Community Seed Banks in Nepal
Past, present, future
Proceedings of a National Workshop, 14-15 June 2012, Pokhara, Nepal
Pitambar Shrestha, Ronnie Vernooy and Pashupati Chaudhary, Editors
Community Seed Banks in Nepal
Past, present, future
Proceedings of a National Workshop, 14-15 June 2012, Pokhara, Nepal
Pitambar Shrestha1, Ronnie Vernooy2 and
Pashupati Chaudhary1, Editors
Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research and Development (LI-BIRD)
P.O. Box: 324, Pokhara, Kaski, Nepal
Tel: +977-61-526834/535357
Fax: +977-61-539956
E mail: info@libird.org
Web: www.libird.org
1
Bioversity International
Via dei Tre Denari 472/a
00057 Maccarese (Fiumicino) Rome, Italy
Tel: +39-06-61181
Fax: +39-06-61979661
Email: bioversity@cgiar.org
Website: www.bioversityinternational.org
2
Citation:
Shrestha P., R. Vernooy and P. Chaudhary. 2013. Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future.
Proceedings of a National Workshop, LI-BIRD/USC Canada Asia/Oxfam/The Development Fund/IFAD/Bioversity
International, 14-15 June 2012, Pokhara, Nepal.
Published by:
Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research and Development (LI-BIRD)
P.O. Box
Tel
Fax
E-mail
Web
324, Pokhara, Kaski, Nepal
+977-61-535357, 526834
+977-61-539956
info@libird.org
www.libird.org
Copyright © Publisher
First Edition, 2013
Editors
: Pitambar Shrestha, Ronnie Vernooy and Pashupati Chaudhary
Concept, Design and Layout
Design and Layout
Cover Photos
Photos
:
:
:
:
ISBN : 978-9937-8145-4-6
Mahesh Shrestha/LI-BIRD
Dilip Kumar Maharjan/WPS
Oxfam (top), Ronnie Vernooy (1 and 3 from bottom left)
LI-BIRD photo bank, unless stated otherwise
Participatns of the national workshop on community seed banks
Table of Contents
Acknowledgement
vii
General Introduction
1
In the Hands of Many: A Review of Community Gene/
Seed Banks Around the World
3
Emerging Theory and Practice: Community Seed Banks,
Seed System Resilience and Food Security
16
A Brief Overview of Community Seed Bank Initiatives in Nepal
41
Establishment and Present Status of Dalchoki Community
Seed Bank in Lalitpur, Nepal
47
Community Seed Banks: A Local Solution to Increase
Access to Quality and Diversity of Seeds
61
Agrobiodiversity Resource Centre: The Cooperative
Managed Community Seed Bank of Ranibas, Sindhuli
76
The Story of Establishment and Management of a
Community Seed Bank in Kachorwa Village of Bara District in
Central Terai Nepal
87
Ronnie Vernooy, Pitambar Shrestha and Pashupati Chaudhary
Ronnie Vernooy
Bhuwon Sthapit
Bal Krishna Joshi
Bharat Bhandari, Mohan Hamal, Jitbal Rai, Dhurba Sapkota,
Krishna Sangel, Bal Krishna Joshi and Pratap Shrestha
Pitambar Shrestha, Sajal Sthapit and Indra Paudel
Dinesh Shrestha, Yadav Khanal, Mohan Khatiwada and Ram Prasad Baral
Ramekwal Yadav
Oxfam’s Experiences with Supporting Community Seed
Banks to Enhance Local Seed Security
Sudha Khadka, Safal A. Subba, Mahendra N. Mahato,
Raj K. Adhikari and Heema Khadka
94
Policies and Procedures for Implementing Community
Seed Banks in Nepal
101
The Story of Establishment and Management of the
Sindhu Community Seed Bank in Thumpakhar Village
of Sindhupalchok District
112
The National Genebank, the Multilateral System and
Community Seed Banks for the Conservation and Utilization of
Agricultural Genetic Resources in Nepal
120
Banking Seeds by Smallholders in Nepal: Workshop Synthesis
130
Suroj Pokhrel and Priyambada Joshi
D.B. Bhandari
Madan R. Bhatta, Bal K. Joshi and Devendra Gauchan
Pashupati Chaudhary
Appendix
National Workshop on Community Seed Banks:
Workshop Summary Report
141
Workshop participants
149
Acknowledgement
This publication is an output of a national workshop co-organized by organizations directly
involved in supporting and facilitating the process of establishing and strengthening
community seed banks in Nepal. We are thankful to Dr. Ram Bahadur Rana, Technical
Advisor of LI-BIRD and Dr. Bhuwon Sthapit, In situ Conservation Specialist of Bioversity
International, for initiating the preliminary discussion and developing consensus among the
workshop organizers.
The workshop was hosted by LI-BIRD in association with USC Canada Asia, Pokhara, Nepal,
Oxfam Nepal, Kathmandu and Bioversity International, Rome, Italy. Partial funding for the
workshop and publication was provided by the Community-based Biodiversity Management
South Asia programme of LI-BIRD, supported by the Development Fund of Norway, the
Neglected and Under-utilized Species project supported by the International Fund for
Agriculture Development through Bioversity International, and by the Strengthening capacities
to implement the ITPGRFA project, also through Bioversity International. We gratefully
acknowledge financial as well as technical support provided by these organizations.
We express our sincere thanks to all authors, coauthors and contributors of the chapters.
We are thankful to all the presenters and participants from government organizations, nongovernmental organizations and farming communities. We extend our thanks to all the
collaborating farmers and groups who are involved in managing community seed banks in
Nepal and around the world. Finally, we are thankful to Pratima Rana, LI-BIRD, for publication
assistance, Mahesh Shrestha, LI-BIRD, for design and layout, and Claire Willey for language
editing.
The Editors
vii
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
General Introduction
RONNIE VERNOOY, PITAMBAR SHRESTHA AND PASHUPATI CHAUDHARY
Community gene and seed banks have a history of about 30 years. They emerged in different
parts of the world in response to concerns about the loss of agricultural biological diversity,
the total loss of seeds caused by natural disasters such as floods and hurricanes, the impact
of climate change, declining access to quality seeds, and demand from farmers to participate
in locally driven biodiversity management strategies. They can be found around the world
under different names, and are diverse in terms of size, form and function. Some countries,
including Nepal, have more than one hundred community gene and seed banks at present
time. Other countries have only a few nascent ones, such as Bhutan, Burkina Faso, China,
Guatemala, Rwanda and Uganda.
Although in different countries they are known by different names, e.g., seed wealth centre,
community seed reserve and seed exchange network, all community seed banks have in
common that they are maintaining varieties of seeds for local use in farming systems for the
direct benefit of a “community.” Community in this sense often has a specific geographic
delimitation, such as ward, village, hamlet or district, but sometimes encompasses a much
broader geographical area. Community seed banks can best be seen as examples of local level
institutions created to address issues of seed conservation, particularly of farmer varieties,
and in more recent years, also of seed selection, production, improvement and marketing. In
addition, community seed banks have the potential to pool resources in the face of climate
calamities through sharing of accessions among community seed banks at the regional or
national level as well as between community seed banks and national and international
genebanks. Some organizations, including Bioversity International, have started to explore
this potential.
In Nepal, community seed banks have a long and rich history. Supported in particular by a
number of non-government organizations and more recently, also by government agencies,
they can now be found across the country from the terai to the high hill areas and from east to
west. The latest account puts the number of active community seed banks at 115 (June 2012).
However, detailed documentation of activities and results is not always available and is subject
to change as time passes. Exchanges among staff of organizations working with community
seed banks revealed that there is a poor common understanding about community seed
banks in terms of definition, goals, functions, approaches, and forms of governance among
practitioners and among members of community seed banks. In different parts of the country,
the practices followed by different organizations vary significantly. One of the consequences
has been difficulty developing a national strategy to strengthen community seed banks.
In light of these challenges, LI-BIRD, together with national and international partners,
organized a two-day national workshop in Pokhara, Nepal in June 2012. The workshop
brought together 40 participants representing farmers, researchers, community seed
1
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
bank practitioners, extension workers and national and international policy makers. The
objective of the workshop, which, as far as we know, was the first national workshop
of its kind anywhere in the world, was to seek answers to the following questions:
yy How do we define a community seed bank?
yy What are the key components, main characteristics, principles, approaches and working
modalities of community seed banks?
yy Can a useful typology be developed to bring consistency in understanding and practice?
yy What policies are required to promote and sustain the role of farmers as custodians of
agricultural biodiversity?
yy What are key challenges and opportunities of community seed banks?
yy How can community seed banks contribute to national and international biodiversity
conservation strategies?
yy What policy and practices are needed to make community seed banks sustainable in
conserving and maintaining agricultural biodiversity?
These proceedings bring together knowledge of the contributions of community seed banks in
all their richness and diversity. The first two chapters describe the history of community seed
banks in the world and the theoretical perspectives which help us to understand the concept,
definitions and global context. The third chapter discusses the entry of the community seed
bank concept in Nepal and also presents a brief national overview. Chapters 4 to 9 include
case studies of particular community seed banks that reflect rich experiences in Nepal.
Chapters 10 and 11 reflect on the experiences of public institutions, but from two different
systems viz. the Crop Development Directorate under the Department of Agriculture and
the National Gene Bank under the umbrella of Nepal Agriculture Research Council. The
former promotes community seed banks in Nepal to increase seed and food security through
increased access to quality seeds while the other attempts to establish links between ex situ
and in situ conservation of plant genetic resources. The proceedings serve both to take stock
and to look ahead. We hope that they inspire people both within and outside Nepal working
in or with community seed banks. We welcome feedback.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
2
In the Hands of Many: A Review of Community Gene/Seed
Banks Around the World
RONNIE VERNOOY
Bioversity International, Via dei Tre Denari 472/a, 00057 Maccarese, Rome, Italy, Corresponding email: r.vernooy@cgiar.org
Photos: Ronnie Vernooy
“Seeds, especially of food and other useful plants, should be taken care of by the people.
They are too precious for all of them to be placed under the exclusive control of the few.
The more hands that hold them, the safer they will be.”
M. and J. Fanton 1993. “The seed savers’ handbook”, p. 14, italics in the original
What’s breaking the silence got to do with it?
Community gene/seed banks have been around for about 30 years. They can be found
across the globe in a diversity of forms in terms of function(s), size and scope, governance
and management, physical appearance, technical aspects (e.g., seed storage facilities and
techniques) and impact. Particular histories differ. Some countries have a relatively large
number of them (over 100), e.g., Brazil, India, Nepal, Nicaragua, although exact numbers
are hard to determine. Other countries have only a few or a few nascent ones, e.g., Bhutan,
Bolivia, China, Guatemala, Rwanda. Other are exploring how to establish them, e.g.,
South Africa. Although the nomenclature varies, all such community gene/seed banks
serve a core function of collectively maintaining seeds for local use (Development Fund
2011; Shrestha et al. 2012). In many countries of the “South,” they are usually known as
community gene or seed banks while in the “North,” they are often known as seed savers
3
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
groups, associations or networks. Other names include seed exchange network (Brazil),
seed wealth centre (Bangladesh), Seeds of Diversity Canada1 (registered under this name
as a grassroots organization; Pittenger 2000), community seed reserve (Costa Rica), farmer
seed house and farmer seed network (‘maison des semences paysannes,’ ‘réseau semences
paysannnes’2, France).
There are surprisingly few detailed scientific studies about community gene/seed banks,
their roles and impact (also noted by Engels et al. 2008: 150); an exception is a typology
of community seed banks published in 1997 by Lewis and Mulvany, most likely the first
attempt to review community seed banks globally. As far as we know, no systematic, in-depth
comparative analysis has been carried out of community gene/seed banks in their variety of
forms. The FAO’s “Second global report on the state of the world’s genetic resources for
food and agriculture” (2010) does not have a single reference to either community gene
banks or seed banks. A number of major books on the subject of agricultural biodiversity
management, use and conservation, have no references either, e.g., Wood and Lenné
(1999), Brookfield et al. (2003), Smale (2006), and Jarvis et al. (2007). Others mention
community seed banks only in passing (Brush 2000). Publications on seed systems follow
this surprising trend, e.g., Tripp (1997), Louwaars (2002), Lipper et al. (2010). There are
some references to gene/seed banks in the published literature on the conservation of
genetic resources diversity, e.g. Cooper et al. 1992, Almekinders and de Boef 2000, CIPUPWARD 2003, Shrestha et al. 2007, de Boef et al. 2010. Overall, however, it appears that
farmers and gardeners who have set up gene/seed banks in a variety of forms around the
world have been “salvaging in silence,” to borrow a chapter title from a book on genetic
diversity in European agriculture by R. Vellvé (1992: 91-119).
This review aims to “break the silence” by offering some preliminary, mostly descriptive
findings of the 30 years of experience of community gene/seed banks around the world.
The results aim to serve two purposes. First, as an input for reflecting on the past: what has
been achieved and learned? What have been the challenges? Second, for looking ahead: in
the light of current challenges related to the sustainable use of agricultural biodiversity,
such as the commercialization of agriculture, genetic erosion, and the impact of climate
change, what roles could community gene/seed banks play? The review is based on a
review of literature, predominantly “grey”, in English, plus some in French, Spanish
and Portuguese, found in libraries and on the internet, practical experiences supported
by Bioversity International, and practical experiences collected through professional
contacts. A more in-depth search and review by the author and colleagues are on-going.
The review addresses briefly the following components: origins; functions; organization;
seed management; connections; enabling environment; and sustainability (for a detailed
analytical framework, see Vernooy and Halewood 2012).
1
2
http://www.seeds.ca/
http://www.semencespaysannes.org/
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
4
What have NGOs got to do with it?
“NGOs played a useful role in organizing and training farmers in collaboration with
different national institutions. However, high reliance on NGOs is a challenge for the
sustainability of community seed banks. This challenge seems to have been overcome
in Nepal, where farmers managing CSBs have established a community biodiversity
management fund…”
The Development Fund 2011, “Banking for the future”, p. 15
It is not easy to exactly pinpoint the origin of the establishment of community gene/seed
banks, but there is no doubt that NGOs played an instrumental role and continue to do
so in many countries around the world. In the “South,” NGOs set up community gene/
seed banks most of all to conserve local/farmer varieties and/or rare varieties as a response
to the loss of diversity due to societal forces or due to recurring natural disasters, most
notably droughts and floods. Among the founders or co-founders of community gene/
banks are NGOs such as the Rural Advancement Foundation International (RAFI, now
known as ETC Group). RAFI, in 1986, produced the “Community seed bank kit,” as far
as we could track down, the first How to Do guide for establishing a local gene/seed bank.
Inspired by RAFI were other NGOs, such the Philippine-based SEARICE operating in a
number of South-east Asian countries (in 1992, SEARICE assisted another Philippine NGO
named CONSERVE to set up a community gene bank, see, Bertuso et al. 2000), and the
Chile based CET operating in a number of Latin American countries. Unitarian Service
of Canada (USC), based in Ottawa, with partner NGOs around the world established
the Seeds of Survival program (late 1980s/early 1990s) which is still operational (Green
2012).3 Other examples include UBINIG in Bangladesh (the impetus in the late 1980s
were floods and a cyclone; Mazhar 1996) and the Relief Society of Tigray (1988) and
Ethio-Organic Seed Action (EOSA) in Ethiopia. The former received support from the
Norwegian Development Fund, another continuous supporter of community seed banks
around the world (Development Fund 2011). A pioneer in Zimbabwe was the Community
Technology Development Trust (CTDT), which established the first community seed bank
in 1992 following severe drought (Mujaju et al. 2003). In India, several NGOs took the
lead, including the GREEN Foundation (starting in 1992), the Academy of Development
Sciences (in 1994; see, Khedkar 1996), the Deccan Development Society (Satheesh 1996),
the MS Swaminathan Research Foundation (in 2000) and Gene Campaign (in 2000). In
Nepal, there were USC Canada Asia (in 1994) and LI-BIRD (in 2003); in Nicaragua, CIEETS
and the Programa Campesino a Campesino (PCaC, Farmer to Farmer program) (SIMAS
2012). One notable exception to NGO involvement is the Plant Genetic Resource Centre
of Ethiopia, a government agency, which supported a number of community gene/seed
bank in Ethiopia and built direct links between the national and local levels (Worede and
Mekbib 1993; Feyissa 2000).
3
5
http://usc-canada.org/what-we-do/sos/ CONSERVE in the Philippines formed part of the Seeds of
Survival program.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Partly preceding and partly in parallel with establishment in the “South”, in the “West,”
many so-called seed savers groups, associations and networks are made up mostly of
(hobby) farmers and gardeners from far and beyond (often thousands of miles apart from
each other) who share a common interest in keeping traditional and local crop diversity
alive. As such, “seed savers” form a community of practice more than a community in the
sense of a place-bound social group. The USA based Seed Savers Exchange, a not for profit,
member supported organization, was established in 1975 by Diane Ott Whealy and Kent
Whealy.4 Its aim is the preservation of heirloom seeds through the building of a network
of committed people who collect, save and share seeds and plants. Heirloom seeds are
passed on from generation to generation. In the North American context, many heirloom
seeds were carried by settlers originating from European countries. The organization is
anchored by an 890-acre Heritage farm in Iowa where seeds are reproduced, catalogued
and disseminated, and where educational activities take place.
“For the Member-Grower Evaluation Network (M-GEN) program, we use a common
[characterization/descriptor] form for each crop type. This year, M-GEN participants are
growing either cucumber, radish, lettuce, rutabaga, or collards. The M-GEN evaluation is a
simplified version of the evaluations that we complete at Seed Savers Exchange. The main
goals are to 1) engage our members, and 2) identify regional differences in performance
for the M-GEN varieties. Participants are asked about seedling germination and vigour,
plant health and productivity compared to other varieties they are familiar with, and their
thoughts on taste. They also send in photos and measurements of the edible portion of the
plants at market maturity.”
Tor Janson, coordinator of the Seed Savers Exchange Member-Grower Evaluation
Network, June 1, 2012 (email to the author)
In 1986, inspired by the example of the USA, the Australian Seed Savers was set up by
Michel and Jude Fanton. First established nation-wide, without government support,
it has since developed into a network of (local) networks spread out across the country
(Fanton and Fanton 1993; The Seed Savers’ Network and Megu’u Ogata 2003). Since 1995,
the Australian network has supported the establishment and strengthening of such groups
in almost 40 countries, e.g., Afghanistan, Bosnia, Cambodia, Croatia, Cuba, Italy, Japan,
Kenya, Palau, Portugal, Serbia, Solomon Islands, South Africa, Spain, Taiwan and Tonga.
“From 1986 to 2008, we received 8500 seed samples of every size, either at our post office
box or dropped at the Seed Savers office. We recorded each in a FileMaker Pro database,
allocated them an accession number, tested them for viability with our volunteers and
multiplied them. One third was multiplied in our Seed Gardens and the rest by our
supporters and a team of expert seed savers, that we call regenerators. Now that activity is
undertaken by our Local Seed Networks around Australia.”
Australian Seed Savers website, June 1, 2012,http://www.seedsavers.net/
4
http://www.seedsavers.org/
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
6
What’s crop improvement got to do with it?
