energies
Article
Efficient Shading Device as an Important Part of Daylightophil
Architecture; a Designerly Framework of High-Performance
Architecture for an Office Building in Tehran
Hassan Bazazzadeh 1, * , Barbara Świt-Jankowska 1 , Nasim Fazeli 2 , Adam Nadolny 1 , Behnaz Safar ali najar 3 ,
Seyedeh sara Hashemi safaei 3 and Mohammadjavad Mahdavinejad 2
1
2
3
*
Citation: Bazazzadeh, H.;
Świt-Jankowska, B.; Fazeli, N.;
Nadolny, A.; Safar ali najar, B.;
Hashemi safaei, S.s.; Mahdavinejad,
M. Efficient Shading Device as an
Important Part of Daylightophil
Architecture; a Designerly
Framework of High-Performance
Architecture for an Office Building in
Tehran. Energies 2021, 14, 8272.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en14248272
Academic Editor: Tullio De Rubeis
Received: 11 October 2021
Accepted: 2 December 2021
Published: 8 December 2021
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affiliations.
Faculty of Architecture, Poznan University of Technology, 61-131 Poznan, Poland;
barbara.swit-jankowska@put.poznan.pl (B.Ś.-J.); adam.nadolny@put.poznan.pl (A.N.)
Department of Architecture, Faculty of Art and Architecture, Tarbiat Modares University,
Tehran 14115-111, Iran; nasim.fazeli@modares.ac.ir (N.F.); mahdavinejad@modares.ac.ir (M.M.)
Faculty of Architecture, Jundi-Shapur University of Technology, Dezfu l334-64615, Iran;
behnaz.najar@jsu.ac.ir (B.S.a.n.); sarahashemii92@gmail.com (S.s.H.s.)
Correspondence: Hassan.bazazzadeh@doctorate.put.poznan.pl; Tel.: +48-503945736
Abstract: (1) Background: considering multiple, and somehow conflicting, design objectives can
potentially make achieving a high-performance design a complex task to perform. For instance,
shading devices can dramatically affect the building performance in various ways, such as energy
consumption and daylight. This paper introduces a novel procedure for designing shading devices as
an integral part of daylightophil architecture for office buildings by considering daylight and energy
performance as objectives to be optimal. (2) Methods: to address the topic, a three-step research
method was used. Firstly, three different window shades (fixed and dynamic) were modeled, one of
which was inspired by traditional Iranian structures, as the main options for evaluation. Secondly,
each option was evaluated for energy performance and daylight-related variables in critical days
throughout the year in terms of climatic conditions and daylight situations (equinoxes and solstices
including 20 March, 21 June, 22 September, and 21 December). Finally, to achieve a reliable result,
apart from the results of the comparison of three options, all possible options for fixed and dynamic
shades were analyzed through a multi-objective optimization to compare fixed and dynamic options
and to find the optimal condition for dynamic options at different times of the day. (3) Results:
through different stages of analysis, the findings suggest that, firstly, dynamic shading devices are
more efficient than fixed shading devices in terms of energy efficiency, occupants’ visual comfort,
and efficient use of daylight (roughly 10%). Moreover, through analyzing dynamic shading devices
in different seasons and different times of the year, the optimal form of this shading device was
determined. The results indicate that considering proper shading devices can have a significant
improvement on achieving high-performance architecture in office buildings. This implies good
potential for daylightophil architecture, but would require further studies to be confirmed as a
principle for designing office buildings.
Keywords: high-performance architecture; optimization; daylightophil architecture; shading device;
daylight; building energy usage
1. Introduction
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Daylight, as a renewable and permanent source, has positive effects on building
occupants, including psychological, mental, and physiological. The dynamic nature of
daylight can cause issues such as heat gain and visual discomfort, which need to be
controlled in real-time operation [1]. In 2020, even while economies bent under the weight
of COVID-19 lockdowns, renewable sources of energy continued to grow rapidly, and
electric vehicles set new sales records. More than 40% of the actions required are costeffective. Space heating in the European Union accounts for 60% of energy demand
Energies 2021, 14, 8272. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14248272
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2021, 14, 8272
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and 80% of direct CO2 emissions in the building sector [2]. Global energy consumption
growth declined by 4% in 2020, in the context of the global pandemic, contrasting with
an average 2%/year over the 2000–2018 period and a 0.8% slowdown in 2019 [3]. In the
European Union (EU), they can potentially reduce the EU’s total energy consumption by
5–6% and lower CO2 emissions by about 5% [4]. Daily data collected for more than 30
countries, representing over one-third of global electricity demand, show that the extent
of demand declines depends on the duration and stringency of lockdowns. On average
we find that every month of full lockdown reduced the demand by 20% on average, or
over 1.5% on an annual basis [5]. Therefore, focusing on methods to optimize the energy
efficiency and promoting sustainability in the building’s component while considering the
quality of indoor spaces has been one of the trend topics among researchers [6–13]. In Iran,
artificial lighting is reported to contribute up to 25% of electricity consumption in office
buildings [14]. Considering the significance of sustainable and efficient buildings in the
rate of energy consumption in the total energy consumption rate [15,16], it is, therefore,
important to develop methods to minimize the electricity usage for lighting through best
practice design decisions [17].
