca ntabrian Co rni ce and in th e East of France, and with a wide geograp hical distribution. Quartziles, a geologica ll y very abu ndan t material in the Ibe ri an Peninsula, are not very frequent in the poli s· hed Iithi c indu stry, appearing occasiona lly in adzes or liul e axes; it is more ab undant their presence in tools related with the milling processes. Marble, appears wi lh quite frequency, specia l1y in th e amber variely original from the Simeto river (Siei ly), guez-Bella et aI., (2001a). Other collar beads are found , still in study, Oomin guez-Bella (in press), proceeding from burials in tumulus of the Va lle de las Higueras (Toledo, Central Spain), Bueno et aI., (2000) and a great number of collar beads found in the North Spain, Portugal, G uada lquivir Va lley, etc., but they have not studied up to lh e moment. The sarne occurs wilhjel, whi ch appears in many Neo· lithic and Aeneolithic sites, but whi ch has not been arc haeome tri cally characterised. Many ana lyt ic st udies have been made on lh e collar beads, bOlh in green stones thal correspo nd wi th muscovites , ch lorites, tale, etc. (Huel B. Gonçalves and Reis (1982), Fernández and Pérez (1988)) as well as with oth er new samples, recentl y recovered in archaeo logical surveys, wi lh lh e prese nce of Raw materiais in lhe Neo/ilhic-Aeneolilhic of lhe Iberian Peninsula 39 raw mate riaI s as clinochlore, id ocrase, etc., Domín guezBella (in press), not cilcd lil! lhe mome nl in lhe a rchaeological mate riaI s of lberian Pe ninsula. ln general, a grea t proportion of anal ysed lithic resources, e mployed for th e polished lithic instrum ents production in th e lberian Pe ninsula, have a local o ri gin o Qua rry acti yiti es for igneo us and m etamorphi c rocks ex tracti on a re rarel)' doc um e nted to date in thi s geog raphi cal area, with many exce ptions, Linares el aI., (1 997), Nocete a nd Lina res ( 1999). Th e ca tchm e nl of lhese raw materi aIs should have bee n eas)' in ma ny geological conlexts, in whi ch apjJea r ston e blocks formed b)' natura l frac turation (fo r exa mpl e, lhe num ero us dolerite outcro ps of lhe SSW of Andalu sia a nd Leva nt) Morala (1 993). Th e poli shed lithic instrume nlal produ cti on process, re lated to th e ca tchm ent of raw mate ri al phase, was probabl y easily realised. ln th e do lerile and olh er ign eous rocks out crops, it is habitual th e existence of natura l blocks, ori ginated b)' diaclasas Df di sjuncti on natura l processes, th al facilita te lh e obta ining of th e bloc ks for ulleri or wo rkin g. Acknoledgments Authors are gra tefull y to Dr. J. Ramos Mu noz, Dr. D. Howo rka and Dr. B. A. Voytek, for his criti caI review of th e text, co mm e nts a nd suggesti ons. To Ms. Ana Du ra nte fo r her patient lecture a nd edi to ri a l ass ista nce. To Ms. Ma ri a Sanchez for th e help in lhe gra phic ela boration . S. Dom inguez-Bella lh an ks to the Di reccion Ge ne ral de Bie nes Cultura les de la Jun ta de Anda lu cía (ACC-241RNM-2 001 ) a ml lo lhe ProjccI PB96- 1520 of the DGES, Spani sh Ministry 01' Ed uca ti on an d Science, for fin a ncia i support of ma ny of o ur in ves tigati ons. D . Calado a nd J.L. Ca rd oso a re grate full y to Dr. J. M. Nieto, Dr. R. Saéz and V. Sayer. A. Ta rrino lhan ks to th e Prof. Luis Eguilu z Alarco n lhe help done in lhe igneo us and metam or phic roc ks dete rm ina lion . Finally, thi s autho r lha nk s a lso to Basqu e Gove rn me nt for th e postdocloral researeh form a ti on granl, reI'. BFI01.384 Mod . D K. References Alvarez A. & Clop X. 1994: Estudi petrografle de la indústria litica i dei macro ut illatge lítico ln: Bosch/Estrada, 1994: pp. 231·254. Alvarez A. & Clop X. 1998: Determinación de la materia prima de i ulil· laje minero de las minas neolíticas de Gava (Barcelona). l n: BOSC H/ TE RRADAS/OROZCO, 1998: pp. 145-152. 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