Although not all community gene/seed banks were strictly conservation focused when
first set up, many were. Some that initially were conservation focused evolved over time to
play other roles, such as seed production and crop improvement. Some were established
following one or more cycles of crop improvement. Many of the more recently established
community seed banks have a seed multiplication focus (for an example of maize seed
banks from Guatemala, FAO 2011) or could best be described as seed producing entities
(e.g., examples from Zambia, Nakaponda 2010). In cases where such entities become
basically local contractors for commercial (multinational or national) seed enterprises
or for government agencies, one could argue that they are no longer community seed
banks as defined in this review. Many community gene/seed banks are part of much
larger initiatives to conserve agricultural biodiversity (CIP-UPWARD 2003; de Boef et al.
2012, Jarvis et al. 2011; Mijatović et al. 2012; Shrestha et al. 2013; Worede 2011). In some
countries, community seed banks have evolved from purely community-based activities
to playing important roles in the implementation of (state) government policies, such as in
Brazil where they deliver seeds to public entities such as schools and hospitals. Altogether,
community gene/seed banks fulfil a multitude of roles:
yy Conservation of local varieties including heirloom and rare varieties (food, fodder,
herbs and medicines, religious uses)
yy Restoration of “lost” varieties (for example, due to natural disasters)
yy Crisis/disaster/shortage responsiveness and insurance
yy Maintain and improve accessibility of seeds at the community level (traditional and
modern varieties)
yy Secure storage of seeds in areas affected by unrest, fighting and theft
yy Offer seeds at low(er) costs (than the commercial sector)
yy Facilitate seed swaps
yy Guarantee seed sovereignty
yy Help particular groups to obtain seeds
yy Seed multiplication, including of participatory bred varieties
yy Make money through the sales of seeds
yy Share agricultural biodiversity knowledge and expertise
yy Platform for community-based biodiversity management
yy Link in situ and ex situ conservation
yy Contribute to green or ecological agriculture, e.g., such as the “Nayakrishi Andolon”
(“New agricultural movement”) in Bangladesh, or to a food sovereignty movement
(at the international level represented by la Vía Campesina)
There are probably no two community gene/seed banks fully alike. On the one hand, there
are diversity rich community gene/banks, such as the one established by the NGO Grama
Vikas in India (2002), which operates at the village level, is managed by a Women SelfHelp Group, covers several plots, and runs one small seed bank (storage facility). The
women maintain indigenous varieties of 8 rice, 12 grains, and 35 vegetables. They carry
out collection, replication, storage, distribution, seed quality testing, and variety selection.
7
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
They practice organic agriculture. They regularly organize seed festivals to encourage
exchange and sharing of knowledge and seeds.5 On the other hand, there are single crop
specialized community seed banks organized with the support of the non-government
agency PROINPA Foundation (Promotion and Research of Andean Products) of Bolivia
(2005-06), managed by groups of 15-25 farmers in one single community, operating just
one seed production plot in one farmer’s field, without a physical seed bank–the field
is the bank! Each of the Bolivian community seed banks focuses on only one crop, i.e.,
Quinoa, of which farmers maintain 5-6 varieties/accessions, or Cañahua, of which farmers
maintain 2-4 lines (Rojas et al. 2012).
Community gene/seed banks reportedly have contributed to maintaining, restoring and
increasing genetic diversity at local and national levels, to improving access, availability
and use of local varieties in particular, to reviving and reinvigorating cultivation practices,
to diversifying production and consumption, and to generating income. Few in-depth
impact studies are available, however.
What’s collective action got to do with it?
Community gene/seed banks all have in common the element of collective action,
although in practice, which belongs to the “collectivity” (and who does not), in what
ways and to what effects, varies widely. The majority of community seed banks can be
found in marginalized areas where peasant agriculture has remained central. As such,
they are embedded in practices of existing forms of collective action. In general, this
stands in contrast to the individualistic nature of “modern” industrial and commoditized
agriculture.6 In many cases, community gene/seed banks build on, or at least try to do
so, traditional institutions of access to and sharing (of seeds), cooperation (pooling of
land, labour and knowledge), reciprocity (mutual support), and fairness. Often though,
they also make use of “new” governance and daily management rules and regulations to
maintain the common or collective good. Some of them have incorporated organizational,
administrative and financial practices from modern management. Many of them make use
of participatory action research and learning methods and tools, for example, by means of
participatory plant breeding, including variety selection, which deepens knowledge, skills
and practices of collective action.
In practice, collective action ranges from small scale (groups of households, a village),
mostly for exchange of seeds and related knowhow, to large scale (national level), for the
commercialization of seeds. It ranges from a focus on taking care of traditional varieties to
a broad range of materials including modern varieties. In terms of day to day management,
coordination and communication range from face-to-face interaction and hand delivery
(of seeds) to use of email, internet-based seed purchase and distribution (catalogues), and
crowd-sourcing (testing) by regular mail.
5
6
http://gramavikas.org/Community%20Seed%20Bank.htm
Cooperatives of various kinds exist in many countries and represent a kind of blend of individual and
collective action. In some countries, some community seed banks have evolved to seed production and
marketing cooperatives, e.g., Nepal, Brazil.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
8
In India, several community gene/seed banks are managed by so-called Self-Help
Groups (SHGs). Women operate many of these groups. SHGs play important roles
in rural development more broadly through collective care taking, management and
conservation of natural resources, collective management of credit, and joint planning and
implementation of social activities (Rengalakshmi et al. 2003). In Nepal, farmers organized
in the Agriculture Development and Community Society (ADCS), manage a community
seed bank. ADCS plays the role of facilitator of community-based conservation of
agrobiodiversity more broadly. It runs a community biodiversity fund which not only
contributes to the conservation of traditional varieties, but also supports small business
development. In Spain, a cooperative originally set up to produce food for its members
in an agro-ecologically friendly way, developed and evolved to a large organic seeds
producer and a local centre of agrobiodiversity research (Da Vià 2012).
Women are very active in most, if not all, community gene/seed banks. In many countries they
are the principal seed selectors and guardians. In some countries, such as Nicaragua (SIMAS
2012,) women groups manage community seed banks from A to Z. The community seed banks
form part of a larger effort to practice sustainable agriculture. As their and other experiences
indicate, effective collective action depends on a number of factors, such as motivation,
incentives and rewards, leadership, communication channels, connections, and political
space. In-depth studies that look into these factors and how they are informed by gender, with
regard to the vitality of community gene/seed banks have not been done as far as we know.
What’s banking got to do with it?
The maintenance of a community gene/seed bank–the actual banking–requires the execution
of a number of tasks, ranging from identification, selection, collection, conservation and
distribution of materials. To carry out these tasks effectively, managers will have to decide
which passport data to use, which farmer descriptors to integrate, which storage system to
set up (keeping seeds healthy is an essential task), which documentation system to install,
and what practices of evaluation, rejuvenation and utilization to use. There is no single way
to run the technical side of a community gene/seed bank. No professional guide book(s) for
community level gene bank management exists, as far as is known, but there are some useful
texts about how to establish a gene bank (Zinanga et al. 2009; Shrestha et al. 2008) as well as a
series of (farmer) radio “scripts.”7 Handbooks for how to save seeds written by seed savers’
pioneers are available on-line (Fanton and Fanton 1993; Cherfas et al. 1996).8 Mostly, community
gene/seed banks have learned by doing, as detailed documentation of what works is difficult
to find. Campbell (2012) details how challenging these tasks can be for a combined (openpollinated) seed bank, seed swap and farmer network in the Ozark highlands of the USA. If
7
8
9
In 1994, Farm Radio International ran a series of emissions about starting up a community seed bank in
seven steps. http://www.farmradio.org/english/radio-scripts/33-3script_en.asp
http://www.farmradio.org/english/radio-scripts/33-4script_en.asp
http://www.farmradio.org/english/radio-scripts/33-5script_en.asp
http://www.farmradio.org/english/radio-scripts/33-6script_en.asp
http://www.seedsavers.net/seed-savers-handbook-online
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
“training and education of assistants, greenhouse propagation, planting, field management,
hand pollination, caging, bagging, harvesting, seed drying and storage, labelling, organizing
of accessions, and maintenance of databases” (ibid: 516) are a challenge in the well-endowed
“West,” it is not hard to imagine how demanding it will be in the “South.”
What have connections got to do with it?
Community gene/seed banks are most often part of local seed systems. They are characterized
by their local nature in the broad sense of the meaning: confined to a geographic area, managed
by people from that area, seed exchanges within that area. Others, however, have spread their
wings. National and international NGOs have played important roles in bridging the local
with the supra-local through networking of people, establishing communication channels,
organizing events, and offering financial support. In a few cases, national government
agencies, such as national genebank, research stations or breeding programmes, have
established links with community gene/seed banks, although the examples are few. In the
states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu of India, about 50 community seed banks have formed a
regional network with the support of the Green Foundation, a NGO (Ramprasad 2007); other
community gene/seed banks are linked to a regional genebank equipped with a cold storage
facility which is managed by the MS Swaminathan Foundation. In Ethiopia, the national
genebank has returned varieties that had gone “missing” in communities to community
seed banks. In Nepal, the recently established national genebank has expressed interest to
establish direct links with community seed banks to exchange knowledge and seeds. In
Brazil, community seed banks cooperate directly with some state governments to supply
seeds of certain crops to public agencies such as schools and hospitals. In some countries,
private seed companies have made contacts. In Thailand, a community seed bank has built
a link to a local school to familiarize students with crops and crop diversity in the field. In
Bangladesh, community seed banks are part of a social movement that provides technical,
moral, social and political support (“Nayakrishi Andolon”, Mazhar 2000). No detailed
research has been done on the impact of different kinds of connections on the functioning
and vitality of community seed banks, but one could hypothesize that multiple, strong and
dynamic connections could have a positive impact (Shrestha et al. 2008).
What’s an enabling environment got to do with it?
Practically, the operations of community gene/seed banks are regulated, directly or
indirectly, by a number of national policies and laws, international treaties and agreements
that concern farmers’ (traditional) knowledge, farmers’ rights, and both individual and
collective farmer activities to produce, save, exchange and sell farmer-produced seeds,
including of locally improved varieties. The CBD, the ITPGRFA, the WTO-TRIPs, UPOV,
WIPO, the Convention on Climate Change, regional and bilateral trade agreements, are
the main international “instruments” that relate to community gene/seed banks (Zinanga
et al. 2009). At the national level, agrobiodiversity policy/laws, seed policies/laws, variety
release procedures, IPR policies/laws, access and benefit sharing policies/laws, and policies/
laws concerning farmer organization and farmers’ rights are of relevance.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
10
With regard to the actual policy space that exists, considerable variety can be observed,
ranging from an open to a constraining to a hostile environment. In only a few countries
community gene/seed banks are clearly on the policy radar and receive some form of support,
e.g., Brazil (Dias da Silva 2013), Bolivia (Rojas et al. 2012), Bhutan (Sangay Dorji, personal
communication 2012), and Nepal (Shrestha et al. 2012). In others, although they have a
long history, the current government policy of modernizing agriculture through modern
varieties and chemical inputs actually neglects local crop development and conservation
(Ethiopia). In several countries, policy makers have proclaimed that community gene/seed
banks should play key roles in crop conservation and improvement including as a way
to implement key components of the ITPGRFA (sustainable use, conservation, Farmers’
Rights) and as means to adapt to climate change. Some efforts are underway to concretize
this in some countries (Guatemala, India). In some countries, governments have declared
that there is not a role for them or only a marginal one, e.g., Indonesia (Soetomo 1992).
Community gene/seed banks sometimes serve to open up policy space. In Nepal, for example,
in a pilot project, ten of them have been invited to function as legitimate local institutions
to provide Prior Informed Consent (PIC) to bio-prospectors as a way to implement the PIC
provisions of the Agrobiodiversity Policy of 2007 and the draft ABS Law of 2003 (LI-BIRD
2011: 33). In the State of Paraíba, in the northeast of Brazil, a law was approved to legalize
the distribution of seeds produced by community seed banks without the required formal
certification by specialized agencies (Sabourin et al. 2005). In India, researchers are proposing
that village-based seed banks become an integral part of the government’s national seed
policies, matched by adequate financial and technical support (Tonapi et al. 2012).
What’s sustainability got to do with it?
In the light of renewed constellations of peasant farming (Da Vía 2012), the spread of
community supported agriculture and organic agriculture, a growing seed and food
sovereignty movement, and the search by many actors for effective adaptation to climate
change it seems that interest in community seed banks is growing around the world.
Our review suggests that community gene/seed banks can be important forms of local
collective action contributing both to sustainable agriculture and the conservation of
agrobiodiversity.
Some community gene/seed banks have lasted for more than a decade. Most of the
“survivors” seem to have benefitted from technical and financial support from other
organizations, NGOs in particular, but government as well. A strong sense of community
ownership and belonging is another important factor of viability. Regular exchanges of
seeds and knowledge are the beating heart of community seed banks. Community gene/
seed banks that operate merely as repositories appear to have short life spans. Community
gene/seed banks that take part in crop improvement efforts appear more dynamic and
vital than ones merely focusing on conservation. An enabling policy environment can
legitimize community gene/seed banks and provide a stimulus to grow. There are most
likely other socio-economic, environmental, and political factors, but given the lack of
11
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
detailed documentation of the evolution of community gene/seed banks, it is hard to offer
very solid evidence about sustainability. Here is what some of the pioneers have to say
about viability:
“It is essential to associate seed production and marketing with applied plant breeding
and seed research. We need to document existing potentials and introduce variability for
demanded traits and crops. We foresee that CSBs will survive if they can provide the
seeds that are needed and demanded, and if they can be operated as commercially viable
enterprises.”
Berg and Abay 2008: 103 (Ethiopia case)
“As a community owned and managed activity, with integrated additional activities like
local financial resource mobilization, the creation of a conservation fund, and other income
generation activities, the CSB was found to be effective and sustainable.”
Shrestha et al. 2008: 108 (Nepal case)
Acknowledgement
Bhuwon Sthapit, Dimary Libreros, Elsa Andrieux, Francesca Gampieri, Gea Galluzzi,
Helga Gruberg, Maria Garruccio, Pitambar Shrestha and Yang Huan kindly contributed
references for the review.
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15
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Emerging Theory and Practice: Community Seed Banks,
Seed System Resilience and Food Security
BHUWON STHAPIT
Bioversity International, Office for South Asia, National Agricultural Science Centre, DPS Marg, Pusa Campus, New Delhi 110012, India,
Corresponding email: b.sthapit@cgiar.org
Photos: Sajal Sthapit (left), Mahesh Shrestha (top right) and Bhuwon Sthapit (bottom right)
Introduction
Agricultural biodiversity is the foundation of agriculture. Crop genetic diversity, a part of
agricultural biodiversity, is one of the most important resources that smallholder farmers
have to improve their livelihoods. In addition, it also serves as a means to attain food
and nutrition security and income generation, and to build critical and fragile ecosystems
services. In the rush to tackle global food shortages, over the last century or so, agriculture,
especially modern agriculture, has earned a bad name due to its large contribution to the
destruction of forests, use of already scarce water and increased carbon emissions and soil
degradation. The large scale use of hybrids and modern varieties, and a concentration on
only a few species, has contributed to large losses in crop genetic diversity worldwide.
For agriculture to return to sustainability, it will have to increasingly make use of a much
wider range of genes, species and ecosystems than it does today; preferably including
more perennial crops. Most formal conservation of crop genetic diversity has historically
focused on ex situ methods, i.e. establishing seed or field gene banks. However, the value of
on farm management of local crop diversity by farming communities is being increasingly
recognized as an indispensable complementary approach to conservation not only of the
germplasm, but also of the traditional knowledge associated with it (Bioversity 2012a,
2012b).
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
16
On farm management of local crop diversity is a highly dynamic form of crop genetic
resources (CGR) management, which allows the processes of both natural and human
selection to continue to act in the production system (Frankel et al. 1975; Brush 2000).
Farmer’s ability to search for new diversity, select new traits, and cultivate and exchange
selected materials with friends, relatives and community members are the processes that
allow genetic materials to evolve (Doring et al. 2011). Such practices are increasingly valued
as they enhance farmers’ capacity to cope with adversity resulting from the consequences
of socio-economic transformation, market forces and climate change. In order to maintain
this capacity, a farmers’ seed system should have a rich and diverse germplasm base –a
genetically diverse portfolio of crops and their varieties- that is suited to a range of agroecosystems and farming practices, and resilient to climate change (Bioversity 2012; FAO
2011). This diversity provides flexibility to farmers to select cultivars with adaptive traits
or market traits, as the situation may warrant.
Overall, some 80-90 % of seed used by smallholder farmers in developing countries is sourced
from informal farmers’ seed systems on farm (Almekinders and Louette 2000; Tripp 2001;
Baniya et al. 2003; Louwaars 2007). At present, however, many farming communities are
losing production options due to shrinking diversity on farm.9 Many farmers (due to poor
storage facilities and capacity to keep seed for one or two seasons) have difficulty in accessing
the genetic diversity that they once might have had. Reasons include that the new materials
available to them either need more inputs than they can afford or are not suitable for the kind
of land they hold. Nevertheless, research carried out in 27 crop species in 8 countries where
traditional seed systems are working illustrated that farmers’ seed systems still harbour rich
genetic diversity (Jarvis et al. 2008) as they are open, integrated and dynamic which allows
for seed flows and seed transactions from diverse sources. It include: domestication, natural
introgression, natural selection, germplasm introduction, exchange, human selection,
germplasm enhancement and breeding, and market outlets. Traditionally, provision of
farmer’s seed requirement constitutes self-saved seed, farmer-to-farmer exchanges and local
market purchase, with the formal sector playing a minor role. In a cycle of sowing and resowing seed lot from plant population year after year, plants favoured under prevailing
conditions are expected to contribute more seed to next generation than plants with lower
fitness (Harlan 1992; Doring et al. 2011). When these plants are further selected for specific
colour, types, qualities and post-harvest characteristics, they further migrate to a special area
and colonize the area by increasing population size (Hasting and Harrison 1994).
A farmers’ seed system is an informal and open genetic system, comprised of a number
of nodes of smaller populations inhabiting agro-ecological niches connected by migration
(seed flow) and colonization (multiplication=increased area by household or increased
number of farmers in a village). A farmer seed system is, therefore, composed of a series of
farmers–some of them being custodian farmers10-and the different ways in which genetic
material is exchanged and moves between farmers, as well as the ways that genetic material
9
10
17
Over the past century, about 75% of plant genetic resources have been lost and a third of today’s
diversity could disappear by 2050 (FAO, 2011).
Custodian farmers are those farmers (men and women) who actively maintain, adapt and disseminate
agricultural biodiversity and related knowledge, over time and space, at farm and community levels and
are recognized by community members for it (Sthapit et al. 2013).
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
is selected and shaped by each farmer’s behaviour. The informal seed system, which is also
known as local or farmers’ seed system11, follows the principles of meta-population theory
of conservation biology (van Dusen 2003; Levin 1976).