One efficient method is to utilize daylight in buildings which is a common way of
reducing energy consumption since it reduces the need for artificial lightings during the
day and, thus, the reduction of electricity usage [18]. In response, smart design approaches
on the type, pattern, size of shading device, and the effect of daylight on occupant behavior
have been investigated in several studies [19–22].
Nowadays, there are many highly glazed facades, which provide daylight and pleasant external views. At the same time, the risks of having high thermal loads should be
considered in the design stage by using shading devices and controlling shading patterns
in facades with large windows or transparent elements [23,24]. Several designs for building façades have been developed to provide comfortable conditions for occupants [1]. A
comprehensive and multi-objective framework for designing shading devices has been
suggested by scholars, in which there are two main steps: (1) the search of non-dominant
solutions and (2) multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) [25]. Accordingly, the optimization of shading devices design in buildings normally involves making a balance of the
following objectives: maximizing energy efficiency through daylight and improving the
occupants’ visual comfort.
The literature in modeling and simulation of shading devices deals with models for
calculating solar properties of shading devices and approaches for obtaining these results
by using building energy simulation tools. Moreover, the influence of the orientation of the
shading system was examined. Some of the relevant research is shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Selected research and methods.
Reference
[26]
Dutta et al.
(2017)
[27]
Investigated an automatic movable
exterior shading system, associated
with the sun path.
The results showed that the view factor
models cannot be efficient because the
cooling energy demand and the peak
power were underestimated; additionally
the authors did not consider internal
reflections in the shading system.
The authors observed that the use of
movable shading devices caused an
annual reduction in energy consumption
of about 9.8%, varying from 14.9% in
summer to 4.5% in winter.
Saelens et al.
(2014)
Used a ray-tracing method to explain
the total solar transmission of shading
systems.
Results
Authors
(year)
Method
Energies 2021, 14, 8272
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Table 1. Cont.
Reference
[28]
[30]
The results revealed that simple metrics,
such as Eh-room and Eh-task,
outperformed more complex evaluation
metrics, such as Daylight Autonomy (DA),
when studying visual comfort.
A comparison of the most used control
functions and their implications on
user comfort and energy load in
different climatic zones.
Results showed that climatic conditions
impact the shading control scenario
significantly and the optimal scenario was
an open-loop algorithm based on direct
solar radiation due to the earlier
activation of blind closure to block solar
radiation while increasing lighting load at
the same time.
Photovoltaic integrated shading
devices and provided a reference for
future studies.
[32]
An adaptive solar skin
[31]
[29]
A comparison of current metrics with
human visual perception to analyze
the applicability of the developed
EBD-SIM framework (evidence-based
design-simulation) was performed
through computer simulation and
questionnaires, both instantaneously
and annually.
Compared and classified several types
of shading devices by using a
systematic approach to identify
patterns and trends.
Tabadkani
Zhang
et al. (2018) et al. (2019)
Results showed that there are three
recognized categories of solar shading
systems based on the energy contribution:
(1) active systems, (2) passive systems,
and (3) hybrid systems linked with a
biomimetic approach.
Results showed that photovoltaic
integrated shading devices should adapt
under several design conditions, such as
position, orientation, and others.
A parametric approach was developed for
an office block in Tehran to analyze
point-in-time illuminance (PIT) and visual
discomfort occurrence, using Honeybee
plug-in.
Tabadkani et al.
(2021)
The results showed that all the shading
systems are not the same efficiency.
Davoodi et al.
(2020)
Investigated the role of in-stalling
shading devices to improve thermal
comfort and keep adequate
illuminance levels in existing
buildings characterized by glazed
surfaces.
Masrani
et al. (2018)
In this research, to estimate the daylight
control system and evaluate the
performance of the system, a building
energy model, a daylight model, and a
Kriging model were combined.
Evola et al.
(2017)
Implemented a method for evaluating
a new daylight control system to the
analysis of a new dynamically tunable
system.
Yi et al.
(2018)
Results
Authors
(year)
Method
[33]
[34]
On the other hand, the source of inspiration for designing a shading device in this
project was one of the ornamental elements in the historic architecture of Iran. Muqarnas
(used ornaments), indeed, is one of the most sophisticated ornaments, which has been
considered a symbol of Islamic architecture [35]. Muqarnas originally belongs to the early
10th century, and they have changed to a great extent over time in terms of their design and
construction methods in different geographical areas, from East Asia to Spain and West
Africa [36]. It is considered a complex element for decoration that initially aims to create
3D facades involving shadow and light by using unparalleled lines and to develop more
surfaces to apply more micro decorations [37]. Although there are four different types of
muqarnas based on 3D geometry and 2D pattern plan [38], in their geometric patterns, the
Energies 2021, 14, 8272
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existence of a five-pointed star‐ and pentagonal shape is common [39]. Used to respond
‐
to the required light in space, the five-pointed star
and pentagonal shape have formed
dynamic and fixed shading devices, respectively, through an accurate parametric modeling
process in grasshopper coupled with Rhinoceros 3D software (Figure 1).