Farmers’ seed system
Seed security is vital for food and nutrition security. Farmers’ seed systems are those in
which farmers produce, select, save, re-use and acquire seed outside official or large scale
commercial channels. Reliability and availability of seeds at the right time and in the right
price, as well as easy access, are crucial for poor smallholder farmers but such hallmarks
might not be universal in all systems. Farmer seed systems are often considered good
traditional practices for seed security and therefore, for ensuring food sovereignty. Studies
have indicated that depending upon crops and countries over 60 to 85% of the seed of the
main staple crops come through informal sectors in developing countries (Cromwell 1997;
Tripp 2001; Baniya et al. 2003; Hodgkin et al. 2007; Louwaars 2007); this approaches 99% in the
case of neglected and underutilized crop species (Sthapit and Padulosi 2011; Almekinders
and Louwaars 2002; Louwaars 2007)12. Such informal seed systems play a central role in the
provision of planting materials in developing countries and are important for maintenance,
adaptation and exchange of crop genetic resources in the landscape. The systems are very
dynamic and integrated, with the resilience to cope with all kinds of external pressures
(Bellon 2010). Our interest is mainly in systems that keep landraces in circulation.
Farmer seed systems have many functions but they are often not well recognized by the
formal system. Four basic functions are different from the formal seed system: i) it maintains
a germplasm base that provides diversity, flexibility and a basis for selection (Hodgkin et al.
2007; Louwaars 2007; Sthapit and Padulosi 2011), ii) it produces relatively good quality seed
for household crop production (often free from diseases/pests/weeds if farmers are trained)
with high germination and vigour (Biemonda et al. 2013; Singh et al. 2013), iii) it ensures access
and availability of seed through various sources such as social networks, local markets and
own selection (Tripp 2001; Lipper et al. 2010; Jarvis et al. 2011) and iv) most importantly, it
involves sharing information and knowledge about the local seed such as knowledge of
varietal performance, matching environment, growing methods, utilization, trade-off between
traits, varietal plasticity, etc., based upon farmer’s own experiences (Hodgkin et al. 2007).
A basic awareness of theories around on farm conservation, farmer seed systems and metapopulation theory is necessary to move forward in the area of community seed banks.
11
12
Includes small-scale, unregistered seed producers, who sell the latest recommended varieties.
A criticism can be raised that the rate of informal exchange is high because the formal sector is not
working in these crops. So does the informal system have value only because there is no alternative, or
is it valuable for other reasons too? Practically, the informal system will persist for a while, but should
it be replaced once the formal sector fills the role? Or will the formal sector never be able to play certain
valuable roles of the informal sector? In reality, the formal seed sector has difficulty in meeting such high
levels of diversity and there will never be enough resources to invest in NUS crop improvement and
private/public sector seed enterprises.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
18
This chapter presents key concepts, methods, drivers and challenges to better understand
community seed banks so as to improve the chances that local crop varieties will be
preserved and used sustainably around the world. We also assess how community seed
banks are emerging as the platform of local community-based institutions to address issues
of seed insecurity and as a means to reduce over-reliance on a handful of crops that puts
local and global food security at great risk, especially in the context of climate change.
Definition
Community seed banks range from a single farm family seed bank to a community seed
bank. They could deal with local landraces, introduced landraces or improved cultivars
(Lewis and Mulvany 1997; Lipper et al. 2010; the Development Fund 2011).
I define community seed bank as a community driven and community-owned effort to
conserve and use both local and improved varieties for food security and to improve
the livelihoods of farmers. Three types of community seed banks can be identified: i)
community gene bank (solely conservation of local varieties as PGR in small quantities),
ii) community seed bank (solely concerned with access and availability of cultivars) and
iii) community gene cum seed bank (carries out functions of both (i) and (ii)). The term
‘community seed bank’ should not be used if conservation and sustainable use of plant
genetic resources for food and agriculture are not the major objectives.
It is not easy to pinpoint the genesis of community gene/seed banks, but there is no doubt
that non-governmental organizations (NGOs) played a key role in the development of
this concept and continue to do so in many countries around the world. The Development
Fund (2011) and Vernooy (2013; chapter 1 of this publication) reviewed how the concept
of the community seed bank evolved over time.
The global literature review reveals that a wide range of terms are used to describe
community seed banks (Soetomo 1992; Satheesh 1996; Lewis and Mulvany 1997; Feyissa
2000; Mujaju et al. 2003; Rengalakshmi et al. 2003; Shrestha et al. 2006; 2007; 2008; Ramprasad
2007; Berg and Abay 2008; Zinanga et al. 2009; Development Fund 2011; Green 2012;
Shrestha et al. 2012). These include “community gene bank” (Khedkar 1996; Rani 2000;
Bertuso et al. 2000; Engels et al. 2008), “community gene and seed bank” (Rangalakshmi
et al. 2003), “village seed bank” (Senapati 2011), “seed wealth centre” (Mazhar 2000),
“diversity field fora” (Jarvis et al. 2011), “community-based seed systems” (CBSS)13. One of
the main components of CBSS is to train farmers on the procedures and requirements of
breeding. Those farmers are then licensed/given the authority to certify the quality of the
seeds produced in the community. In Canada, USA and Australia, community seed banks
function like a network of local seed growers that save and exchange heirloom seeds. These
include Seeds of Diversity, Canada14; Seed Savers Exchange15; Decorah, USA; Seed Savers;
13
14
15
19
http://www.fidafrique.net/IMG/pdf/0_Systeme_CBSS_AMB.pdf
http://www.seeds.ca/
http://www.seedsavers.org/
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Seed Exchange Societies16; and Seed Savers Network17 in Australia. Such networks (e.g.
Navdanya18) also exist in India and Bangladesh (Nayakrishi Andolan) (Mazhar 2000), but the
sharing of information and materials appears to be limited only to network members.
In the context of such diversity of terminology, the term community gene bank is often
interchangeably used with community seed bank. However, for simplicity, at the
community level, community seed bank (CSB) is preferred in this paper. The Community
Biodiversity Development and Conservation (CBDC) program, MS Swaminathan
Research Foundation (MSSRF), Bioversity International and LI-BIRD tried to implement
community gene banks (focusing on maintaining germplasm of landraces) and community
seed banks (providing access to quality seeds) having distinct roles and functions. Over
time, farming communities decided to combine the elements of both community gene and
seed banks in order to integrate the farmer seed system into local markets (Oxfam-Novib
2012; Lipper et al. 2010) and to address community needs and sustainability (Zinanga et
al. 2009; Rani et al. 2000; Friis-Hansen and Sthapit 2000; Shrestha et al. 2012; 2013). Lipper
et al. (2012) suggests that social capital will be an important tool in addressing some of
the shortcomings of local markets as a seed supply source. Experience indicates that
community seeds banks can facilitate information flows and exchanges of crop genetic
resources, strengthen capacity of variety maintenance and improve the governance of
local markets for supplying varieties and seeds. Key functions of these networks are
saving and exchanging local seeds and keeping them under the control of the farming
community, allowing easy access and use at an affordable price and in the right time.
Purpose
Community seed banks draw much attention as they can be used as a platform for
community institutions to strengthen the roles of the farmer seed systems described above.
Purposes of such community seed banks are not only saving and exchanging local seeds
and keeping them under the control of the farming community for easy access and use for
seed security at the community level but also consolidating community roles in promoting
conservation, sustainable use and improvement of important local genetic resources /
traditional knowledge.
Worldwide, community seed banks have been established with a diversity of specific
objectives and goals (Table 1). Objectives include conservation of plant genetic resources,
community/women empowerment, seed security, Farmers’ Rights (recognition, access,
participation in decision making and benefit sharing), food sovereignty, and community
resilience. The key features of all community seed banks emerged from the workshop in
Nepal (Chaudhary 2013; Shrestha et al. 2012). It is a community mechanism/institution or
seed repository with specialized functions (to collect, store, multiply and distribute seeds);
like a financial bank: depositing and lending (transaction) of seed similar to money.
16
17
18
http://www.halcyon.com/tmend/exchanges.htm
http://www.seedsavers.net/
http://www.navdanya.org/
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
20
In Nepal, CSBs are supported by a community-led seed management approach that
includes production, collection, processing, storage, distribution (exchange, loan, grant,
selling) and marketing of local as well as improved varieties. Sthapit et al. (2008b) defined
a community seed bank as a community managed ex situ collection designed to enhance
access to local varieties and associated knowledge for the benefits of the community.
In other words, a community-operated seed bank that provides farmers access to seeds
of local crop varieties and performs the function of community level backup of genetic
resources, a repository of associated knowledge, and an institution to organize, mobilize
and represent farmers’ interests.
Table 1: Diversity of goals and objectives of community seed bank from selected
published literatures
21
Promoted by
Objective of the seed bank
Overall goal
Citation
Bioversity International
Locate, collect, characterize, document and preserve
local seed
Multiply rare seed in situ
Multiply seed of PPB products
Platform for CBM to realize on farm conservation
Conserve local varieties
Improve farmers' access to local crop diversity
Deposit and share rare and threatened local varieties
Platform to share knowledge and materials (social
learning)
Provide strategic seed reserve for adversity
Entry point for community based on farm
management
Create a link between the communities and the
national genebank
Strengthen
on farm
conservation
by in situ-ex
situ linkage,
evolutionary
breeding,
community
resilience and
food security
Shrestha et al.
2006;
Shrestha et
al., 2008.
Sthapit et al.
2008a,b
Jarvis et al.
2011
Shrestha and
Chaudhary,
2012
Sthapit et al.
2012
Vernooy, 2013
Community Technology Enable the conservation of diverse farmers’ plant
genetic resources within local communities as a
Development Trust
safeguard against genetic erosion and minimize
(CTDT), CBDC-Africa
threats
Strategic seed reserves at the community level in
case of natural disasters
Serve as a platform for knowledge exchange and
trade of seed
Venue for training and networking of farmers and
service providers
Create link between the communities and national
gene banks for easy access to genetic resources
Zinanga et al.
A strategy
2009
for the
enhancement
and regeneration
of plant genetic
resources
and ensures
Farmers’ rights
Oxfam, Nepal
Conservation,
food security
and livelihoods
Easy access to quality seeds and associated
technologies
Conservation of landraces
As a resource centre for materials and knowledge
Empower community and increase social
cohesiveness
Shrestha et al.
2012
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Promoted by
Objective of the seed bank
Overall goal
Citation
Parivartan/USC, Canada Conserve local seeds (emphasis on threatened)
Provide quality seeds (mainly of vegetables) for all
seasons
Increase income
Promote organic agriculture
Conservation,
food security
and livelihoods
Shrestha et al.
2012
Department of
Agriculture, Nepal
Easy access to quality seeds and associated
technologies
Conservation and utilization of local landraces
As resource centre for information
Empower community and increase social
cohesiveness
Seed and food
security
Shrestha et al.
2012
The Development Fund,
Norway, Bangladesh,
Costa Rica, Ethiopia,
Honduras, India, Nepal,
Thailand, Zambia and
Zimbabwe
Conserve local and modern varieties
Increase local seed security and contribute to
possible continued utilization of locally important
genetic diversity
Empower local institutions for managing local crop
diversity and knowledge
Community
resilience to
climate change
using diversity
Farmers’ rights
The
Development
Fund 2011
SAARC countries/
SAWTEE
Provide regional support to national seed security
efforts; address regional seed shortages through
collective actions and foster inter-country
partnerships
Increase seed replacement rate with appropriate
varieties at a faster rate
Act as a regional seed security reserve for member
states of SAARC countries1
Regional seed
and food
security
FAO and
SAARC, 2008
Adhikari, 2012
LI-BIRD, Nepal
Conserve access to local crop varieties, which are
hard to find outside farmers initiative;
provide access to quality seeds of varieties in
demand (can be local or modern);
Increase seed replacement rate;
Provide strategic seed reserve for adversity
Platform for social learning
Create a link between the communities and National
Gene Bank
Empowerment
Use for food
security
Conservation
through in situ
and ex situ
interface
Shrestha et al.
2012; 2013
Seed transactions in CSBs can happen in different forms such as seed loan, cash transaction
and/or social responsibility of maintaining rare or unique varieties or multiplication/
rejuvenation of local varieties for the community seed bank. Experience has demonstrated
that community seed banks are very effective for safeguarding portfolio of local varieties,
provisioning farmer’s access to seeds of local crop varieties and strengthening multifunctionality of the informal seed system (Shrestha et al. 2006; Shrestha et al. 2008; 2010 and
2012). It has also served as a backup for crop genetic resources (Zinanga et al. 2009; Shrestha
et al. 2012). In Nepal, this is also considered to be a strategy for on farm management of
genetic resources as it empowers community-based local institutions to hold the collections
of local crop diversity and take self-directed responsibility for maintenance, adaptation and
dissemination of traditional crop varieties (Table 2). It is important to note that community
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
22
seed banks with the objective of on farm conservation are not designed to supply
communities with their total seed requirement. Their key objective is to ensure access to local
crop diversity by serving as a source of germplasm for multiplication and allowing farming
communities to exchange (migration) and bulk up (colonization) in a decentralized fashion
for evolutionary adaptation and seed flow through social seed networks and interventions
like diversity fairs. This working modality in Nepal (Shrestha et al. 2006; 2008) is unique and
stands out from community seed banks in other countries. It is also important that the scale
of operation should be manageable at the community level. Diversity fairs are usually the
entry point for establishment of a community seed bank. The working modality is simple,
locally maintained, using traditional storage practices, and managed and controlled by the
local community for sharing access to and benefits of crop genetic resources.
Table 2: Roles, responsibilities and rights of community seed banks in the context of
community-based management of crop genetic resources.
Functions
Responsibility
Tools/methods12
Rights13
Maintenance
Deposition of local
varieties/collection
Characterization
Documentation
Diversity fairs
Diversity block
CBR
Rights to gather/collect
Right to save, use, sow, re-sow, exchange,
share or sell farm produced seed
Rights to register farmers’ varieties
Adaptation4
Multiplication
Selection
Diversity block
GB/PVS/COB/PPB
Rights to fair and equitable benefit sharing
when a PGR conserved by farmers is used to
breed new commercial variety
Rights to access farmers’ and other varieties
from genebank
Rights to release and register farmer bred
varieties
Dissemination
Distribution
Social networks
Diversity fairs
PVS
Diversity kits
Rights of farmers to exchange, barter, gift,
share and sell seeds
Rights to register community based seed
producer groups and sell truthfully labelled
seed
Continuity
Rejuvenation
Seed health
Diversity block
Rights to recognition and reward from the
government
Recognition of community seed bank by the
government
Note:- CBR: Community Biodiversity Register, GB: Grassroots Breeding, PVS: participatory Variety
Selection, COB: Clint oriented Breeding, PPB: Participatory Plant Breeding, PGR: Plant Genetic Resources
Functions
Functions of CSB are wide ranging and they include: conservation of plant genetic resources;
improving ease of access to local germplasm by the farming community, production
distribution of quality seed, maintaining community ownership/control on plant genetic
23
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
resources, etc. Community seed banks aim to promote the management and sustainable
use of both local and farmer-preferred modern varieties for food security and to improve
the livelihoods of farmers. Many community seed banks refer only to community-based
seed production and marketing (Manzanilla and Johnson 2012), but this term should not
be used if there is no function of plant genetic resource conservation activity (Shrestha et
al. 2012, LI-BIRD workshop synthesis).
Community seed banks tend to be small-scale local institutions that store seed on a shortterm basis, serving individual communities or several communities in surrounding
villages. This is a contrast with the functionality of a national genebank that usually is
broader (see Table 3 for a comparison). Community seed banks usually are inexpensive,
employing relatively simple low cost storage and documentation technologies. They carry
out collection and reception (of materials), replication, storage, distribution, germination
quality testing, and, in a number of cases, variety selection. During diversity fairs, surveys
or four cell analysis, rare and unique crops and varieties can be identified and collected by/
deposited in the community seed bank. The collection of seed of diverse local varieties in
community seed banks is usually maintained and administered by the local communities
themselves to ensure the availability of relatively large samples of planting materials or to
ensure the access of a small quantity of genetic resources in situations in which varieties
are lost or threatened (Almekinders et al. 1994). Empowered households will deposit rare
and unique local varieties that they maintain in the CSB as a form of social responsibility
(e.g., CSB in Bara, Nepal), although such donations are not common.
Table 3: Comparative potential functions, complementarities and gaps of community
seed banks and national genebanks
Functions
Community seed bank
National seed bank
Gaps
Collection
Safety duplicates stored in
National Gene Bank (NGB)
Passport data standardized
Prior Informed Consent (PIC)
in place
NGB serve as repository of
CSB
Targeted collection through
CSB
Mechanism needs to be
developed and formally put in
place
Multiplication
Diversity block used to
multiply small quantity seed
and use farmers’ plots for
large scale production for
supporting evolutionary
selection
NGB use CSB network
to multiply targeted seed
multiplication in production
environment to avoid genetic
drift of the accession
Formation of policy and
support needed for such
linkage
Technical capacity building
benefits to CSB
Characterization
Not all CSBs do this function.
Farmer descriptors used to
characterize the materials in
the diversity block to check
for variants.
Essential activity of national
gene bank and information
shared with CSB as incentive
for their contribution of seed
to the bank
Farmer friendly information
management and sharing
should be devised; the current
procedure and format of CBR
is too cumbersome for farmers
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
24
Functions
Community seed bank
National seed bank
Gaps
Storage
Depending upon crop species,
small quantity of seed stored
in ambient temperature using
local storage techniques and
knowledge
Preserved at medium and
long term cold storage with
controlled temperature and
humidity facility
Capacity building of CSB
curators to combine local
knowledge with scientific
principles of seed longevity,
germination and seed health
Action research to develop a
technical guide for CSB seed
handling and management
Participatory
Plant breeding
Knowledge and skill
enhancement of farmers
in participatory crop
improvement ensures
sustainability of CSB
Sharing gene bank materials
for repatriation, landraces
used as PVS and parents to
improve and strengthen local
seed system
Special training and
collaborative programmes are
needed to add value
Policy support for release
and registration of farmers’
varieties
Documentation
Simple inventory from
diversity fair, and CBR used
A standard germplasm
documentation system is
available
Minimum passport data
complementation between CSB
and NGB
Minimum set of database
management need to be
developed and piloted
for effective information
management
Distribution
Context specific mechanism
developed (seed transactions
in kind and cash or social
responsibility)
Freely accessible to all
users – farmers, community
and plant breeders and
researchers
Safety duplicates
Although there are limitations
to farmers’ to access NGB,
awareness needs to be built up.
Mainstreaming CSB into
national PGR system
Policy support as way to
implement Farmers’ Rights
Supportive seed regulatory
Provisioning of farmers’ rights Link to community based
(benefit sharing)
seed production groups and framework
local trade
Prior Informed Consent
Note:- CSB: Community Seed Bank, CBR: Community Biodiversity Register, NGB: National Gene Bank,
PGR: Plant Genetic Resources
Marketing
Principles of a community seed bank
Easy access of portfolio of local crop varieties and availability of seed with associated
information are important principles behind its establishment. Although the community
seed bank is seen as a means of seed and food security, it is increasingly also seen as an open
source of knowledge and genetic materials to ensure farmers’ rights, community autonomy
and ultimately, seed sovereignty of PGRFA (Shrestha et al. 2013; Kloppenburg 2010).