Figure 1. The process of forming a fixed and dynamic shading pattern.
Thus, this research tries to address the challenge of designing an optimal window
for office spaces by which the rate of energy consumption would be low and the rate of‐
occupants’ visual comfort would be high. However, this paper goes further to fulfill this gap
by analyzing the results of the multi-objective
evaluation and developing a computerized
‐
model of responsive envelope based on visual comforts index assessment: the evaluation
of Daylight Autonomy (DA) and Useful Daylight Illuminance (UDI), Daylight Glare Index
(DGI), Daylight Glare Probability (DGP), energy consumption, and, more specifically,‐
Energy Use Intensity (EUI) to achieve the features of an efficient envelope.
To that purpose, different daylight and shading strategies coupled with energy effi-‐
ciency objectives have been investigated by scholars [40–42]. Similarly, this study aims
to develop a protocol for optimization of a sun responsive shading device, by which the‐
energy usage by optimized daylight performance would be achievable. Thus, a comprehen-‐
sive review of the current state of literature of the optimization of dynamic shading devices‐
and design of shading device for energy efficiency and optimized daylight is followed by‐
the proposed methodology and an example of its implementation. This research aims to
study the effect of dynamics parametric facades on optimal control of glare and access to
maximum optimal illuminance in an office room.
2. Materials and Methods
To optimize the shading device, this study proposes a framework for the evaluation
of Daylight Autonomy (DA) and Useful Daylight Illuminance (UDI), Daylight Glare Index
(DGI), Daylight Glare Probability (DGP), energy consumption, and, more specifically,
Energy Use Intensity (EUI) in office buildings and employs an optimization method to
minimize the energy consumption and optimize the daylight. To see the detailed research
workflow, see Figure 2.
‐
5 of 26 ‐
Energies 2021, 14, 8272
Figure 2. Research workflow.
The basic measurements in the process of optimization are performed by performance ‐
simulation software. Then, this method will be checked in a case study of a typical
office building located in Tehran, Iran, to determine the most appropriate shading device
dimensions. The results from the application of the suggested optimization method in the
studied case will be followed by a thorough discussion of the selection criteria (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Simulation workflow.
Energies 2021, 14, 8272
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In this respect, the proposed models of shading devices for the studied office building
were parametrically modeled in Rhinoceros using the Grasshopper plugin. Generated
patterns were then used as the shading device of the window in the studied office space
(Figure 4). In the next stage, different analysis, according to the goal of this research, was
performed including energy performance analysis (Energyplus and Honeybee), daylightrelated variables, and occupants’ visual comfort (Ladybug and Honeybee). Simultaneously,
to have a general comparison between fixed and dynamic options and to find the optimal
‐
opening ratio of dynamic options, a multi-objective optimization by using the Colibri
component in Grasshopper was performed.
Figure 4. Modelling shading patterns and using them as shading device.
To begin with, the simulation process of this paper comprises of two parts. Before
modeling shading devices, to validate the model, MIT Reference Office was used as the
base model, and then required modifications were added to turn it into our case study [43].
Firstly, the initial idea of shading design in this research is derived from Chinese knot
patterns and “Muqarnas” in Iranian architecture
Secondly, light and energy consumption of the case study were simulated using
Ladybug and Honeybee plugins in Grasshopper. The dates used for simulation were the
spring equinox (3/20), the summer solstice (6/21), fall equinox (9/22), and the winter
solstice as (12/21). These days are the most critical in terms of daylight, which was why the
performance of the case study on these days would check the workability of the proposed
shading device throughout the year according to previous studies. In this way, on the
selected days, the position of the sun is the highest, lowest, or in the middle, and the
lengths of daytime are the longest, shortest, and in the middle range. Thus, patterns of
daylight, from only these 4 days, could be fully understood. This method has been used
widely in the analysis of daylight and its impact on the performance of the windows and
‐
‐
‐
Energies 2021, 14, 8272
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the building [44,45]. The case study for analysis was a simple south-facing
‐ office room (like
the Reinhart reference room) in an office building in District 6 of Tehran (Figure 5).
Figure 5. Simulated office building and office room plan.
In this study, to simulate and control selected variables, some assumptions were‐
considered, which are described below (Table 2). Based on Tehran climatic data, dynamic
shading and reflection of the sun were selected from the average sky with the sun by CIE
standard for instantaneous calculations and annual calculations of the sky based on climatic‐
data. The simulation has been
conducted
forfor
working hours from 7:00 to 18:00. Energy
has been
conducted
simulations are performed annually and daily in four critical days throughout the year and
over a one-day ‐and 24-h interval,
followed by three 9-h values.
In addition, for simulating‐
‐
‐
daylight for glare and brightness analysis, three times, 9:00, 12:00, and 15:00, during these
four days were considered for energy optimization and to select simultaneous optimization‐
of light and energy. The cooling and heating fuel is electricity. The thermal loads and
coefficients included in the models of this research are based on the configurations and
application of defaults to Honeybee algorithms for closed and open office space.