Vulnerability is a key characteristic of rainfed and dry lands systems and seed diversity
provides a key option to households for coping with vulnerability and building household
resilience, by giving farmers options or mechanisms for recovering from adversity. As
shown in Table 1, there is not a single identical type of community seed bank. But a number
of core principles common to all CSBs can be identified by synthesizing purpose, functions,
25
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
roles and responsibilities, working modality, technical competencies, governance and
information management. Drawing from the various Nepal case studies and learning,
the following common principles of community seed bank emerged in the context of
strengthening community based on farm management of agricultural biodiversity:
yy Conservation and revival of traditional crop varieties and documenting traditional
knowledge
yy Access to quality and quantity of locally adapted crop/varieties seeds19
yy Strengthening the multiple functions of the informal seed system and crop
improvement
yy Scale of operation should be locally managed and under the control of the farming
community
yy Empowering farmer organizations and supporting local governance
yy Provides a platform for social learning and collective action
One key principle is to strengthen the multiple functions of the informal seed system that
promote farmer-saved seed and exchange and access to crop genetic resource in a small
quantity from the community seed bank. Integrating community seed banks with markets
for sustainability might pose challenging principles of evolutionary maintenance of local
crop diversity and need to be handled with caution. These principles might need reviewing
if the purpose of community seed banks mainly focuses on commercial seed production
and marketing of modern varieties, and their functions are more closed to small scale
community seed producer groups (Devkota et al. 2008; Witcombe et al. 2010).
Typology
Lewis and Mulvany (1997) attempted to categorize five types of community seed banks
destined for crop production without emphasis on genetic diversity conservation. They
include: 1) de facto seed banks20, 2) community seed exchange21, 3) organized seed banks22,
4) seed savers’ networks23, and 5) ceremonial seed banks24. Within the changing global
policy context and challenges, a wide range of community seed banks have evolved. No
comprehensive literature reviews have been carried out so far but this chapter is based
upon review and implementation of CSB in Nepal and elsewhere.
19
20
21
22
23
24
For instance, the ones that are now being supported by the Government of Nepal for the dissemination
of registered seeds under the Seed Act 1988.
The sum of individual seed storage at household level or home gardens within a community.
Organized exchange of seed at household level in a community, for example, seed fair or diversity fair.
New local level institutions of organized collection, storage and exchange of seed of both local and
modern varieties.
New networks of seed savers groups organized for sharing seeds and information of heirloom and
heritage varieties in developed nations
Sacred groves and religious forest with focus on vegetative propagated perennial trees collectively
managed to local customs and tradition.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
26
Three types of community seed banks are emerging from the current analysis of reported
case studies and grey literature reviews: i) community gene bank, ii) community seed
bank, and iii) community gene and seed bank. Desk research and the first workshop of
community seed bank practitioners in Nepal reveal that there is a wide range of variation
depending upon various parameters. They include: i) goal and purpose of the seed bank
(in situ, ex situ, complementary conservation, seed security, food security, seed and
food sovereignty, community empowerment, community resilience, etc.), ii) rights and
governance, iii) kinds of seed (traditional variety, modern variety, hybrid, GMO), iv)
reproductive biology (self-pollinated, open and clonal, annual or perennial), v) agency
(CBO, NGO, donor, university, government) and v) impact groups (custodian farmers,
geographically selected area, marginal farmers, women farmers). So far no efforts have
been made to compare and contrast these types. Based on these factors, a new typology
framework is presented in Table 4.
Table 4: Typology of community seed banks
Parameters
Community gene bank
Community seed bank
Goal & purpose
In situ/on farm conservation
Seed and food security
Community custodianship and support
access and control over PGRFA
Farmers’ rights
Community level seed and food security
Seed sovereignty
Community empowerment
Community resilience
Function
Access to crop genetic resources
Availability of seed
Type of seed
Traditional varieties
Source of GMO free CGR5
Traditional varieties, modern varieties, PPB
products, hybrids
Source of GMO free CGR
Scale of operation
Community level
Community level with networks
Governance
Local organization
Local organization
Sustainability
CBM fund
CBM fund, CBSP, revolving fund
Collective actions
Yes with social responsibility of
conserving rare and unique CGR
Yes
Promoted by
NGO
NGO, Government6 and donors
Note:- PGRFA: Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, CGR: Crop Genetic Resources,
GMO: Genetically Modified Organism, CBSP: Community Based Seed Production, CBM: Community
Biodiversity Management, NGO: Non-governmental Organization
CSBs are often donor or institution driven approaches at the outset; however, over time,
many of them have redefined overall goals, objectives and functions as per the pressing
needs of the community, the level of community awareness and empowerment of local
institutions. The working modality and governance of community seed banks may differ
according to the core purpose of the bank, key functions and principles. They often play
diverse roles in local socio-political and socio-economic contexts.
Drawing lessons from Bara CSB in Nepal plant breeding, seed production and maintenance,
breeding knowledge and skills are key capacity building interventions. Participatory plant
breeding (PPB) processes bring farmers into contact with professional breeders and provide
27
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
a platform for sharing knowledge and skills related to plant breeding. By doing so, PPB can
strengthen farmer seed systems and maintain their landraces in a better way as breeders do in
their research plots. Besides offering varieties of farmers’ own choice, PPB also contributes to
farmers’ rights to save, select and exchange the materials generated from their own local varieties
and also to enhance their resilience to manage adversity (Halewood et al. 2007). Drawing from
the diverse experiences and lessons of the community seed bank, it is conceptualized as the
institutional platform for ensuring farmers’ rights, recognition, and access to and benefits
sharing of crop genetic resources (Figure 1). The framework of CSBs contributes to four key
results: i) conservation and restoration of locally important crops and varieties, ii) empowerment
of farming communities, iii) improvement of accessibility and availability of Plant Genetic
Resources for Food and Agriculture (PGRFA), and iv) enhancement of community resilience
to cope with adversity and to develop livelihood strategies.
Crowd sourcing
data
CBR
Diversity kits
Diversity fair
Diversity block
Four cell analysis
Seed fairs
What diversity you have?
How exesting diversity
manage and used?
Who maintains diveristy and how?
Participatory variety selection (PVS)
Conservation and revival
of traditional varieties
What are factors influencing farmers
decisions on choosing varieties?
Community seed
production
enterprises and
marketing
Community seed
bank
Diversity, flexibility, selection
Resilience, stability
Germplasm base
Seed fairs
Generating data for value
for cultivation and use
(VCU)
Community seed bank as open source
seed network (institutional
dimension fo recognition, access and
benefit sharing)
Participatory
variety selection
Training to farmer
groups for
maintenance breeding
Genetic purity
Germination, vigor, diesease/pest
Genetic purity
Germination, vigor, diesease/pest
Growing methods, knowledge on new materials
Uses and trade-off of traits
Seed production and quality
Seed availability and distribution
Strengthening multi
functionality of farmer’s
seed system
Diversity kits
Participatory seed
exchange meeting
Strengthing farmer
capacity in selection and
grassroot breeding (PPB)
Selection of traits from
existing variability (GB)
Participation plant breeding (PPB)
Knowledge and information
Figure 1. Conceptual framework of community seed bank as an institutional dimension of recognition, access and benefit sharing of crop genetic
resources through strengthening farmers’ seed systems and knowledge in selection and maintenance of varieties and seed (Sthapit, 2013).
Governance
A community seed bank, by terminology itself, is a community-managed approach that
expands local practices from the household seed store to the community level through
collective actions25. The value of the community seed bank is that the system is governed by
local people and locally developed rules and regulations. It facilitates to build social assets
through mobilization of the local community, leading to community empowerment, and
creates a platform of community based management of agricultural biodiversity through
use and conservation. In the absence of local organizations, external projects or NGOs can
use community seed banks to mobilize existing social capitals (trusts, networks and social
25
Action taken by a group (either directly or on its behalf through an organization) in pursuit of members’
perceived shared interest (Marshall 1998).
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
28
obligations) and organizational systems. Such a governance system is developed through
the process of community-driven participation that integrates knowledge and practices
into the social system, including local rules and norms (Sthapit et al. 2008ab). In order to
build such social capital, the following steps were carried out by the Global In situ Project
implemented by LI-BIRD, NARC and Bioversity International in Nepal: i) community
sensitization, ii) strengthening local institutions, iii) development of rules and regulations,
iv) construction of seed storage facilities, v) receiving seed deposits or collection of local
seeds, vi) documentation of community biodiversity register/inventory/passport data, vii)
mobilizing CBM funds for community development and conservation, viii) multiplication
and ix) monitoring of seed transactions and impacts (Sthapit et al. 2006). There are great
variations in governance systems, from an institutional framework similar to that of the
national gene bank (Zinanga 2009) to very informal household seed stores (Ramprasad
2007; Senapati 2011). The success and sustainability of community seed banks depend
upon how technical knowledge and management capacity of change agents are enhanced
and how local institutions are empowered to make self-directed decision making. Over
the years, a community seed bank operated by ADCS, Bara and supported by LI-BIRD has
developed a local method (established since 2003) for ensuring that all their varieties are
preserved every year at community level:
yy The organization prepares packets of 250 gm of seeds for each of the 86 rice varieties
and distributes them to farmers.
yy Rice has to be grown by every farmer in the group. If someone does not have a rice
field, he/she can grow finger millet or sponge gourd instead.
yy They started this system because everyone wanted to grow only a few aromatic
varieties.
yy All rice varieties are also grown in a diversity block.
This system is effective in ensuring the preservation of local crop varieties through farmers’
involvement, and can easily be replicated in other sites (e.g., Western Terai Landscape
Complex Project (WTLCP)) area.
Are there examples to learn from?
In the past, many community seed banks were established worldwide with significant
investments of resources in construction of physical assets such as buildings, machineries
and equipment (Feyissa 2000; Mujaju et al. 2003; Zinanga et al. 2009). However, most of
these are now non-functional. It would be good to learn from such failures so that similar
mistakes can be avoided in the future. Shrestha et al. (2013) observed that community
seed banks are most common in community biodiversity management programmes in
Bangladesh, Ethiopia, France, India and Nepal.
It has been observed that most of the donor funded initiatives started with improving
physical assets before consulting with the community. Consequently, the community of
farmers never had a proper understanding about the functions of the community seed
29
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
bank and its roles and responsibilities. Most of what was done appears to be top down
approaches without full understanding of the local needs and not valuing collective
action by locals. Although there are no official statistics of community seed banks in the
world, many countries reported from few (<10) to a large number (50-100) of community
seed bank (Shrestha et al. 2012; 2013; Vernooy 2013). There are not many published case
studies, or any successful examples, that mobilized social capital before collecting local
varieties, characterizing, documenting and storing seed in locally constructed structures.
Often, the purposes of establishing community seed bank were not clear. A technical
guide for maintenance of genetic purity, germination, viability and seed health is yet not
available that could be used to build the capacity of curators. A common standard format
of passport data collection is not used to facilitate sharing of information and materials
among networks of community seed banks and also national gene banks.
It was also observed that, as some community seed banks started to function, the people
who established them soon changed their basic roles and changed priorities when they
started to link to markets, and invested resources and energy in expanding scales of
operation without developing local human resource capacity. Seed transaction records of
15 community seed banks in Nepal by LI-BIRD ranged over 2 tons of local and over 43 tons
of modern varieties. Beneficiaries of accessing local seed are over 1800 whereas for modern
seed just over 900 (Shrestha et al. 2013). In African countries, the volume of seed transaction
per single community seed bank ranged between 40 to 300 tons (Engels, Polreich and Dullo
2008; Nakaponda 2010). When community seed banks try to function in such large scale
seed production, there is potential risk of mismanagement in production and delivery of
the quality of seed and maintenance of basic seed of local varieties, and also reduction
in the dynamic and evolutionary on farm management of local crop diversity. In case a
community wishes to convert its community seed bank to a small-scale community-based
seed producer group (CBSP) or to a seed company in order to improve use and availability
of high quality seed and improve farmer income (Devkota et al. 2008; Witcombe et al. 2010),
they should be allowed to do so under the banner of community-based seed production
group (CBSP) and not per se as a community seed bank. The advantage of such a decision
is guided by the nature of technical capacity required in seed production and seed trade
in rural markets. This can be addressed in policy guidelines at the country level. In Bara,
Nepal, the number of total transactions of local crop diversity was small (39 kg of local
and over 9000 kg of modern varieties). The purposes of this are to increase income of
farmers by producing quality seed bred by PPB or a national programme, support on
farm multiplication of small quality local varieties as crop genetic resources, spread seed
through farmer to farmer networks and maintain the evolvement of varieties in the local
environment. Those community seed banks that strike the right balance between local
capacity, facility and human resources are usually successful.
Shrestha et al. (2012) documented a few challenges in implementation of community seed
banks from the first national workshop on community seed banks held in Pokhara, Nepal (1415 June 2012). One of the challenges is to use the community seed bank as a local institutional
platform for on farm management of local crop diversity and also to institutionalize good
practices that address sustainability, and environmental as well as economic benefits. In
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
30
many studies, systematic steps for establishing and implementing community seed banks
that support farmer seed systems, when perceived as an open source system26 (diversity,
flexibility, selection) with quality seed production and distribution are not followed (Lewis
and Mulvany 1997; Friis-Hansen and Sthapit 2000; CIP-UPWARD 2003; Zinanga et al. 2009;
Development Fund 2011; Shrestha et al. 2012). In addition, like in the case of any bank, only
depositing and drawing funds is of limited value as it would not contribute to productive
actions. Activities need to expand to providing loans. Similarly, in the case of CSBs, additional
interventions, such as promoting PPB, can add value to the venture.
Drivers of successful community seed banks
Broadly, there were two types of drivers (motivating factors) for implementing community
seed banks: internal and external. Internal drivers include building social capital such as
trust, cooperation, collective action, local governance, community ownership, customary
rights, state of genetic resources, traditional knowledge, community resilience, benefit
sharing, etc. External drivers include international and national governance, climate
change, support, recognition, etc.
Access to local varieties
Farmers have imperfect access to information27 about varieties. Access to unique and
locally adapted traditional local varieties is often poor within the community, even when
a sufficient quantity of seed is available (Badstue 2006), simply because of poor access
to information (Tripp 2001), weak social networks (Subedi et al. 2003), social exclusion
(Sthapit and Joshi 1996), and weak institutional mechanisms (Shrestha et al. 2012). Farmers
often assume that traditional local varieties are usually maintained by someone within
the community and that they can obtain seeds from fellow farmers should they need
them (Bellon 2004). Such assumptions are often wrong because of weak social connections
(Poudel et al. 2007), farmers’ decisions on land allocation to local varieties (Meng 1997) and
farmers’ aspiration of increased income through commercialization (Smale et al. 1994). As
local institutions community seed banks monitor genetic erosion at the community level
by roughly categorizing i) the number of households growing a particular variety in a
large area, ii) the number of households growing in small areas and iii) the few households
growing in the variety in small areas. This information is validated by inter-village diversity
fairs to check the real availability of seed locally (Sthapit et al. 2006). Situations that relate
to (ii) and (iii) are critical indicators of genetic erosion of the community landscape
(Chaudhary et al. 2004). Having deeper understanding on how to maintain, monitor,
and propagate seed exchange structures will help to use and reintroduce varieties where
26
27
31
The Open Source Seed Initiative (OSSI) from the USA suggests an alternative IPR system. It explores
ways in which analogous ‘biological open source’ arrangements can be developed for plant germplasm.
This approach could facilitate access to parent materials and pre-breeding materials, from which farmers
could develop new varieties. OSSI was set up to facilitate innovation in plant breeding by creating a
licensing framework for exchanging germplasm, thus preserving the right to the unhindered use of
shared seeds and their progeny in subsequent breeding programs.
Access to diversity refers to people having adequate land (natural capital), income (financial capital) or
connections (social capital) to purchase or barter for a variety (Sperling et al. 2006).
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
population size is declining as well as to conserve local crop diversity at local and national
level. The community seed bank is one of the powerful locally driven institutions with
a clear objective of local landrace conservation and also serves to link the theories of in
situ and ex situ in practice. Sometimes a multitude of objectives might distract from the
main purpose of the community seed bank and therefore, a distinct purpose needs to be
identified from the outset.
Shrestha et al. (2006) in fact demonstrated the theory of the community seed bank
in practice in Kachorwa, Bara site in Nepal. It is still functional with a careful balance
between three key activities i) conservation of local crop diversity on a small scale, ii)
enhancing plant breeding knowledge and skill of the community by participating in
PPB and seed production, and iii) supporting community development and enhancing
household income through CBM funds to ensure conservation of native crops in situ. Other
communities have not taken the same level of ownership and collective actions in other
projects or NGO driven community seed bank initiatives in Nepal (Shrestha et al. 2012).
The historical development of community seed banks in Nepal is highlighted by Shrestha
et al. (2013, in this proceeding) with multiple functions: conservation of landraces/local
varieties; exchange and distribution mechanism; governance and operation of CSB and
empowerment of local communities. Learning from Nepal case examples of other CSBs, it
is possible to analyse sources of motivation for improving conceptual frameworks of the
community seed bank in the context of farmers’ livelihoods and food security as well as
conservation of local crop diversity.
One of the key drivers of the success in Bara, Nepal might be related to difficulty accessing
seed of local varieties through social connections and exchange. Of the 33 local rice varieties
documented in 1998, only 14 could be found on farm in 2003. The number of growers of local
varieties decreased from 68% to 32% and the total area occupied by local landraces decreased
from 17% to 3% (Shrestha et al. 2008). This alarming situation became one of the motivating
factors for establishing a community seed bank. Upon investigation of social networks in
this village, Subedi et al. (2003) and Poudel et al. (2007) found that social seed networks were
often weak, closed and linked only with smaller nodes of farmers. So access to local seed was
practically difficult as traditional sources of local varieties were drying up.
Within few years (2003-2005) of establishment of the community seed bank in Bara, 38 to
43% of poor small holder farmers had access to seed of 11 to 23 local varieties (Shrestha et
al. 2008) and this service has been well appreciated as there are no other sources of local
crop varieties in the community. Similarly, the CSB in Talium, Jumla was established by
farmers after they recognized that the crops and varieties that they depend on are not the
ones that are easily available from external sources. So they are on their own to ensure
access to their seeds.
Awareness
Diversity fair was conducted followed by documentation of Community Biodiversity
Register in Kachorwa and Begnas villages of Nepal. These activities raised a significant
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
32
level of public awareness on the importance of local crop diversity. In spite of this, the loss
of traditional crop varieties continues to be alarming even in this village (Chaudhary et al.
2004). Resource poor smallholder farmers who tend to have low production potential areas
(i.e. rain-fed and low fertility lands) still need local seeds that match their specific edaphic
and climatic conditions. This is one source of motivation when a seasoned community
organiser introduces the idea of a community seed bank.
Participatory plant breeding
Communities tend to realize the value of conservation when farmers are directly involved
in setting breeding goals of participatory plant breeding and developing their own variety
by crossing a local variety with a modern variety. In central Terai Nepal, Dhudhisaro, a rice
landrace was identified as a rare and unique variety grown by one household and 8.5% of the
total area of farmland (0.05 Katha land) and was disappearing from the community (Rana et
al. 1998; Chaudhary et al. 2004). Dhudhisaro landrace has no chance to survive in the present
context unless productivity of Dhudhisaro is improved by improving lodging resistance and
keeping the same level of grain quality. With the facilitation of the project staff, farmers
decided to develop a new variety with the positive traits of Dudhisaro (good eating quality
and adapted to rain fed conditions) and eliminate negative traits of Dudhisaro by incorporating
lodging, disease resistance from the improved variety BG 1442. Within the span of 7 years they
were able to develop a variety called Kachorwa-4 and started to do seed multiplication and
selling quality seed to other farming communities and raising income to support a community
seed bank and conservation of local varieties. In this process, the farming community not only
have realized the importance of maintaining landraces but also gained knowledge in plant
breeding, seed selection and marketing, thus motivating them to mobilize social capital for
collective actions on community-based management of local diversity (Figure 1).