Table 2. Default settings of air flow coefficients in calculating heat loads [46].
Space Type
ASHRAE 2004-1. 62 Guide
Office
Conference room
Office: Office space
Office: Conference/Meeting
Restaurant: Restaurant and dining
room
Office: Office space
Office: Office space
Office: Office space
Office: Office space
Public space: corridor
Office: Office space
Rest room
Elevator
W.C
Step
Office lobby
Hallway and corridor
IT Room
Air Conditioning Per
Person (cfm/Person)
Ventilation Per
Area (Cfm/ft2 )
5
5
0.06
0.06
7.5
0.18
0
0
0
5
0
5
0.00
1.04
0.00
0.06
0.06
0.06
‐
Energies 2021, 14, 8272
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In the simulation of energy plus energy output, the wall materials were designed and
selected according to the status quo, and in the simulation of daylight and radiance analysis,
the reflection of interior walls, floor, and room ceilings were 50, 20, and 70, respectively.
The percentages for the outer walls are 50% for the inner envelope section and 35% for the
outer envelope [47]. U-values are ‐calculated using Honeybee_EnergyPlus Construction by
adding different layers of materials in each envelope according to the construction details
of the case study (Figure 6).
‐
Figure 6. U-value
calculations.
The U-value for the outer wall is assumed to be 0.365 W/m2 K. Double-glazed window
glass is transparent and uncoated, with a visible light transmission coefficient of 77%, a
U-value of 0.65 W/m2 K, and a reflectance coefficient of 1.52 (Table 3).
Table 3. Window features.
Type
Visible Light Coefficient (%)
U-Value (W/m2 K)
WWR (%)
Double Glazing
77
5
40
Window dimensions: for envelope optimization, the ratio of window to wall area is
assumed to be 40%. The floor of the North and South windows is 80 cm from the inside
floor and the size of the window above the finished ceiling is 26 cm.
Daylight Sensors: the sensors predicted for this room are located 0.5 m away from
each other at the height of 80 cm (Figure 7).
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
Energies 2021, 14, 8272
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Figure 7. Optical sensors considered in sample office room.
Semi-transparent
dynamic external envelope defaults: the envelope material is semi‐
transparent with a reflectance coefficient of 35%. The semi-transparent
materials pass
‐
through part of the light but scatter part of it all around. In this study, to evaluate the
envelope performance, shaded window options, fixed shading with 20% pop-up, 70%
‐
pop-up, and finally parametric with minimum and maximum pop-ups between 70–20%
‐
‐
were considered.
Other settings: since the radiance software calculates the interior light with reflection
spectra and reflections from the surrounding environment, it was chosen to increase the
accuracy of the simulation settings as set out below. These settings were selected assuming
the case samples and the radiance defaults were to achieve higher accuracy, less fluctuation,
and error (Table 4).
Table 4. Simulation variables in radiance software with good precision.
ab: Number of Ambient Bounces
ad: number of Ambient Divisions
as: Ambient Super-samples
ar: Ambient Resolution
aa: Ambient Accuracy‐
2
512
256
128–250
0.15
3. Discussion and Results
Among the criteria for measuring the dynamic daylight in office space, in this study,
two main indicators, Daylight Autonomy (DA) and Useful Daylight Illuminance (UDI)
were selected for analysis. DA (Daylight Autonomy) is a widely acceptable indicator for
determining the frequency of light for various activities using only daylight [48]. It has
been proven that the threshold for illumination in the office is 300 lux [49], and the daylight
autonomy is shown as 300 DA, which means the average percentage of time in a room
is above 300 lux. The initial stage of study (Figure 8) focused on four different types of
windows, namely: base model (without shading device), type 1 (fixed shaded window with
maximum porosity area of 70%), type 2 (fixed shaded windows with maximum porosity
area of 20%), and type 3 (the dynamic shaded window with minimum and maximum
openings of 20% and 70%, respectively).
‐
‐
‐
Energies 2021, 14, 8272
Daylight Autonomy on Mar. 20th
10 of 26
100%
90%
80%
70%
96%
71%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
36%
10%
18%
9:00
12:00
59%
56%
33%
21%
10%
1%
0%
9:00
Daylight Autonomy on Sep. 22
Daylight Autonomy on Dec. 21st
10%
0%
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
18%
5%
1%
12:00
94%
15:00
Base model (without shading device)
Shading device type 1 (Fixed Shading windows with 20% Openning)
73%
Shading device type 2 (Fixed Shading windows with 70% Openning)
Shading device type 3 (Dynamic Shading windows with 20-70% Openning)
70%
60%
20%
18%
8%
100%
50%
40%
30%
15:00
72%
40%
30%
20%
10%
90%
80%
10%
7%
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
33%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Daylight Autonomy on Jun. 21
67%
55%
64%
55%
42%
32%
22%
12%
32%
17%
15%
6%
9:00
12:00
97%
93%
100%
89%
60%
57%
30%
15:00
37%
44%
32%
30%
18%
9:00
12:00
15:00
Figure 8. Daylight Autonomy analysis on each critical day of the year for each shading device type.