Legitimizing and strengthening local institutions
Another important driver is to mobilize social capital to generate a community based
biodiversity management fund that can support a community seed bank and allow for seed
transactions (Shrestha et al. 2012; 2013). This process helps to develop rules and regulations
of local institution, governance, and establish legitimacy within the community as well as
with local government. Seed production and marketing of PPB products and local varieties
are being carried out to meet demand of local farmers and to generate income. Nevertheless,
community seed bank is locally recognized for providing access of traditional local varieties
whereas the extension, private and agrovet outlets are seen as the sources for modern and
hybrid varieties. If in the future, if the CSB are integrated functionally into national gene
banks28, then the national genetic resource management system and other public sector need
to be convinced how community seed bank can link in situ and ex situ conservation and
provide backup service for on-farm seed security in the country.
28
33
There is another school of thought that the beauty of a community seed bank is that it is decentralised,
community based and controlled and addresses local needs of the community, although supporting and
linking the network of a community seed bank functionally allows for the flow of genetic materials both
ways and strengthens community resilience in seed security.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Recognition
The community seed bank established by ADCS, Bara, has received recognition in various
ways. It is registered in the local government which is a kind of recognition and provides
local level legitimacy. The government nominated chair of ADCS to the National Agricultural
Biodiversity Coordination Committee is invited to participate in various national policy
meetings in policy decision-making. GEF/SGP/UNDP provided small grants to strengthen the
community seed bank system. LI-BIRD has continued to highlight its contribution in Nepal
and globally. Such recognition from donors, government and civil society has also been a
source of internal motivation and pride for the community. A regular visit to the community
seed bank by donors, government officials and farmers’ groups has a positive impact in the
local community. Similarly, some of ADCS members also got the opportunity to visit abroad.
Agent of change
At the outset, it is critical that one fully experienced community organizer should be based
in the community as a change agent to present new ideas and techniques to adequately
address community problems and break down barriers. Experience of social mobilization
and technical competencies of such a community organiser29 was a key external factor for
the success of the community seed bank in Bara and later in other communities. Such change
agents should work locally for developing teams of local leaders internally to mobilize social
capital and bring about behavioural change. Such agents play a key role in establishing a
legitimate governing structure and mechanism for seed production, distribution, sharing
seeds and benefits and empowering Agriculture Development and Conservation Society
(ADCS) and women’s groups to take self-directed decision-making. Establishment of
ADCS in the community helped to break the cultural barrier to work with women groups.
Exchange visits of women’s groups to successful CBOs sparked collective action.
Climate change
In the context of climate change, over-reliance on a handful of crops and crop varieties puts
global food security at greater risk. Diversity fairs and community biodiversity registers
have been eye-openers for communities that local crop genetic diversity is in danger of
disappearing. During the last decade, farmers have experienced a number of stochastic
events and unfavourable seasons that sparked the self-realization that farmers will be
better off with a diverse portfolio of crops and varieties that match a wide range of agroecosystems and external factors. As a result, interventions that support and strengthen
informal seed system are also newly acquired sources of external motivations (Sthapit et
al. 2010). Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security of CGIAR Research Programme
7 (CCAFS)30 and other rural development donors have seen community seed banks as the
platform of rural institutions that facilitate uses and availability of diverse portfolios of
crops and varieties at the local level to improve community resilience in the face of climate
change (de Boef et al. 2013; Gonsalves 2013).
29
30
We acknowledge the contribution of Pitambar Shrestha (LI-BIRD) and local level resource persons for
spearheading the idea of ADCS and community seed bank in Bara, Nepal.
http://library.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10947/2565/crp_7_Proposal_Final.pdf?sequence=1
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
34
Policy
In many countries, the sudden interest in community seed banks has been triggered not
only by climate change resilience, but also because CSBs might be an important tool to
institutionalize farmers’ rights over agriculture genetic resources in the context of growing
pressure on these countries for securing breeders’ rights. Since South Asian countries are
a signatory to the Agreement of the SAARC Seed Bank and a party to other international
agreements such as the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and
Agriculture (ITPGRFA) and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), practitioners
and experts are discussing the required functional linkages between the SAARC Seed
Bank and community seed banks to ensure seed security and farmers’ rights in the
region. Countries still have a long way to go to strengthen their farmers’ rights acts and
rules that ensure rights to save, use, exchange and sell seed; protect traditional knowledge;
and participate in decision-making and benefit sharing (Adhikari 2012; Bala Ravi 2009;
Ruiz and Vernooy 2012).
Concluding remarks
It is important to develop agreement on the definition and typology of community seed
bank and associated features. Unless that happens, there will be fragmentation and limited
synergy. The concept of the community seed bank stimulates gene bank scientists, breeders
and development workers to find new ways of collaborating with farmers and vice versa in
the different functions of farmer seed systems. Farmers’ seed systems can be substantially
improved through the introduction of scientific knowledge and practices developed by
the formal seed system. Participatory crop improvement using local crop diversity can
enhance knowledge and technical competencies of community seed banks and address
community needs for a diverse set of crops and varieties. There is renewed interest in the
theory and practices of community seed banks for strengthening farmers’ seed and food
security. In the wake of climate change, community seed banks can provide immediate
access to locally adapted diverse portfolios of crops and genetic diversity. This will in
turn develop community resilience to cope with vulnerability caused by climate change
and market forces. Furthermore, community seed banks as a platform of communitybased management of agricultural biodiversity can ensure the effective implementation of
Farmers’ Rights (in terms of recognition, participation in decision-making, benefit sharing
and developing supportive policy and seed regulatory frameworks). This also provides an
opportunity to i) interact and integrate informal and formal seed systems for addressing
local problems, ii) promote in situ and ex situ linkages to back up genetic resources locally
as building block of crop improvement and food security, and iii) ensure community
development in a sustainable way. There are many challenges and opportunities to use
the platform of the community seed bank as an open source seed network in order to i)
strengthen multi-functionality of farmer seed systems, ii) conserve and revive traditional
crop varieties, iii) strengthen farmer capacity in selection of traits, plant breeding and
seed production, iv) generate data for value for cultivation, and v) improve access to and
availability of local crop diversity.
35
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Acknowledgements
Reviewers of the paper are gratefully acknowledged for providing critical and useful
comments and suggestions. They include: V. Ramanatha Rao, Ram Rana, Kamlesh
Adhikari, Sajal Sthapit, Pashupati Chaudhary and Ronnie Vernooy.
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Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
40
A Brief Overview of Community Seed Bank Initiatives in
Nepal31
BAL KRISHNA JOSHI
National Agriculture Genetic Resources Centre, Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC), Khumaltar, Lalitpur
Corresponding email: joshibalak@yahoo.com
Photos: Pitambar Shrestha (left and top right), Chandra Gurung (bottom right)
Introduction
Agricultural genetic resources (AGRs) are the basis of human life. Diverse AGRs have
been developed over time and maintained across regions by farming communities.
However, diversity is now decreasing mainly due to increased availability and cultivation
of modern varieties, both in the markets and through agricultural development agencies.
Multiple use values of local varieties have been superseded by single value, i.e. the high
yield of modern varieties. Over time, however, agronomists and farmers have begun to
understand the value of local crop diversity for food security as well as the importance of
access to seeds by farmers.
The modern agricultural system has increased the dependency of farmers on private seed
companies for seeds and planting materials. This has led farming communities to look for
the alternative, so that local diversity can easily be accessed and conserved. Community
seed banks (CSB) have emerged as an alternative to conserve local diversity as well as to
make seeds accessible to all farming communities. CSB is a dynamic system of conservation
(conservation through utilization) and is considered a viable, effective and sustainable
option for the conservation of AGRs. With the objective of preserving landraces and
making planting materials and associated information available to farmers, the concept of
31
41
This paper was not presented in the workshop.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
CSB emerged in Nepal in 1994. In the recent past, many organizations have supported the
establishment of CSBs across the country.
Initiation of community seed bank in Nepal
In the past, farmers had three seed source options, namely saving and exchanging among
farmers, buying seeds from seed companies and agricultural development agencies. The
last two sources were only for modern varieties. USC-Canada Nepal (USCCN) recognized
the importance of local crop diversity for improving food security and started sustainable
agricultural activities in Dalchoki, Lalitpur in 1989. Since 1992, USCCN started a program,
Landraces Enhancement and Conservation (LEC) with the objectives of 1) developing sitespecific varieties by utilizing local crop genepools, 2) increasing agricultural diversity by
conserving local landraces, 3) making them competitive and 4) strengthening farmer’s
informal seed networks. Conservation through utilization was the main strategy
considered to conserve local crop genetic resources. Under the LEC programme, seed and
plant selection criteria were developed in consultation with farmers. During discussion,
smallholder and marginalized farmers reported that they could not save the seeds for
the next season and that there was no way to obtain the seeds of local varieties. They
mentioned, however, that seeds of modern varieties were available. To solve this problem,
USCCN started collecting and storing seeds of local varieties, making them available
to farmers since 1994 in Dalchoki VDC. This was the first community seed bank in the
country initiated by a NGO. In 1996, a two-story building was constructed for storing
seeds and displaying traditional agricultural tools and knowledge. The first floor was
almost underground allowing to keeping the room cool without too much fluctuation in
temperature. Gradually, Dalchoki CSB started collection, conservation, improvement and
multiplication of locally available landraces, making them available to poor farmers (see,
Bhandari et al. in this volume for details).
With a similar objective, Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC), Local Initiatives for
Biodiversity, Research and Development (LI-BIRD) and Bioversity International supported
a farming community to establish a CSB at Kachorwa, Bara in 2003 (Figure 1). This
community seed bank has been managed by a farmers’ organization since its beginning.
Bara district is highly influenced by modern agricultural technologies, which has resulted
in loss of traditional varieties and increased dependency for agricultural inputs. In spite
of this situation, crop landraces have still been found in limited areas grown by a limited
number of households to meet the seed requirements for variable growing environments
and various household needs. Bioversity International’s Global in situ conservation
project brought awareness among the communities about the importance of local crop
diversity and supported farming community to conserve and utilize the local genepools.
Supported by the project, the Bara CSB focused on the conservation and enhancement of
local varieties.
From the learning of the Global in situ conservation project, LI-BIRD has supported the
establishment of 14 other CSBs across the country (in Jhapa, Sankhuwasabha, Dhading,
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
42
Tanahu, Nawalparasi, Dang, Bardiya, Kailali, Kanchanpur, Doti and Jumla districts). LIBIRD has published many papers in proceedings and book chapters and also a source
book on CSBs. Parivartan Nepal, a local NGO based in Hetauda, also supported the
establishment of a CSB in Sindhuli district in 2006 focusing on local crop varieties (chapter
6 of this volume).
The Department of Agriculture (DoA) has been aware of the low adoption rate of modern
varieties and very low seed replacement rate for cereal crops (about 6%), most likely due to
the unavailability of suitable varieties and poor access to modern varieties by smallholder
farmers. To address these challenges and improve the agricultural productivity of
poor, marginalized and subsistence farmers, the Government of Nepal announced the
establishment of a number of CSBs in its Budget Speech of the 2065/66 fiscal year. The
DoA has developed CSB implementation guidelines including a plan to establish CSBs in
different districts across the country. Until now, the DoA has supported the establishment
of five CSBs in Dadeldhura, Sindhupalchowk, Okhaldhunga, Gulmi and Jajarkot. The
main objectives of the CSBs under the DoA are to enhance access, exchange, use and
management of quality seeds of farmers’ varieties and modern varieties, according to the
preferences and choice of the farmers, and their production, processing and storage in a
community seed bank (see, chapter 9 of this volume for more details).
Oxfam Nepal introduced the CSB approach under the food security and livelihood
programme in 2009 in Dadeldhura and Dailekh districts after realizing that the availability
and access to seeds, both in terms of quality and quantity, were key constraints, especially
for farmers in remote areas of Nepal. Oxfam Nepal has supported the establishment of 90
CSBs (65 in Dailekh and 25 in Dadeldhura districts) in 2009 with the objectives of promoting
community access to quality seeds of crop varieties and associated technologies and the
conservation of local varieties (chapter 8 of this volume).
In 2011, the Nepal Agriculture Genetic Resources Centre (Genebank, NARC) supported
the establishment of a CSB in Simariya village of Sunsari district targeting the conservation
and enhancement of local crop genetic resources. The genebank also provided training on
CSB management to CSB members in 2012. The genebank considers CSBs as an important
strategy for conserving genetic resources on-farm and started working with four CSBs
(Dalchoki, Lalitpur; Kachorwa, Bara; Simariya, Sunsari and Gadariya, Kailali) from 2012.
At present (June 2013), there are a total of 115 CSBs in Nepal (Table 1 and Figure 1) including
two CSBs in Parbat and Rasuwa districts. CSBs are mainly for crop species which produce
orthodox seeds. However, the community seed bank in Gadariya, Kailali has established
a field genebank of mango in 2011, the community seed bank in Purkot, Tanahu has
maintained a field genebank of banana, and similar types of field genebanks are being
established in Dalchoki and Kachorwa communities. Community field genebanks are for
conserving crop species which either produce recalcitrant seeds or do not produce any
seeds. They are managed by the community.
43
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Table 1: List of community seed banks (CSB) in Nepal
Supported by
No. of CSBs
Districts
Priority crops
USCCN
Year started
1994
1
Lalitpur
Local crop species
LI-BIRD/NARC/
/Bioversity
2003
1
Bara
Local crop species
Parivartan Nepal
2006
1
Sindhuli
Local crop species
2007
3
Bardiya, Kailali, Kanchanpur Local crop species
2008
3
Kailali, Kanchanpur
LI-BIRD
DoA
2009
8
2009
3
Doti, Dang, Nawalparasi,
Tanahu, Dhading,
Sankhuwasabha, Jhapa,
Jumla
Dadeldhura,
Sindhupalchowk,
Okhaldunga
Local crop species
Local crop species
Improved varieties
2011
2
Gulmi, Jajarkot
Improved varieties
Oxfam Nepal
2009
90
Dadeldhura, Dailekh
Improved varieties
Genebank/NARC
2011
1
Sunsari
Local crop species
Total
113
*CSBs in Parbat and Rasuwa have not been included in the Table due to limited information. Data based
on information collected from collaborating agencies.
Target crop species and strategies
In Nepal, CSBs can be grouped into three categories based on the types of genetic materials
they handle. These are a) CSBs which deal with only local varieties, b) CSBs which handle
only modern varieties and c) CSBs which include both local and modern varieties. The first
type of CSB is more important in regards to conservation of AGRs.
Basically, CSB is a system of conservation and utilization of local genetic resources, operated
at local levels and run by the community. Broadly, CSB is a community-led management
approach of agriculturally important planting materials which involves production,
collection, processing, storage, distribution (exchange, loan, grant, sell) and marketing of
locally important genetic resources.
A common CSB strategy is to include all kinds of planting materials that are important
to the local community, either in a community seed bank or community field genebank.
CSB is managed and controlled by a local community. CSB can sell or exchange the seeds
with farming community members or provide space to farmers for storing seeds. A prime
strategy of any CSB should be its contribution to food security at the local level through
conserving and enhancing local crop diversity. Only conservation is not a long lasting
strategy to sustain CSB, therefore, conservation through utilization should be the primary
operational strategy of a CSB.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
44
Dadeldhura-26
2009
Jumla-1
Doti-1
2009
Kanchanpur-2
2007/08
Dailekh-65
2009
Kailali-3
2007/08
Mustang
Jajarkot-1
2011
Manang
Bardiya-1
2007
Parbat-1
Lalitpur-1
1995
Gorkha
Tanahu-1
2009
Dang-1
2009
Dhading-1
2009
Gulmi-1
2011
Rasuwa-1
Nuwakot
Ktm
Nawalparasi-1
2009
Sindhupalchok-1
2009
Kavre
Lalitpurpalanchok
1
bhaasha
huw
Sank 2009
1
ngaldhu
Okha 2009
Sindhuli-1
2006
Bara-1
2003
Udaypur
ari-1
Suns
2011
Jhapa-1
2009
Figure 1: Locations and starting dates of community seed banks in Nepal
Importance and advantages of a CSB
It is well understood that CSB is a social system of conservation and utilization of local
genetic resources, operated at local levels and run by the community. CSB ultimately helps
to conserve genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge in an evolutionary
way. The options of planting materials provided by CSBs to the farmers are considered an
important approach to increase the production of crops at the household level. CSB plays
an important role in sustainable agriculture development. The following are the major
advantages and roles of CSB:
yy CSB helps to conserve local landraces as well as improved varieties through
continued utilization.
yy Samples stored in the CSB are considered safety duplicates because many of these
accessions are generally stored in the National Genebank.
yy CSB supports the preservation of rare and endangered landraces.
yy All farmers have easy access to planting materials when they are needed.
yy Poor farmers do not need to store seeds for planting.
yy CSB helps to continuously increase the adaptability of local landraces because of the
dynamic nature of conservation.
yy Farmers have selection options: seed bank as well as diversity blocks.
yy Farmers have access to information regarding landraces and improved varieties.
yy All local farmers have access to information on what planting materials are available
at the local level.
yy The use of a CSB for technology transfer and genetic resource characterization can be
effective.
45
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Lesson learned
Community seed banks and community field genebanks (CFGB) are effective and efficient
systems for conserving agriculturally important varieties of different crop species in a
particular locality. Conservation through utilization is the strategy followed in the CSB
and CFGB which are dynamic systems for the conservation and evolution of genes. This
ultimately contributes to food security due to the higher adaptability of varieties. All
farmers in the community have access to all kinds of planting materials and associated
knowledge that are available at the local level. Different approaches and strategies should
be followed based on the localities and communities for sustaining the CSB and CFGB.
References
CDD. 2012. Community seed bank. Crop Development Directorate (CDD), Department of
Agriculture, Kathmandu. Available at http://www.doacdd.gov.np/index.php.
Green K. 2003. Nepal: In troubling times – something to bank on. Jottings. USC Canada. Available
at http://usc-canada.org/UserFiles/File/JottingsJanuary2003.pdf.
Green K. 2012. Community seed bank: International experience. Seeds of Diversity 25:1. Available
at http://usc-canada.org/UserFiles/File/SoD-25-1-USC-Eng.pdf.
Shrestha P., A. Subedi, B. Paudel and B. Bhandari. 2011. Community seed bank: a source book.
LI-BIRD, Pokhara (in Nepali).
Shrestha P., B. Sthapit, A. Subedi, D. Poudel, P.K. Shrestha, M.P. Upadhyay and B.K. Joshi. 2008.
Community seed bank: Good practice for on-farm conservation of agricultural biodiversity.
In: On-farm Management of Agricultural Biodiversity in Nepal: Lessons Learned (BR Sthapit,
D Gauchan, A Subedi and D Jarvis, eds). Proceedings of National Symposium, 18-19 July
2006. Kathmandu, Nepal, pp.112-120.
Shrestha P., S. Sthapit, R. Devkota and R. Vernooy. (2012). Workshop summary report. National
workshop on community seed banks, 14-15 June 2012, Pokhara, Nepal. LI-BIRD/USC Canada
Asia/Oxfam Nepal/Bioversity International.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
46
Establishment and Present Status of Dalchoki Community
Seed Bank in Lalitpur, Nepal
BHARAT BHANDARI1, MOHAN HAMAL2, JITBAL RAI2, DHURBA SAPKOTA3, KRISHNA SANGEL3, BAL
KRISHNA JOSHI4 and PRATAP SHRESTHA1
USC Canada Asia, Bastolathar, Mahendrapool, Pokhara, Nepal, Corresponding email: bbhandari@usc-asia.org
SAHAS Nepal, Dalchoki, Lalitpur,
3
Dalchoki Community Development Committee, Dalchoki, Lalitpur,
4
National Agricultural Genetic Resources Centre, Khumaltar, Lalitpur.