The simulation results imply that while DA was by far higher in shading device type 1
in all studied hours, it showed the biggest differences between studied hours in spring and
fall and the smallest differences in summer and winter. For type 2, the rate of DA did not
show any notable changes of more than 10%, whereas type 3 and type 4 had considerable
changes in their patterns at different times of the year. Therefore, among the studied
alternatives (types 2,3, and 4), in terms of DA percentage, type 3 had the highest rate and it
was followed by type 4, and type 2, respectively (Figure 9).
‐
‐
‐
‐
Energies 2021, 14, 8272
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Shading device type 3 (Dynamic Shading windows with 20-70% Openning)
Shading device type 2 (Fixed Shading windows with 70% Openning)
Shading device type 1 (Fixed Shading windows with 20% Openning)
25%
Base model (without shading device)
Shading device type 3 (Dynamic Shading windows with 20-70% Openning)
Shading device type 2 (Fixed Shading windows with 70% Openning)
43%
Shading device
type 1 (Fixed Shading windows with 20% Openning)
Base model (without shading device)
25%
13%
43%
78%
13%
78%
0%
0%
10%
10%
20%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
Average Daylight Autonomy in 4 critical days of a typical year
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
Average Daylight Autonomy in 4 critical days of a typical year
80%
80%
90%
90%
100%
100%
Figure 9. Average Daylight Autonomy in critical days of a typical year.
The next step in the discussion is studying the effect of constant and dynamic external
shading on useful daylight. To be more precise, the second set of simulation results, such as
daylight autonomy analysis, room illumination in three windowless modes (base model),
and fixed shading, as well as dynamic and responsive parametric shading to establish‐ a
useful daylighting interval between 1800–300 lux based on fundamental studies, [36] has
been analyzed for more space in the room (Figure 10).
Figure 10. Useful Daylight Illuminance of critical days in the base model.
In this regard, the percentages of the average time that the lattice points on the work
surface in the room receive intervals above 1800 lux, below 300 lux, and between 300 and
‐
Energies 2021, 14, 8272
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1800 lux, are calculated. The sensors were positioned at a grid surface of 50 cm in width
and 80 cm from the floor of the room (desk surface). To compare two fixed shading models
with porosity percentages of 20% and 70% and a parametric model with minimum and
maximum percentages of cavity area between 20% and 70%, the results were assumed and
compared with the baseline model (without shading).
The results of the analysis were presented graphically and, finally, the ratio of useful
daylight illumination to the covered area sensor points was compared to study the effects
of shading (Figures 11–13). The results of the useful lighting modeling were analyzed in
intervals above 1800 and between 1800–300. Percentages above 1800 can cause overheating
and excessive temperatures of over 300 due to inadequate daylighting, requiring more
artificial light. One of the advantages of this criterion for Daylight Autonomy was considering three useful intervals, above the maximum and below the threshold. By comparing
graphical analysis (UDI > 1800), it was found that the room without shade received the
highest amount of illumination above optimal, with excessive and average heat. On the
first day of January, the percentages of optimal illumination percentages in shading device
type 2 were 3.12%, 2.08%, and 1.04% at 9 a.m., 12 a.m., and 3 p.m., respectively. The first
results in October showed a 1.04 percent increase in optimal brightness at noon.
Figure 11. Useful Daylight Illuminance of critical days in the model with shading device type 1.
Energies 2021, 14, 8272
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Figure 12. Useful Daylight Illuminance of critical days in the model with shading device type 2.
Figure 13. Useful Daylight Illuminance of critical days in the model with shading device type 3.
Energies 2021, 14, 8272
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Daylight Autonomy on Mar. 20th
Daylight Autonomy on Jun. 21st
Therefore, by comparing the optimal useful brightness and the useful brightness
above the optimal constant brightness envelope with a porosity of 70%, 17.27% more than
the dynamic parametric envelope received daylight usefulness, and 0.06% less than the
dynamic parametric envelope above the maximum brightness (Figure 14). It is desirable
and, in comparison, the performance of a constant envelope with a porosity of 70 is more
than parametric with a minimum and maximum of 20–70.
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
5%
13%
0% 0% 0%
0% 0% 0%
9:00
5% 0% 0% 0%
12:00
15:00
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
20%
18%
0% 0% 0%
16%
1% 1% 1%
0% 0% 0%
9:00
12:00
15:00
Daylight Autonomy on Sep. 22nd
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
21%
18%
3% 4% 3%
0% 0% 0%
9:00
15%
0% 0% 0%
12:00
15:00
Daylight Autonomy on Dec. 21st
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Base model (without shading device)
Shading device type 1 (Fixed Shading windows with 20% Openning)
Shading device type 2 (Fixed Shading windows with 70% Openning)
Shading device type 3 (Dynamic Shading windows with 20-70% Openning)
38%
31%
8%
15%
9:00
11%
9%
19%
25%
10%
12:00
8% 10% 9%
15:00
Figure 14. Useful Daytime Illumination above 1800 lux.
In the next step, different shading devices were analyzed for glare, inside the room.
The observer stands in a room 5 m away from the window and in the middle of the
room while the height of the observer is assumed to be 2 m. Evaluation is done with two
criteria of daylight glare index (DGI) and daylight glare probability (DGP), illustrated in
Figures 15 and 16.
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Figure 15. Daylight Glare Index (DGI) analysis.
Energies 2021, 14, 8272
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0.40
DGP on Jun. 21st
0.35
0.30
0.273 0.264
0.272
0.25
0.284
0.246
0.282 0.272
0.269 0.257
0.267
0.203
0.166
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
9:00
12:00
15:00
0.40
DGP on Mar. 20th
0.35
0.30
0.273
0.267 0.258
0.300
0.252
0.277 0.266
0.262 0.250
0.265
0.216
0.25
0.175
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
9:00
12:00
15:00
0.40
DGP on Sep. 22nd
0.35
0.30
0.275
0.227
0.25
0.269 0.260
0.295
0.251
0.277 0.265
0.260
0.263
0.20
0.246
0.146
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
9:00
0.40
DGP on Dec. 21st
0.35
0.30
0.25
12:00
0.346
15:00
Base model (without shading device)
Shading device type 1 (Fixed Shading windows with 20% Openning)
Shading device type 2 (Fixed Shading windows with 70% Openning)
0.287
Shading device type 3 (Dynamic Shading windows with 20-70% Openning)
0.238
0.257 0.248
0.253
0.293
0.264
0.20
0.259
0.242
0.221
0.146
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
9:00
12:00
15:00
Figure 16. Daylight Glare Probability (DGP) analysis.
The diagrams show that the lowest glare is related to the fixed shading shell with 20%
porosity, and then the dynamic parametric shell. The probability of glare in the dynamic‐
parametric shell compared to the baseline state (without canopy) decreased by 13.8% on 21
December at 9:00 a.m., 23.7% at 12 noon, 14.95% at 3 p.m., and 3.54% on 21 June at 9:00 a.m.
Noon shows a decrease of 4.39% and 3 p.m. shows a decrease of 3.59%. The probability of
glare in the dynamic parametric shell, compared to the baseline, decreased by 5.35% on 20
March at 9:00 a.m., 11.44% at noon, 5.65% at 3 p.m., 5.28% on 22 September at 9 a.m., and
10.31% at noon. Percentage at 3 p.m. shows a decrease of 6.37%.
Then, the total energy consumption including heating, cooling, electric lighting, and a
load of consuming equipment for the studied office room was analyzed and the results were
calculated with the EnergyPlus output motor and analyzed in Excel software (Figure 17).
The results show that the fixed shading device (70%) performed better than the other fixed
option and, in general, the dynamic option had a better level of performance than the two
other options.
Energies 2021, 14, 8272
ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN DEC. 21TH
(KW)
ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN SEP. 22TH
(KW)
ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN JUN. 21TH
(KW)
ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN MAR. 20TH
(KW)
17 of 26
Electrical Load (Equipments)
Electrical Load (Lighting)
Heating Load
Cooling load
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Dynamic Fixed Fixed Based
shade- shade shade model9:00 (20%)- (70%)- 9:00
9:00
9:00
Dynamic Fixed Fixed Based
shade- shade shade model12:00 (20%)- (70%)- 12:00
12:00 12:00
Dynamic Fixed Fixed Based
shade- shade shade model15:00 (20%)- (70%)- 15:00
15:00 15:00
Electrical Load (Equipments)
Electrical Load (Lighting)
Heating Load
Cooling load
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Dynamic Fixed Fixed Based
shade- shade shade model9:00 (20%)- (70%)- 9:00
9:00
9:00
Dynamic Fixed Fixed Based
shade- shade shade model12:00 (20%)- (70%)- 12:00
12:00 12:00
Dynamic Fixed Fixed Based
shade- shade shade model15:00 (20%)- (70%)- 15:00
15:00 15:00
Electrical Load (Equipments)
Electrical Load (Lighting)
Heating Load
Cooling load
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Dynamic Fixed Fixed Based
shade- shade shade model9:00 (20%)- (70%)- 9:00
9:00
9:00
Dynamic Fixed Fixed Based
shade- shade shade model12:00 (20%)- (70%)- 12:00
12:00 12:00
Dynamic Fixed Fixed Based
shade- shade shade model15:00 (20%)- (70%)- 15:00
15:00 15:00
Electrical Load (Equipments)
Electrical Load (Lighting)
Heating Load
Cooling load
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Dynamic Fixed Fixed Based
shade- shade shade model9:00 (20%)- (70%)- 9:00
9:00
9:00
Dynamic Fixed Fixed Based
shade- shade shade model12:00 (20%)- (70%)- 12:00
12:00 12:00
Dynamic Fixed Fixed Based
shade- shade shade model15:00 (20%)- (70%)- 15:00
15:00 15:00
Figure 17. Energy consumption of the building with each shading device in studied dates and hours.