1
2
Photos: USC Canada Asia (left), Piambar Shrestha (top right)
Introduction
Seed is the most valuable input for agriculture that has both public and private value in
the economy and conservation of Plant Genetic Resources (PGRs) worldwide. Community
seed bank is considered to be an approach that promotes conservation and use of local
crop genetic resources through the functions of strengthening seed systems and mobilizing
communities for managing information and PGRs that are at verge of loss from the local
production systems. It is therefore a community-led approach in which farmers and
their local institutions are involved in collection, storage, exchange, distribution and
maintenance of local crop seeds.
Community seed bank is one of the concepts being advanced as a component of sustainable
agriculture contributing to conservation and community livelihoods of marginal farmers
and their production environments. It is believed that community seed banks were first
initiated during the late 1980s in Africa, particularly in Ethiopia, as a response to hardship
and famine, and later on, as an instrument of post war recovery of the country’s crop
47
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
genetic resources (Berg and Abay, 2008). Later on, they spread around the world with the
support of development organizations working in the sector of seed security and seed
systems. USC Canada, an international non-governmental organization established in
1945 in Canada, has played a catalytic role in supporting and promoting small community
seed and gene banks in its programme countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America. USC
established CSBs to conserve local seeds and strengthen seed supply systems locally.
In Nepal, a community seed bank was first established in USC Nepal’s Integrated
Community Development Programme (ICDP) in Dalchoki Village Development Committee
(VDC) of Southern Lalitpur in 1994. The Global project entitled ‘‘Strengthening the
Scientific Basis of In Situ Conservation of Agricultural Biodiversity’’ jointly implemented
by LI-BIRD, Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC) and Bioversity International
systematically piloted community seed banks in 2003 as an option to conserve local
landraces through empowering communities to develop a system that increases access
to quality seed at the local level. It was reported useful for small and marginal farmers
to make them self-reliant in seed and, also for farmers who are living in risk prone areas
where there are frequent droughts, floods and so on (Shrestha et al. 2006). However, there
is a lack of documentation of the historical background of the community seed bank, its
process, progress and community benefits in Nepal. This paper attempts to fill this gap to
some extent through a case documentation of the Dalchoki community seed bank.
Establishment of the Dalchoki community seed bank
Dalchoki Community seed bank is one of the results of the work of USC Canada in Nepal.
USC Canada has been continuously providing assistance for the development of poor and
disadvantaged communities of remote rural areas of Nepal for the last 35 years through
various integrated development and sustainable agricultural programmes. In 1991, the
then named USC Canada Nepal (USCC-N) started implementing Integrated Community
Development Programme (ICDP) in Dalchoki, Ghusel and Lele VDCs of Southern
Lalitpur. The goal of the programme was to enhance the socio-economic conditions of
people through improving food security, formation and mobilization of rural capital,
providing education support, improving sanitation conditions and the development of
local institutions (ICDP annual report 1998). The programme in its first phase focused in
providing trainings and support for activities such as group formation and mobilization,
organic farming, seed management, bee keeping, livestock management, and improving
schools and drinking water facilities. Initially, there was no plan to establish a community
seed bank when USCC-N designed and started ICDP even though the programme had
food security as one of the components.
The ICDP area was rich in the agricultural biodiversity that is essential for the enhancement
of food and nutrition security. Farmers were growing several local varieties of cereals,
pulses, oilseeds and vegetables in their farms. After five years of work, USCC-N, in second
phase of the programme, realized that some of these crop varieties were in danger of loss
from the production system locally. Most of the farmers were using low quality seeds
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
48
due to poor knowledge and skills in seed selection in major crops. Furthermore, the area
was gradually receiving improved seeds and other production inputs such as fertilizer
and pesticides from outside when the mobility of farmers increased to nearby cities.
Community people expressed such situations in a food security workshop discussion in
1994 in which programme staff and communities began to think about community seed
bank as a concept to integrate in ICDP. This would be done with the aim to promote seed
security and conservation of crop genetic resources. ICDP planned to pilot a community
seed bank immediately at Dalchoki VDC to conserve, enhance and multiply seeds of local
varieties that help to increase access to seeds locally. The major stages of its establishment
and development are summarized in table 1.
Table 1: Timeline of community seed bank establishment and development at Dalchoki,
Lalitpur
Time frame
Activities
1991-1993
•
•
Initial implementation of ICDP in Dalchoki, Ghusel and Lele VDCs by USCN
Formation of Dalchoki Community Development Committee (DCDC) and Ghusel
Community Development Committee (GCDC)
•
Concept of community seed bank developed by food security related workshop and staff
sent to Ethiopia for training on conservation and utilization of PGR through community
seed/gene banking
Initiation of local seed collection, documentation, conservation and production in Dalchoki,
Nallu and Ghusel VDCs
Expansion of working area into Shankhu, Bhukhel, Chaughare, Bhardeu, Bhattedanda,
Ekudol and Malta VDCs of southern Lalitpur
1994-1996
•
•
•
•
•
1997-2002
2003-2009
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
2010 to date
•
•
Construction of community seed bank building at Dalchoki
Mass training to farming communities on seed selection, storage and conservation
CSB started producing, storing and exchanging seeds, particularly maize and some
vegetables
Loss of some physical properties and documents due to armed conflict situation
ICDP phasing out and community seed bank handed over to community with a
commitment to provide small support to continue and strengthen community seed bank
functions for some additional years
CSB collected seed samples rather than producing and collecting bulk seeds as before
Formation of organic agriculture cooperative to mobilize financial resources and promote
marketing of seeds and agricultural produce
Severely constrained to continue and maintain community seed bank functions due to
conflict and lack of initiatives in CSB committee
Started reviving CSB activities in production, collection and exchange of seeds in some
crops (maize, rapeseed, broad leaf mustard, peas, bean, radish) with the support of USCCA
and SAHAS-Nepal
Initiated documentation and monitoring the status agricultural biodiversity through
working through groups and organizing seeds/diversity fairs
Maintained the infrastructure of CSB complex with the support of the VDC and increased
facilities for seed conservation
Increased collaboration and linkages with local government (VDC, DDC) and other
government agencies NAGRC, DADO to promote conservation and seed production as a
mechanism for their sustainability
Source: Review report of LI-BIRD for USCCA (2009) and community discussions (2012)
49
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
The Dalchoki community seed bank emphasized the improvement of the landraces
through participatory approaches and the enhancement of quality of farm saved seeds
of crop varieties that help to increase production and productivity in households as well
as the promotion of selling seeds in the local market as an option to generate income for
community seed bank communities. Dalchoki community seed bank therefore has strong
components of PGR conservation as it was inspired to halt the loss of crop varieties from
the production system locally. To diversify its functions and promote utilization of locally
potential crop varieties, collaboration with a local organic cooperative, government
agencies and non-government stakeholders were developed.
Brief introduction to community seed bank site
All VDCs of USCC-Nepal programme areas in Lalitpur represent the rugged topography
of hills and mountains, between the altitude ranges of 1200 to 2400 meters above sea level.
Dalchoki community seed bank is located at an altitude of 2000 masl. and is about 20
kilometers south from the district headquarter, Lalitpur. It is the entry point for many other
southern VDCs of Lalitpur district. Southern Lalitpur represents a remote area in terms of
geography, access to public transportation and many other basic facilities and government
support services, even though it is relatively close to Nepal’s capital, Kathmandu.
ICDP VDCs are populated with Chettri, Magar and Tamang ethnic groups. Among them,
Tamang is the dominant community in most of the programme VDCs. However, Chettri
are dominant in Dalchoki, followed by Tamang. Agriculture and livestock are the major
livelihood strategies in the area. The majority of farmers have a land holding which is not
large enough to produce sufficient food for the family. Due to the work of non-governmental
organizations to support communities, some households, particularly of Chettri and
Magar communities, are motivated to produce vegetables and raise livestock as income
generating activities. However, in the Tamang community, the majority of young people
are out of the home in search of labour work in nearby urban and peri-urban areas.
Process of establishment and management of Dalchoki community seed
bank
The programme organized a food security workshop in 1994 where the community seed
bank concept was discussed for the first time as a way to promote local crop varieties
by increasing awareness and access to quality seeds through community seed bank
establishment. USCC-N then decided to support communities to establish a community
seed bank that provides services for the community in its second phase of the ICDP. In the
same year, USCN sent a staff to Ethiopia for PGR conservation training and exposure that
helped greatly to enhance staffs capacity to support community to initiate the community
seed bank. At the same time, the programme extended its working area in additional
eight VDCs of Southern Lalitpur. In consultation with programme communities, USCC-N
decided to select Dalchoki VDC for community seed bank as it was the entry point for
many Southern VDCs that makes community easy to collect, exchange and sale seeds in
the community seed bank.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
50
The programme adopted a group approach to organize communities and to mobilize
them in agriculture and community development interventions. 38 groups were oriented
on the concepts of community seed banking for conserving local seeds and improving
access to quality seeds through promoting seed production, collection, exchange and sale
by the community seed bank. USCC-N supported documentation of agrobiodiversity
in a Community Biodiversity Register (CBR) and the maintenance of a plant herbarium
through group mobilization. During the period of 1997-2002, a modern community
seed bank building was constructed with underground storage facilities. Community
groups were provided trainings on seed conservation, selection and storage practices.
Some of these groups took initiatives to transform themselves to Ecological Agricultural
Cooperatives. Farmer groups of Dalchoki VDC started using the community seed bank as
a common place to store maize seeds. However, the gearing up of the Maoist movement
negatively affected community seed bank activities. A meeting of groups and a cooperative
of Dalchoki VDC decided to establish a local institution named Dalchoki Community
Development Committee (DCDC) in 2002. The purpose of DCDC was to provide services
to the community and manage the community seed bank by mobilizing local groups and
cooperatives. The programme provided small fund support for DCDC. USCC-N terminated
ICDP and handed over the resources to communities, including community seed bank
facilities to manage themselves. However, USCC-N continued to support the community
seed bank through DCDC to strengthen activities after the programme termination.
In the initial years, USCC-N site based staffs played an active role in managing community
seed bank activities. They documented biodiversity and maintained a herbarium of plant
species as community resources. Seed samples of crop varieties were collected through
mobilizing community groups of programme VDCs and maintained in the community
seed bank. Gradually, USCC-N staffs realized the need of local institutions to manage
the community seed bank and broadened the geographical coverage in ten VDCs. The
community role in managing the community seed bank was increased when DCDC formed
and took over the resources. Institutional modality and working procedures were developed
but never implemented due to the limited capacity of community to understand and manage
community seed bank functions by mobilizing community groups and cooperatives.
Political unrest also affected DCDC’s efforts to effectively manage the community seed
bank. Some seeds and physical properties were destroyed, which discouraged DCDC to
continue CSB activities in early 2000. Lack of technical staff in USCC-N at that time also
hindered support in proper functioning of the Dalchoki community seed bank. Before
handing over the community seed bank to DCDC, ICDP provided a number of trainings for
community seed bank communities in each group and cooperative about agrobiodiversity
conservation, promotion of organic and sustainable agricultural practices and promotion
of local crop varieties. The majority of training participants were women. Resource
farmers from each group and cooperative also received separate trainings and support
for seed production, processing, storage and market management. These activities were
of high priority because the community seed bank was viewed as a vehicle to disseminate
sustainable agricultural practices to contribute for food security among farmers.
51
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
In 2006, they changed some of the executive members in DCDC to revive its functions and
to coordinate groups, cooperatives and manage the community seed bank. USC Canada
Asia (USCCA) supported their effort to continue community seed bank functions by
hiring a local staff and maintaining some of the facilities for seed collection and storage.
In 2009, an independent review of the community seed bank was done with the support
of USCCA to suggest gaps and recommend support for improving local seed systems
and agrobiodiversity management on farm. This review report, together with USCCA
inputs, insisted to formulate a strategy and action plans for operating the community
seed bank function under DCDC management. In 2010, the CSB had an opportunity to
collaborate with SAHAS-Nepal’s Local Initiatives for Food Security Transformation
(LIFT) project that is also helping to revive community seed bank functions. Subsequently,
DCDC has established its collaboration with local government, National Agricultural
Genetic Resource Center (NAGRC) and District Agriculture Development Office (DADO)
for conservation, enhancement and seed multiplication with particular focus on cereals,
oilseeds and vegetable crops.
Status, capacity and provisions of community seed bank to provide services
to communities
At present, the major activities being carried out by Dalchoki community seed bank are
production and collection of maize, rapeseed and vegetables seeds and selling to farmers of
the surrounding area. Mostly farmers from some wards of Dalchoki and nearby VDCs have
been benefitted from this activity. However, DCDC has a wide network of many groups
and organic cooperatives covering ten VDCs with 1,518 members, among which 59.3% are
female (Table 2). Many of these groups and cooperatives are still active in their locality.
These would be a great human asset to mobilize as they have been oriented by ICDP in the
conservation of crop genetic resources and seed production as well as group saving and
credit schemes that are helping to generate and mobilize financial resources locally. They
could also contribute to provide small financial support for running community seed bank
activities if they feel a sense of ownership of the community seed bank.
Table 2: Farmers groups and cooperatives and their affiliated members from ten VDCs
Group/cooperative
Number
Number of members
Female
Male
Total
Farmer’s groups
30
692
756
1148
Organic agriculture cooperatives
8
208
162
370
Total
38
900
Source: Record obtained from Dalchoki Community Seed Bank
918
1,518
The capacity of DCDC has been analyzed based on its physical, technical, social and financial
status. DCDC owns about a 1,000 square meter area with a facility for drinking water and
rest rooms. It has a two-story concrete building with 28 metric tons seed storage capacity.
There are four rooms that serve as a resource centre, a training hall and kitchen facilities.
These are adequate facilities to serve as a community seed bank and resource centre for
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
52
Dalchoki and its adjoining VDCs. DCDC is also equipped with a hygrometer, thermometers
and many other physical materials useful for seed storage and its management. Despite
all these resources to mobilize for strengthening the community seed bank and resource
centre, there was inadequate coordinaton between the DCDC committee and USCC-N
staff to understand fully the community seed bank function, and to set up a working
modality and guidelines for increasing the community role in its operation before taking
over completely.
The DCDC received revolving fund support of NRs. 200,000 from ICDP to promote local
seed and its conservation. However, DCDC did not receive payments on loan given. The
committee was unable to play its active role during the insurgency period, thus limiting
their opportunity to mobilize the fund and community groups in strengthening community
seed bank activities. The profit margin for the purchase and selling of seed was not enough
to cover the incidental cost of community seed bank operation due to the small number
of transactions. Internal resource generation, which is important to sustain the DCDC, is
very small as compared to cost of community seed bank management. On the other hand,
Dalchoki organic agriculture cooperative where many community seed bank members are
affiliated, has strong financial resources generated through group savings that are being
mobilized as micro-credit loans for seed production and vegetable farming. DCDC has
been collaborating with this organic cooperative to promote functioning of the community
seed bank through market management for local production. They have shared office
space and mobilized financial resources for DCDC members. However, clear demarcation
of roles and responsibilities of these two organizations is yet to be established to maintain
transparency and build synergy for promoting local crops and to mobilize many other
groups of nearby VDCs. There is an opportunity to establish and strengthen DCDC’s
relationship with already existing organic agriculture and milk cooperatives in order to
mobilize their groups and resources to reach out to many more farmers of the area.
The community seed bank has maintained seeds for display and as a backup depository for
the short term. It is displayed with labelled information about crop variety and the farmers
who are serving as resource for this particular variety. There are seeds of 17 varieties of
7 cereals, 12 varieties of 6 legumes, 6 varieties of 3 oil seed crops and 22 varieties of 14
vegetables in community seed bank collections, as observed recently (Annex 2). However,
there is a need to assess the diversity in crop varieties through identifying duplications in
the name of varieties. This can be done through discussions with expert farmers as well
as through growing seeds in diversity blocks to assess morphological characteristics. As
noted recently in a community meeting, useful discussion is going on to transform DCDC
management to make it more inclusive by increasing the representation of nearby VDC
groups and bringing more youth and women into the management positions. There is
recent progress in developing a plan to diversify the services of DCDC as a resource centre
in Southern Lalitpur for seeds, through the promotion of organic farming and livestock, the
establishment of a community nursery and ecotourism as a strategy for sustaining DCDC.
DCDC has extended its collaboration with SAHAS-Nepal’s LIFT Lalitpur programme and
NAGRC to strengthen its technical and managerial capacity in providing community seed
banking and other services.
53
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
The Dalchoki community seed bank has a provision to buy surplus seeds from its
members for a nominal price in the season and store them in the community seed bank.
These seeds are redistributed again to the members in the next season who want to
receive seeds. This is done under the condition that they should return two times the
amount of seed of the same crop variety after the harvest. A revolving fund is mobilized
to purchase seeds from group members. The community seed bank is allowed to sell
extra seeds to outsiders at the market price. DCDC is required to maintain details of
farmers, crops and varieties before distributing to them others. However, this is not
always followed in practice. For conserving rare crop seeds, the community seed
bank collects and stores with labelled information for a year and assigns to some of its
group members to grow and return the seed annually. For seeds stored in the bank,
the committee members are responsible to voluntarily take care of them in a scheduled
time as decided by the committee. The purchase and sale price is fixed by the DCDC
executive committee. However, these systems are yet to be ensured by the DCDC and
the community groups and cooperatives. In recent time, the community seed bank
started producing seeds of maize and rapeseed varieties for the market as an income
generation opportunity for its members. DCDC is collaborating with DADO for their
technical support to acquire source seed and maintain quality. Dalchoki agricultural
organic cooperative is responsible for the market management of produced seeds.
Benefits of the community seed bank to the local community
It is not easy to quantify the many benefits that the community has received from
establishing a community seed bank in Dalchoki. A series of orientations and trainings
related to conservation, enhancement and use of local crops and other production
resources has increased awareness about agrobiodiversity conservation and adopting
ecological farming practices and helped to minimize the use of external seeds and other
production inputs such as chemical fertilizers and pesticides in the area. The community
seed bank therefore has been playing a catalytic role in increasing the skills and capacity
of farmers on quality seed production and promoting use of local crop varieties since
its establishment. These trained farmers are active in their groups and cooperatives and
disseminate the useful information about the importance of local crop varieties and other
forms of biological diversity to their fellows. They expressed their concerns to discourage
promoting the use of hybrid seeds, fertilizers and pesticides in their communities. Such
strong feeling is a good measure that farmers are adopting and continuing ecological
farming practices in their farms that are fundamental to conservation and promotion of
crop diversity.