Comparative analysis:
Energies 2021, 14, 8272
18 of 26
‐
Comparing the research-dependent
variables (related to visual comfort) with each
other: while the base model had mostly among the highest DA and UDA, in terms of PIT
‐ option. As far as fixed shading‐
(Point In Time) brightness analysis and GDP, it is a high-risk
devices are concerned, the first one (20%) had by far the lowest DA and UDA and in GDP
it had no superiority compared to the other options and, in general, the second fixed shade
(70%) performed better. Finally, the dynamic option had a lower DA and UDA than the
fixed shading device (70%) on most studied days (Figure 18).
Comparative
Percentage
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Comparative Percentage
Base Model
Comparative Percentage
UDI
PIT
Studied Daylight‐related Variables on Jun. 21st on average
Fixed Shade (20%)
Fixed Shade (70%)
GDP
Dynamic Shade (20–70%)
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Base Model
DA
UDI
PIT
GDP
Studied Daylight‐related Variables on Dec. 21st on average
Fixed Shade (20%)
Fixed Shade (70%)
Dynamic Shade (20–70%)
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Base Model
Comparative Percentage
DA
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Base Model
DA
UDI
PIT
Studied Daylight‐related Variables on Mar. 20th on average
Fixed Shade (20%)
DA
Fixed Shade (70%)
GDP
Dynamic Shade (20–70%)
UDI
PIT
GDP
Studied Daylight‐related Variables on Sep. 22nd on average
Fixed Shade (20%)
Fixed Shade (70%)
Dynamic Shade (20–70%)
Figure 18. Comparative analysis of daylight‐related variables.
Figure 18. Comparative analysis of daylight-related variables.
Energies 2021, 14, 8272
19 of 26
‐
Summarizing the results and comparing the energy efficiency, the total energy con- ‐
sumption for heating, cooling, and lighting is presented in the following diagram (Figure 19).
This graph shows that while using shading devices the rate of energy consumption has‐increased compared to the base model, the dynamic shading device shows better performance ‐
on most occasions than other options.
Base model (without any shading device)
6
5.452
5
Energy consumption on average (kW)
Energy consumption on average (kW)
6
4.404
5
4.404
4
Shading
device
type
1 (Fixed
shading
windows
Base
model
(without
any
shading
device)with 20% opening)
5.452
Shading
devicedevice
type 2 type
(Fixed
shading
windows
with 70%
Shading
1 (Fixed
shading
windows
withopening)
20% opening)
4.680
Shading
devicedevice
type 3 type
(Dynamic
shading
windows
with
20-70%
Shading
2 (Fixed
shading
windows
with
70% opening)
opening)
Shading device type 3 (Dynamic shading windows with 20-70%
4.680
opening)
3.588
4
3.588
3
3
2
2
1
1
0
0
0.447
0.045
0.724
0.306
0.447
0.045
0.163
0.306
March, 20th
0.795 0.724 0.795
0.724
0.163
March, 20th
June, 21th
June, 21th
0.795 0.724 0.795
September, 22th
September, 22th
0.790 0.790 0.790
0.580
0.790 0.790 0.790
0.580
December, 21th
December, 21th
Figure 19. Comparative analysis of energy consumption in proposed options on average.
Optimization:
‐
Finally, to check all possible options in increasing the reliability of the results and
‐
to find the optimal condition of the dynamic shading device at each time and each hour ‐
according to the visual comfort and energy consumption variables, a multi objectives ‐
optimization process was launched. According to the results of the study of visual comfort
variables by simulation in Rhino environment, HoneyBee Plus, and Ladybug Plus, and due
to the multivariate nature of this research, to select the best options, it is advised to use the
Calibri plugin in Grasshopper and transfer the results to Design Explorer. The appropriate
option was analyzed and the results showed the superiority and efficiency of fixed canopy
with a porosity of 70% of the cavity area compared to the other cases (Figure 20).
Figure 20. Cont.
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Figure 20. Comparative analysis of the performance of 33 options for fixed shading devices on June
21st (top) and December 21st (down).
The next step is selecting the optimal condition for studied dates and hours. Due
to the multivariate nature of this research, to select the best options, the Calibri plugin
‐
was used in the Grasshopper and the results were transferred to Design Explorer. The
‐
minimum area of openings was within the range of 50–20% and at intervals of 5%, and
the maximum area of openings was in the range of 50–70% at intervals of 5%. A total of
‐
105 modes were created by considering the minimum and maximum between the above
‐
‐
values in the dynamic outer shell, which was performed for all 105 models of light and
‐
‐
energy simulation and scoring indicators of the lead system, and the best options in the
‐
studied dates (Figures 21–24 and Tables 5–7).
Figure 21. Cont.
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Figure 21. Choosing the optimal conditions for different hours on 21st June.
Table 5. Best values for the opening ratio of shading device on 21st June.
The Maximum Ratio of Opening
Minimum Ratio of Opening
Hour
65%
70%
70%
50%
50%
50%
9:00
12:00
15:00
‐‐
From the best options extracted from the optimization process, the following conditions for each hour of the selected date were achieved. Indeed, the results show how
‐‐
we can achieve the optimal daylight-related
variables and consume less energy. Similarly,
performing this analysis for the rest of the studied dates could guide us in setting opening
rates for dynamic shading at each time of year.
Figure 22. Cont.
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Figure 22. Choosing the optimal condition for different hours on 22nd September.
Table 6. Best values for the opening ratio of shading device on 22nd September.
Hour
Minimum Ratio of Opening
The Maximum Ratio of Opening
9:00
12:00
15:00
50%
50%
50%
65%
70%
70%
‐
While the results of the simulation differ for this date and the previous one, inter‐
estingly the optimization process reaches the same answer. This helps the researcher to
achieve the optimal option without ignoring one specific date. In the following section the
results of optimization for the other two dates are presented.
Figure 23. Cont.
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Figure 23. Choosing the optimal conditions for different hours on 20th March.
Figure 23. Choosing the optimal conditions for different hours on 20th March.
Table 7. Best values for the opening ratio of shading device on 20th March.
The Maximum Ratio of Opening
Minimum Ratio of Opening
Hour
70%
70%
70%
50%
50%
50%
9:00
12:00
15:00
Figure 24. Choosing the optimal conditions for different hours on December 21st.
Energies 2021, 14, 8272
24 of 26
Finally, taking all different dates and hours into account, the optimal range for opening
the dynamic shading is determined (Table 8). This means that it is now possible to set a
schedule for the dynamic shading that shows how it should act at different times of the year.
Table 8. Best values for the opening ratio of shading device on December 21st.
The Maximum Ratio of Opening
Minimum Ratio of Opening
Hour
60%
55%
65%
50%
30%
45%
9:00
12:00
15:00
4. Conclusions
While designing building elements seems to be a straightforward task to do within
the design stage, due to different and sometimes conflicting design objectives, it can be
very challenging. As glazing areas are among the most critical elements of each space and
by using shading devices, architects have been trying to control daylight and improve the
performance of the building in general. This research aims to answer the question of how
we could decide about the optimal shading device in office spaces. A novel procedure for
designing shading devices for an office building in Tehran by considering daylight and
energy performance as objectives was presented to select the optimal option. Therefore,
through a sophisticated state of the art method, adaptation of building to the environment
to provide occupants with comfort and energy-saving was conducted. There are two main
categories of option; a fixed shading device with a different opening rate, and a dynamic
one that can change the opening rate, inspired by one of the elements in traditional Islamic
architecture (Muqarnas).
The result implies in almost all critical days of the year (the spring equinox as 20th
March, the summer solstice as 21st June, the fall equinox as 22nd September, and the winter
solstice as 21st December) fixed shading with 70% opening in most conditions works
better than the other fixed option with 20% opening in terms of energy consumption and
daylight-related variables. Moreover, the performance of the dynamic shading device is by
far better than all other options in all senses of the word. Finally, to determine the ratio of
the opening part in a dynamic shading device, all possible options were analyzed and the
result for three different hours of studied dates were listed. As these dates are the most
critical days in terms of the position of the sun and the length of the day, we could make
decisions about the whole year based on these dates, which have been among acceptable
methods in daylight analysis.
While this research demonstrated the better performance of the dynamic shading
device as an example of responsive facades and found the opening range for this device
for different times of the year, it also showed that the proposed method is workable, and
it could be used for a similar challenge in different functions and climate conditions to
optimize occupant’s visual and thermal comfort. The authors also must acknowledge the
limitations of the work. Although analyses using equinox solstice could reflect the behavior
of the studied object throughout the year, it has its limitation as it is based on 4 days of
the year. Moreover, the view provided by the window is an important criterion that was
not considered in this research. For future studies, considering a wider range of variables,
including view, and using a machine learning algorithm that can facilitate this process is
highly recommended.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.B., A.N., N.F. and M.M.; methodology, H.B., B.Ś.-J.,
A.N., B.S.a.n., N.F. and S.s.H.s.; software, H.B., N.F. and B.S.a.n.; validation, H.B.; formal analysis,
H.B. and N.F.; investigation, B.S.a.n. and S.s.H.s.; resources, S.s.H.s.; data curation, S.s.H.s. and
N.F.; writing—original draft preparation, H.B., B.S.a.n. and S.s.H.s.; writing—review and editing,
H.B., B.Ś.-J. and B.S.a.n.; visualization, H.B.; supervision, B.Ś.-J., A.N., M.M. and H.B.; project
administration, B.Ś.-J., M.M. and A.N.; funding acquisition, H.B., B.Ś.-J. and A.N. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Energies 2021, 14, 8272
25 of 26
Funding: This research was funded by Poznan University of Technology, within the framework of
the research project entitled “Mapping of architectural space, the history, theory, practice, contemporaneity II”, grant number 0112/SBAD/0185.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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