In recent years, the community seed bank has mobilized 35 committed farmers of
Dalchoki for seed conservation of local varieties, particularly of broad leaf mustard,
radish, pea, bean and cauliflower (perennial variety), by planting them on their farms
and, replacing seeds each year in the community seed bank collections. In 2011, it
was noted that 30 farmers deposited seeds in the community seed bank whereas
only twenty one farmers accessed seeds to fulfil their needs of growing some of the
local crops (Table 3). Although the number of farmers and the transaction amount
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
54
was quite low, it has increased access to local crop seeds for farmers to grow in their
diverse production environments. This is contributing to sustaining production and
productivity and managing crop diversity on farm. It was noted during discussion
with communities of Dalchoki VDC that the number of households saving seeds at
households for next season production has increased significantly after community
seed bank establishment.
Table 3: Number of farmers that deposited and accessed local crop seed from CSB in
2011.
Ethnic group
No of farmers providing seeds
No of farmers accessing seeds
Female
Male
Total
Female
Male
Total
Janajati
15
17
32
5
3
8
Dalits
2
0
2
2
0
2
Others
20
16
36
7
4
11
14
7
21
Total
37
33
70
Source: Record obtained from Dalchoki community seed bank
Some activities of the community seed bank, such as seed production and fund mobilization,
have been providing direct economic incentives to its members through increasing
access to quality seeds and small financial capital locally and promoting small earning
opportunities for growers from the sale of seeds. In 2011, more than one ton of seed was
collected and sold by the community seed bank. It is noted that 60% engaged in seed
production and sales activities are women. This reveals that the community seed bank
has supported the enhancement of technical skills and the capacity of women farmers to
utilize agrobiodiversity as an income generation opportunity.
Table 4: Number of farmers involved in CSB promoted seed production activities in
2011.
Activity
No of Farmers
Amount sold (Kg)
Female
Male
Total
Maize seed production (Manakamana-3)
7
5
12
Vegetable seed production (peas, beans)
14
9
23
1,280
Total
21
14
Source: Record obtained from Dalchoki community seed bank
35
1,080
800
Community seed bank initiatives remained instrumental to establishing DCDC as a nodal
community based organization and developing facilities to promote it as a resource centre
for wider community use. They have promoted leadership ability among community
members, youth and women while managing the community seed bank and other
functions of DCDC. There are 11 members in DCDC’s executive committee of which 3
leadership positions were held by women in recent years.
The community seed bank and its activities were found helpful in promoting the concept
of sustainable agriculture among farming communities in Dalchoki and many other VDCs
55
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
in Southern Lalitpur. Dalchoki community seed bank itself has primarily provided indirect
benefits to programme communities of other VDCs in the last few years. In the past,
farmers of Chaughare VDC reported selling the seeds of peas and receiving beans, radish,
garlic and broadleaf mustard from the community seed bank. Similarly, many farmers of
Shanku VDC received seeds of peas and beans.
Issues and challenges
Dalchoki Community seed bank received relatively long-term support from USC
Canada’s Nepal programme to develop facilities and strengthen its capacity. A fund
of NRs 200,000 was established at DCDC to promote community seed bank functions
including seed preservation, production, exchange and marketing. These were some of
the programme strategies to make the community seed bank sustainable after handing it
over to communities. In 2008 the DCDC management committee reactivated to operate its
functions with particular focus on Dalchoki VDC. The review of the community seed bank
in 2009 made the committee recognize the need to develop a strategy and plan of actions to
sustain the functions of the community seed bank and resource centre by maximizing the
utility of its human, physical and financial resources. They searched for opportunities to
establish linkages and coordination for seeking support services from the VDC and other
district line agencies in order to maintain the infrastructure facilities and promote seed
production activities in some crops. Recently, they developed a plan to use its resources
to offer diversified services such as renting space for meetings and trainings as a resource
centre, as well as a home stay that helps to sustain community seed bank functions.
Additionally, DCDC is collaborating with Dalchoki organic agriculture cooperatives to
use its facilities on a rental basis and provide marketing services for farmers’ seeds and
agricultural produce collected by the community seed bank. The cooperative also runs
saving and credit schemes to support farmers financially. Recently, they are collaborating
with SAHAS Nepal’s LIFT programme and NAGRC for necessary technical and other
support services to strengthen their capacity to manage the community seed bank and
resource centre.
Seed transaction among VDCs is poor due to an inadequate amount of seeds of demanded
crop varieties in the community seed bank. Even if seed is available, farmers do not have
much trust on its quality due to a lack of quality control mechanisms in place. Rugged
geography also hinders mobility and seed transactions through sale and exchange in the
community seed bank. DCDC has yet to develop its guidelines to mobilize group and
cooperative members in the conservation of rare crop seeds, maintain seed quality in
storage and manage information. An inclusive and dynamic leadership is important in
order to establish and maintain relationships with community groups, cooperatives, local
government and many other relevant stakeholders. Such a leadership committee would be
able to prepare a realistic plan to mobilize resources to benefit communities, analyze the
situation and respond to it by making adjustments as required. We recommend that it is
high time to think about and increase the capacity of women and youth representing various
community groups and cooperatives in the management of the community seed bank and
resource centre. This would help to increase the sense of community ownership and active
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
56
contributions. It is challenging to mobilize local people to ensure conservation of local crop
seeds and enhance livelihoods of poor and marginal farmers. One of the important factors
is the decrease of interest among farmers, particularly young and commercial farmers,
to grow local crop varieties. This is mainly due to their low yield potential and market
preferences. Ensuring seed quality, adding value to local crops and opening new market
opportunities for value added products are therefore important aspects on which DCDC
needs to focus more attention.
Conclusion
Dalchoki community seed bank, during the initial six years of its establishment was in a
progressing phase to serve the community through seed production and distribution of
local crop varieties locally. With the increase of political unrest, it remained passive for
some years. Since 2008, it started reviving and strengthening its functions and initiated
necessary collaborations with local government and non-government organizations. In
recent collections, the community seed bank has maintained seeds of 57 landraces of 30
crops. It has supported farmers in production and sales of maize, rapeseed and some
vegetables seed. It is collaborating with SAHAS Nepal’s LIFT programme and NAGRC
(national genebank) for necessary technical and support services to strengthen its capacity
in managing the community seed bank and resource centre. As a result of the community
seed bank, the amount of seeds saved by households for next season production has
increased. However, there is a need to assess the level of contribution of the community
seed bank to promote crop diversity.
To be sustainable, clearly defined short-, medium- and long-term strategies and workable
yearly action plans with a provision for ensuring minimum financial resources are
required. If it acts as a centre wherein community members either benefit by receiving
seeds or information, or in which they feel a sense of pride, then they will be ready to
engage and support the community seed bank and resource centre voluntarily when
required. It is therefore important to make some kind of provision to have its own
capacity to employ local volunteers or part-time staff and obtain financial resources
to run as a community seed bank. The large geographic area that the community seed
bank is expected to cover while serving several communities has caused some problems
while also offering new opportunities. It has been difficult to provide support and
services for some of the VDCs in their operational areas. It is therefore realistic to
redefine operational areas to serve communities based on capacity, local needs and
priorities.
57
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
References
USC Canada Asia 2008, 2009 and 2010. Annual progress reports. Lalitpur, Kathmandu.
Berg, T. & F. Abay. 2008. Community seed banks: experiences from Tigray in Ethiopia. In: M.H.
Thijssen, Z. Bishaw, A. Beshir and W.S. de Boef, Eds. Farmers’ seeds and varieties: supporting
informal seed supply in Ethiopia. Wageningen International, Wageningen, The Netherlands,
pp. 100-103.
LI-BIRD. 2009. A study report on review of community seed bank initiatives to strengthen local
seed system for on farm agricultural biodiversity management in Dalchoki VDC, Lalitpur.
USC Canada Asia, Kathmandu.
Shrestha P, Sthapit B, Subedi A, Poudel D, Shrestha PK, Upadhaya MP and Joshi BK 2006.
Community seed bank: A Good Practice for On-farm Conservation of Agricultural
Biodiversity. In B. Sthapit and D. Gauchan (Editors) Proceeding of National Symposium on
on-farm Management of Agricultural Biodiversity in Nepal: Lessons Learned. Kathmandu
Nepal, pp. 112-120.
District Development Profile, 2066/67. District Development Committee, Lalitpur. Ministry of Local
Development.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
58
Annex 1: SWOT analysis of Dalchoki community seed bank
Strengths
Weakness
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
Rich in physical infrastructure (seed store, office
space and training hall)
Committed and motivated CSB members
Trained farmers on sustainable agriculture, organic
farming and seed production
Increased awareness among farmers on conservation
and use of agrobiodiversity
Establishment of groups and cooperatives to promote
organic farming in 8 VDCs
Established linkage with local body, DADO and
NAGRC
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
Opportunities
Inadequate focus on on-farm conservation of
agrobiodiversity
Limited services to farmers groups of other
VDCs
Seed production without adequate study of its
market
Limited internal resource generation
Low priority in fund mobilization to support
community seed bank activities
Limited knowledge on seed quality control and
certification for the market
Inadequate coordination with government line
agencies
Poor record keeping
Challenges
yy
Favourable agro-ecology for vegetable seed
yy Difficult in mobility due to wide geographical
production
coverage to mobilize and support community in
community seed bank activities
yy Rich diversity of promising local varieties
yy Quality seed production, certification, storage
yy Easier access to market and technology to utilize
and marketing in local crop varieties
crop diversity
y
y
Increasing pressure on local varieties from high
yy Large geographical coverage
yielding varieties and improved technologies
yy Longer funding support and continuous technical
advice from USC Canada Asia
yy Flexible government policy to link agrobiodiversity
conservation with income generation activities
Source: Focus Group Discussion (2011) and community seed bank Review Report (2009)
59
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Annex 2: List of crop and varieties maintained in the community seed bank in 2011
Crop type
Crop
Varieties
Cereals
Maize
Pani Makai, Local yellow, local white, Golku Chepare, Dhide,
Manakamana-3
Wheat
Mudule
Buckwheat
Mithe, Tite
Sorghum
Local
Finger millet
Nangre, white, Dalle
Barley
Local
Rice
Taichung, Pokhareli Masino, Khumal-4
Rapeseed
Bikash, Pragati, Baltori, Thulo tori
Sarsiu
Local
Alas
Local
Oil seeds
Pulses
Vegetables
Others
Soybean
Black, grey, white
Bean
Kidney bean, white bean, grey bean, mottled bean
Peas
Sano, thulo
Horse gram
Local
Lentil
Local
Rice bean
Local
Beans
Four season, Nagarkoti, Fababean
Cowpea
Tane, Kathe
Cress
Local
Broadleaf mustard
Dunde, marpha, Kande, Khumal, Guzmuzze
Soup
Local
Potato
Sano golo
Amaranths
Local
Pumpkin
Local white, Local green
Tomato
Sano golo
Chilli
Dalle
Ladies finger
Local
Brinjal
Local
Sponge gourd
Local
Radish
Local
Colocasia
Local
Sweet Potato
Local
Perilla (Silam)
Local seto
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
60
Community Seed Banks: A Local Solution to Increase Access
to Quality and Diversity of Seeds
PITAMBAR SHRESTHA, SAJAL STHAPIT AND INDRA PAUDEL
Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research and Development (LI-BIRD), P.O.Box 324, Gairapatan, Pokhara, Nepal,
Corresponding email: pitambar@libird.org
Photos: Pitambar Shrestha (left), Mahesh Shrestha (bottom right)
Introduction
Economies of scale play an important role in the viability of the formal seed sector. With
the objective of increasing production on a commercial scale, the priority of the formal
seed sector is usually to trade in a selected few varieties of a few major crops. Commercial
seed companies are not in the business to provide seeds of a diversity of varieties specific
to the niches of smallholder farmers. Therefore, despite the growth of the commercial seed
sector, the majority of the smallholder farmers in the developing countries still use farmsaved seed (Development Fund 2011).
Smallholder farmers in subsistence agriculture maintain diverse types of crops, trees and
animal breeds to meet household food and fuel needs, but also in order to earn income,
perform religious and cultural rituals and enhance the fertility of their farms. The need for
maintaining diverse types of seeds is also because modern varieties are mostly confined
to productive land, whereas landraces are adapted to marginal ecosystems (Rana et al.
2007). In addition, some farmers grow some crop varieties to maintain social prestige.
Apart from saving from their own harvest, farmers obtain seed and planting materials
through informal networks based on exchange and gifts or purchases from relatives and
neighbours or through purchase from local markets (Subedi et al. 2003).This is what is
61
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
called the informal seed system and it is estimated that in most developing countries
smallholder farmers obtain up to 80% of all seeds through it.
One approach that appears to be successful in addressing some of these issues is the
development of community seed banks. Community seed banks are operated by local
organizations that hold collections of seed that are maintained and administered by
communities in a central facility or in a structure that is shared among a range of individuals.
According to LI-BIRD’s experience, the community seed bank is an approach that provides
farmers access to seeds of local crop varieties and performs the function of community level
backup for genetic resources. It also serves as a repository of associated knowledge and as
an institution to organize, mobilize and represent farmers’ interests. Since the early 1990s,
many development organizations began to support the establishment of community seed
banks with the primary goal of enhancing seed and food security (Shrestha et al. 2013a).
Some researchers have recognized that this approach can be instrumental in addressing key
issues related to seed security, on farm conservation of agriculture biodiversity, informal
seed systems and enhancement of rural peoples’ livelihoods (Development Fund 2011,
Jarvis et al. 2011, Shrestha et al. 2013). However, systematic studies on the effectiveness of
CSB for the above goals are yet to be done.
In Nepal, the implementation of community seed banks began in the mid-1990s through a
USC-Canada coordinated project (Joshi 2013, Bhandari et al. 2013; see, previous chapter). In
2003, with the support of LI-BIRD in partnership with NARC and Bioversity International,
a different model of the community seed bank was developed in Bara district of the central
lowlands of Nepal as part of a global agrobiodiversity project (Shrestha et al. 2004). In
this novel community seed bank approach, priority was given to collection, storage,
regeneration or multiplication and distribution of local crop varieties along with traditional
knowledge and associated information. Also included were seed production and sales
of a few improved varieties of major food crops such as rice, wheat and lentil, in order
to meet local farmers’ needs and generate some financial resources as a mechanism to
sustain the community seed bank institution. Since then, based on the Bara case learning,
LI-BIRD has supported the set up another 14 community seed banks throughout Nepal
(Map 1). In addition, the Ministry of Agricultural Development and a few NGOs have
piloted community seed banks in some districts. However, these community seed banks
have emphasized increasing the seed replacement rate of modern varieties to enhance
food security rather than the promotion of local varieties (CDD 2009). We describe the
process of establishing a community seed bank and its management, the current status of
community seed banks supported by LI-BIRD, and their contribution to local seed security
and livelihood improvement.
Description of community seed bank sites
The existing CSBs are located across the country from the southern lowlands Terai plain
to the northern high hill area and from the east to the western corners of Nepal; 10 out of
15 community seed banks are located in the lowland terai area. Two sites, Jogimara and
Purkot, represent the mid-hill area and another three, namely Tamaphok, Ghanteshwor
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
62
and Talium, are located in mid- to high hill agro-ecology (Figure 1). In terms of climatic
conditions, the ten sites of the lowland terai area with an altitude of 70 to 213 masl. experience
more or less a similar type of subtropical climate, with the maximum temperature going
up to 42 oC in May-June in some places and with January being the coldest month with
a minimum temperature of about 4.1 oC. But there are variations in terms of amount of
rainfall per annum, with the highest amount of rainfall in Nawalparasi (2145 mm). There
is not much variation in terms of crops grown across the lowland sites. Rice, wheat, lentil,
potato and maize are grown as primary food crops (Subedi et al. 2003).
The other four sites, Jogimara, Purkot, Tamaphok and Ghanteshwor, represent the midto high hill agro-ecosystem. Climatic variation is observed as being from sub-tropical to
temperate. Maize and finger millet are common in all sites, but potato and cardamom are
predominant in Tamaphok, while rice is dominant in Purkot.
Jumla-1
2011
Doti-1
2009
Kanchanpur-2
2007/08
Mustang
Kailali-3
2007/08
Manang
Bardiya-1
2007
Gorkha
Dhading-1
2009
Tanahu-1
2009
Dang-1
2009
Legend
Mid to high hill (3)
Nuwakot
Ktm
Nawalparasi-1
2009
-1
bha
asha
huw
Sank 2009
Kavre
palanchok
Mid hill (2)
Bara-1
2003
Udaypur
Low land terai (10)
Jhapa-1
2009
Figure 1: Map of Nepal showing number of community seed banks supported by LI-BIRD and year of establishment
Process of establishing a community seed bank32
In 2003, LI-BIRD facilitated the establishment of a community seed bank for the first time
in its history at Kachorwa village of Bara district in the Central Terai, Nepal, as a part
of a global project called Strengthening the Scientific Basis of In Situ Conservation of
Agricultural Biodiversity. This project was globally coordinated by Bioversity International
(then IPGRI) and in Nepal jointly implemented by LI-BIRD and NARC from 1998 to 2006.
Prior to its establishment, partners in the global project debated whether a community
32
63
Adopted and modified from Shrestha et al. 2006 and 2008.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
seed bank should be established or not, considering that community seed banks may not
support on-farm conservation of agriculture biodiversity. To settle the argument, the issue
was taken to the community and after a half-day discussion among selected members who
had been actively engaged in project activities, project team members agreed to pilot the
concept (Shrestha et al. 2005). The experience of establishing a community seed bank at
Kachorwa, Bara was documented systematically and later on, the same steps were applied
in scaling out this approach in other sites across Nepal (see Annex 1 for an overview of key
features of the 15 community seed banks supported by LI-BIRD).
Once the sites for on-farm agricultural biodiversity management projects were identified,
considerable time was allocated to assess existing farmers’ groups and establishing both
ward and Village Development Committee (VDC) level Biodiversity Conservation and
Development Committees (BCDC). Then, various awareness raising activities, such as
a community biodiversity register and a diversity fair, were organized to sensitize the
community. The aim was to raise awareness about the value of biodiversity, the need for
conservation and the potential to bring lost genetic resources back to the area. To build the
capacity of BCDC members, the project team organized training and exposure visits on
topics including community-based biodiversity management practices, such as community
biodiversity register, community seed bank management, and group management.
Emphasis was given to both conceptual and practical aspects of seed handling and storage,
including the maintenance of a community biodiversity register, multiplication practices
of traditional seed, and maintenance of small quantities of seed in traditional seed storage
structures.
Rules and regulations regarding the mechanism for seed collection, regeneration, quality
control and distribution were formulated, and roles and responsibilities of community
seed bank members in seed management were defined according to the interests of the
community and in accordance with the local context, customs and values. Similarly,
traditional seed storage structures such as Mor (made of rice straw), Ghaila (made of
mud), Kothi (made of mud and bamboo), and Chaintha and Mouna (made of bamboo)
were used. No ‘external’ technical knowledge was needed to build and maintain these
facilities. Contributions from local people for the physical infrastructure were encouraged
in order to build ownership and make management of the community seed bank locally
sustainable. Seeds were collected by organizing diversity fair and by locating seed sources
using the community biodiversity register. Adequate attention was paid to collect rare and
threatened crop varieties that were grown by just a few households in small plots. These
were carefully collected from the individual custodians, nodal farmers, neighbours and
relatives of members, as well as from neighbouring villages.
A community biodiversity management fund was created to develop options for livelihood
and income generation and link these with the conservation of local varieties. About 80%of
the fund was provided by the project and the remaining 20% from the contribution of
individual members. Loans for income generation activities were provided to members to
conduct income generation activities of their own choice. This occurs yearly at low interest
rates (12% per annum), giving priority to the poorest members of the group. One of the
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
64
rules of the fund is that the members who took loans have to grow at least one or two
preferred local varieties in a small area of their farmland so that they would contribute
to on-farm conservation of local varieties as well as a reduction in regeneration costs of
the community seed bank. Seed production and marketing of both local and improved
varieties are carried out to meet the seed demand of local farmers as well as to generate
income.
Major functions of the community seed bank
Community seed banking represents a multidimensional approach that helps to build
social capital through the mobilization of the local community, leading to empowerment.
Core activities are the conservation of local crop varieties and documentation of associated
information and traditional knowledge and increasing farmers’ access to quality seed,
addressing not only local level seed and food security but also adverse impacts of
environmental factors such as climate change and natural disasters (drought and floods).
Another important aspect of LI-BIRD’s community seed bank approach is linking
conservation with income generation activities to improve the livelihoods of community
seed bank members. The generic functions of a community seed bank are discussed
below.
Conservation of local varieties and documentation of traditional knowledge
Community seed banks aim to promote conservation and sustainable use of local and
improved variety seeds for seed and food security and to improve the livelihoods of farmers.
Participants of the national workshop on community seed banking, held from 14 to 15 June
2012 in Pokhara, Nepal, stressed that the term community seed bank should not be used if
there are no plant genetic resources conservation activities (Shrestha et al. 2012 a.). Hence,
the identification, collection, safe storage, continuous regeneration, and provision of easy
access to seeds and planting materials, as well as documentation of associated information
and traditional knowledge (including passport data), are core elements of any community
seed bank. Table 1 summarizes the local crop diversity in the 15 community seed banks
supported by LI-BIRD (2012 data).
65
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Table 1: Summary of local crop diversity accessible by community seed banks, 2012
Name of site
Kachorwa, Bara
No. of cereal crop
varieties
No. of vegetables
&pulses varieties
No. of oil seeds crop
&varieties
Total
91 (3)
11 (6)
1 (1)
103 (10)
Belawa, Bardiya
37 (3)
49 (9)
8 (4)
94 (16)
Shankarpur, Kanchanpur
35 (3)
13 (9)
8 (4)
56 (16)
Gadariya, Kailali
48 (3)
63 (9)
8 (4)
119 (16)
Masuriya, Kailali
50 (3)
57 (9)
8 (4)
115 (16)
Pathraiya, Kailali
47 (3)
21 (9)
8 (4)
76 (16)
Beldandi, Kanchanpur
27 (3)
13 (9)
8 (4)
48 (16)
Agyauli, Nawalparasi
23 (2)
7 (2)
2 (1)
32 (5)
Rampur, Dang
68
9
-
72
Shivagunj, Jhapa
77
42
-
119
Jogimara, Dhading
30
39
-
69
Purkot, Tanahun
38
11
-
49
Ghanteshor, Doti
28
32
-
60
Tamaphok, Sankhuwasabha
34
29
-
63
Talium, Jumla
8
24
4
36
Source: Collected from community seed banks' record by LI-BIRD staff. Figures in parenthesis indicate
the number of crop species. Name of cereal crops: Rice, Wheat, Finger Millet, Maize, Barley, Buckwheat,
Minor millets. Name of vegetables and pulses: Sponge gourd, Pumpkin, Ridge gourd, Bottle gourd, Taro,
Elephant foot yam, Cow pea, Beans, Soy bean, Broad bean, Horse gram, Pigeon pea, Pea. Name of oil
seed crops: Rape seed, Lean seed, Sesame.
Seed distribution, regeneration, production and marketing
Increased access to diverse planting materials with a focus on local plant genetic resources
is another primary goal of community seed banks. There are a number of sources to obtain
improved variety seeds and hybrids, such as the District Agriculture Development Office
(DADO), Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC), National Seed Company (NSC),
agrovets and private seed companies, but in case of local varieties of several crops, there
are no formal or informal institutions offering these resources. At present, community seed
banks are the only collective mechanism involved in collection, regeneration, multiplication
and distribution of diverse local plant genetic resources suitable to local conditions.
Community seed banks have developed a number of mechanisms to provide easy access to
seeds. For example, in Kachorwa, Bara, seeds are provided on a loan basis to both members
and non-members within the village, but for outsiders only on a cost-recovery basis. If a
member takes a kilogram of seed during planting time, he/she has to return 1.5 kg pure seed
to the community seed bank after harvesting the crop. In case of the gourd family, borrowers
have to return a single matured fruit from which seeds are then taken by the community seed
bank. Many of the community seed banks promoted by LI-BIRD have employed this system
for distributing seeds. Experience has demonstrated that this system is very important for
poor members of the community who do not have cash to buy seeds.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
66
Community seed banks employ various strategies to regenerate seeds from their collection
each year and replace old seed stock with new, healthy and vibrant seeds. These include, i)
distribution to members on a loan basis, ii) establishment of diversity blocks, iii) distribution
of seeds to the users of the CBM fund and iv) cultivation of one local variety by each
member. Apart from these, they also keep a small amount of seeds in the community seed
bank as a remnant stock so that, in case of crop failure, they have some seeds to regenerate
again. Unfortunately, community seed banks have had some bad experiences, such as
the washing away of a whole community seed bank due to unusual rainfall and floods
(Shankarpur, Kanchanpur). Learning from such experiences, the community seed banks
in Kailali district have initiated exchange of seeds among community seed banks, so that
they can replace them easily in case they lose any variety for any reason. In addition, some
groundwork has also been initiated to keep safe duplications in the national genebank.
Higher volume seed production of selected local as well as improved varieties that have
high demand in the locality is another task that community seed banks have been carrying
out since their establishment. This function of community seed banks has been highly
valued by local people because they can buy quality seeds of both local and improved
varieties at a reasonable price at their doorstep and on time. It is also a matter of trust as
seeds are produced locally, by trained people, and people have the advantage of seeing the
performance of the standing crop. In case the quality of seed is unsatisfactory, it is easy to
complain and even demand money back, which is hard to do if seeds are purchased from
outsiders. In 2011, nearly 2000 people obtained different types of local seed and nearly
1000 received improved variety seeds from community seed banks supported by LI-BIRD.
The quantity of seeds distributed by the community seed banks was 2 and 43 tons of
local and improved varieties respectively (Table 2). The volume of the transaction of local
varieties seems low, but this is because they were mostly vegetables, which do not require
high quantity transactions. In the case of improved varieties, they were mainly rice and
wheat seeds. Details of the volume of transactions of both local and improved varieties of
all the community seed banks in 2011 are presented in table 2.
Table 2: Summary of the volume of the transaction of seeds from community seed banks
and the number of people accessing seeds in 2011
Location
67
Volume of seed transaction in 2011
(kg)
No. of user
LVs
IVs
LVs
IVs
Kachorwa, Bara
77
185
38.5
9020
Belawa, Bardiya
175
196
100
4830
Shankarpur, Kanchanpur
144
115
50.89
5300
Gadariya, Kailali
50
47
25
2965
Masuriya, Kailali
208
180
15
14150
Pathraiya, Kailali
120
184
29.2
3676
Beldandi, Kanchanpur
29
38
5
2592
Agyauli, Nawalparasi
264
-
94
-
Rampur, Dang
36
-
294
-
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Volume of seed transaction in 2011
(kg)
No. of user
Location
LVs
IVs
LVs
IVs
Shivagunj, Jhapa
322
-
282
-
Jogimara, Dhading
113
8
-
355
Purkot, Tanahun
26
-
15
-
Ghanteshor, Doti
139
-
862
-
Tamaphok, Sankhuwasabha
70
-
-
-
Talium, Jumla
66
18
300
36
2110.6
42924.0
Total
1839
971
Source: Collected from community seed banks' records by LI-BIRD staff
Linking conservation with livelihood improvement: establishment and mobilization of a
community biodiversity management fund
In most cases, farmers grow both local and improved varieties, depending on agroecology, land type, availability of options and socioeconomic and cultural requirements.
Some local varieties can compete with modern ones, while others do not. For on-farm
conservation of agricultural biodiversity it is useful to consider total biodiversity. However,
demonstrating immediate tangible (financial) benefits from the use of some local varieties
is a challenge. To address this bottleneck, LI-BIRD has been promoting the establishment
of a community biodiversity management fund that provides the opportunity to generate
additional income mostly from farm based income generating activities. Once the fund
is established, it is mobilized as a loan among the members for production purposes, eg.
starting a small business, rearing livestock, etc. But the rule is that users of the CBM fund
must be involved in conservation of local varieties collected at the community seed bank.
The establishment of such a fund is an integral part of the CBM process that promotes both
on-farm management of genetic resources and improves peoples’ livelihoods through the
mobilization of local social as well as financial capital (Shrestha et al. 2012b, 2013b).
The process of establishment of a CBM fund is started with mutual understanding between
the community and LI-BIRD. One of the preconditions to establishing a CBM Fund is that
the community must commit 10-20% of the start-up funds and they play a leadership role
in all aspects of implementation.
Currently, more than 4 million Nepalese rupees have been mobilized by the 15 community
seed banks to conduct income generating activities for their members. Nearly 700 members
(88% of whom are from resource poor to medium level income households) enjoy easy
access to financial resources without the obligation to provide any collateral. CBM fund
users have been conducting income generating activities such as rearing goats, pigs and
running small businesses (fresh vegetable cultivation), generating profits in a short period
of time. Most members are involved in conserving local crop varieties and regenerating
seeds conserved at the community seed bank (Table 3). This indicates that these two
functions can be fulfilled at the same time.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
68
Table 3: Summary of CBM fund linked to community seed bank, its users and income
generation activities
Name of site
Average no. of users/year by Flow of fund by socioeconomic category
Major income generating
socioeconomic category
(NRs)
activities
Rich Medium Poor Total
Rich
Medium
Poor
Total
Kachorwa, Bara
5
40
47
40000
320000
376000
736000
Goat rearing and small
businesses
Belawa, Bardiya
9
14
19
26000
40000
54000
120000
Crop production, goat
and pig rearing
Masuriya, Kailali
2
21
11
7000
73500
38500
Pig and goat rearing,
119000 beekeeping and
vegetable cultivation
Gadariya, Kailali
6
32
20
16400
76450
58950
151800
Shankarpur,
Kanchanpur
2
16
24
9000
72000
111000
Pig and goat rearing,
192000 vegetable cultivation,
small business
Pathraiya, Kailali
7
28
10
16000
80000
33000
129000
Beldandi,
Kanchanpur
2
14
15
8000
58000
53000
Goat rearing, cereal
119000 crop production, small
business
25000
Goat, pig and cattle
rearing, fish farming,
4050000
vegetable cultivation and
small business
Agyauli,
Nawalparasi
2
24
2
31
28
25000
400000
Pig rearing and cereal
crop production
Vegetable cultivation,
pig and goat rearing
Rampur, Dang
18
46
4
68
220000
381000
37000
Rearing of goat and
buffalo, vegetable
638000
cultivation, small
business
Shivagunj,
Jhapa
6
16
12
34
90000
235000
160000
Goat, chicken, pig and
485000 cattle rearing, local rice
cultivation
Jogimara,
Dhading
2
12
27
41
12000
63000
103000
Vegetable cultivation,
178000 goat rearing, small
business
Purkot, Tanahun
19
41
54
114
54000
172200
206360
432560
Goat rearing and
vegetable cultivation
Ghanteshor,
Doti
0
2
5
7
0
30000
75000
105000
Goat and buffalo rearing
and vegetable cultivation
Tamaphok,
Sankhuwasabha
2
9
39
50
7000
33500
92500
133000
Goat and pig rearing,
beekeeping
Talium, Jumla
0
1
7
8
0
15000
77000
92000
Cultivation, of vegetable,
fruits and herbal plants
40 80
360
(100)
Source: Collected from community seed banks' record by LI-BIRD staff. Figures in parenthesis indicate
the percentage, $1=85 Nepalese rupees.
Total
69
82
(12)
316
(45)
296 694 5 30 400 20 49
15 00
(43) (100)
(13)
650 (50) 310 (37)
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Associated functions of community seed banks
Community mobilization for promoting conservation and use of genetic resources
Establishment of a community seed bank starts with community mobilization through
awareness raising and capacity building activities, such as a village workshop, diversity
fair, exchange visits, and training (Shrestha et al. 2006). Within the framework of
Community-based Biodiversity Management (CBM), the local institutional building
process is started through an assessment of the functioning of existing farmers’ groups
formed by governmental or non-governmental organizations. If farmer groups exist in
all villages within a defined geography for a project, a Village Development Committee
(VDC) level Biodiversity Conservation and Development Committee (BCDC) is formed
with representation of all groups. If there is no existence of farmer groups, a ward level
committee is formed which consists of 9 members including women, dalit33 and indigenous
people in all nine wards of a VDC. A VDC-level committee is formed with one representative
from each ward (Shrestha and Chaudhary 2012). LI-BIRD has deployed the formation of
VDC level BCDCs in its project sites (Table 4). This body ultimately implements overall
CBM activities including the operation and management of a community seed bank. In
terms of legal aspects of the BCDC, there is yet no legal provision for its establishment and
operation. However, the representative structure of this farmers’ committee can be one way
of fulfilling the void of meaningful participation of farmers in local development planning.
In fact, the VDC in Purkot have recognized their BCDC as an effective structure of the
Agriculture, Forestry and Environment committee guided by the Local Self Governance
Regulation (article 47.1 Kha).
Table 4: List of Biodiversity Conservation and Development Committees and their
members
No. of
groups/subcommittee
No. of total
members
No. of
women
members
FGs
11
385
355
FGs
12
274
100
BCDC
FGs
9
231
118
Gadariya, Kailali
BCDC
FGs
21
465
311
5.
Masuriya, Kailali
BCDC
FGs
9
414
223
6.
Pathraiya, Kailali
FGCC
FGs
15
334
173
7.
Beldandi, Kanchanpur
BCDC
FGs
11
209
95
8.
Jogimara, Dhading
BCDC
WBCDC
9
335
160
9.
Agyauli, Nawalparasi
BCDC
WBCDC
9
562
NA
10.
Rampur, Dang
BCDC
WBCDC
9
266
NA
11.
Shivagunj, Jhapa
BCDC
WBCDC
9
517
NA
12.
Purkot, Tanahun
BCDC
WBCDC
9
1194
NA
13.
Ghanteshor, Doti
BCDC
WBCDC
9
315
NA
S.N.
Name of site
Type of local
institution
Structure at
ward level
1.
Kachorwa, Bara
Local NGO
2.
Belawa, Bardiya
BCDC
3.
Shankarpur,
Kanchanpur
4.
33
Known as socalled untouchable caste
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
70
No. of
groups/subcommittee
No. of total
members
No. of
women
members
WBCDC
9
1425
NA
WBCDC
9
397
140
Type of local
institution
Structure at
ward level
Tamaphok,
Sankhuwasabha
BCDC
Talium, Jumla
BCDC
S.N.
Name of site
14.
15.
Note: WBCDC: Ward Level Biodiversity Conservation and Development Committee, HHs: Households,
FGs: Farmers' Group, NA: Not Applicable. In case of Agyauli, Rampur, Shivagunj, Purkot, Ghanteshwor,
Tamaphok and Talium, the number of members denotes the number of households as the BCDCs of
those VDCs consider all households of the VDC to be members of BCDC.
Develop linkage and collaboration with local government and line agencies
Community seed banks are free to independently implement their activities. Collaboration
with local and national level stakeholders can strengthen their technical, managerial and
financial resources, thus contributing to a long-term sustainability. It is also important
to strengthen their service delivery capacity so that farming communities from a wider
geographical area and a larger number of households benefit. All the community seed
banks supported by LI-BIRD have been trying to develop functional collaboration with
VDC, DDC, DADO, NARC and other NGOs, with varying degrees of success. Some have
received land for construction of the physical structure of the community seed bank as
well as support for construction materials and funding (Table 5). Furthermore, community
seed banks are also functioning as learning centres for various stakeholders including the
young generation, in and outside the village. It has become a venue where people can
come to understand and learn about the importance of agricultural biodiversity. Since, the
BCDC managing the CSB is comprised of volunteers; the operation of the community seed
bank itself requires human resources to conduct seed collection, cleaning, storage, seed
distribution, record keeping, fund mobilization and monitoring. Consequently, a CSB is
able to generate local employment for one or two farmers with high school education.
Table 5: Spheres of collaboration of community seed banks with governmental and nongovernmental organizations across Nepal
Name of organization having
collaboration
Address of community seed banks
Type of support received until now
Village Development Committee
(VDC)
Kachorwa, Shankarpur, Gadariya,
Masuriya, Beldandi, Pathraiya, Belawa,
Rampur, Purkot, Tamaphok, Jogimara,
Shivagunj, Ghanteshwor, Talium (14)
Land, Funding, construction
materials, recognition
District Development Committee
(DDC)
Kachorwa, Jogimara, Masuriya (3)
Funding, recognition
District Agriculture Development
Office (DADO)
Masuriya, Shankarpur, Pathraiya,
Rampur, Shivagunj, Talium(6)
Registration of group, Source seed
for seed production, Technical,
recognition
Nepal Agriculture Research
Council's Research Stations (NARC)
Kachorwa, Belawa, Masuriya, Talium (4)
Source seed for seed production,
Technical, recognition
NGO/INGOs
Kachorwa, Masuriya, Talium (3)
Funding, technical, recognition
Source: Records of community seed banks (2012)
71
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Development and implementation of sustaining mechanisms
In most cases in Nepal and elsewhere (see, chapter 1 of this volume), the process of
establishing community seed banks is facilitated by NGO driven projects. These projects
usually end after 2-4 years’ technical, financial and capacity building related activities. But
wherever LI-BIRD starts a community seed bank, it develops the practice to explore longer
term means of support from the very beginning. Activities such as the establishment of a
CBM fund, value addition and marketing, and seed production and marketing of both local
and improved varieties are among several options that can contribute to sustainability.
Financial resources generated from such sources are used to establish and manage diversity
blocks and buy goods and services that are necessary for the community seed bank.
There are other ways to sustain community seed bank activities. For example, in the
community seed bank of Kachorwa, Bara, all the users of the CBM fund have agreed to
grow at least one local variety of rice for conservation and regeneration purposes. They
also have the rule that all members have to conserve at least one local variety. In Gadariya
of Kailali district, farmers groups have divided the responsibility of establishing a diversity
block of one crop per group. The group members work collectively to maintain a diversity
block. Some community seed banks have received grants from national NGOs, VDC and
DDC to strengthen their technical, financial and management capacity. For example, the
community seed bank of Kachorwa, Bara, received a “Using diversity research award”
from the South Asia Network for Food, Ecology and Culture (SANFEC) to conduct a
farmer level economic study of ecological agriculture. They also obtained a UNDP/Small
grant, which helped them to strengthen their community seed bank. These are just a few
examples. The point is that it is important to develop location specific mechanisms that are
feasible in the local context either through market or non-market means.
Lessons learned
Since 2003, LI-BIRD has learned a good deal about community seed banking using
newly gained insights for establishing new community seed banks. The experience has
demonstrated that community seed banks are effective institutions for conserving local
varieties and providing easy access to diverse types of seeds and planting materials to
farmers. Awareness of local farmers has been central to the achievements. Experience has
also indicated that when conservation activities of local varieties are coupled with income
generation activities, community seed banks can operate more successfully in the long
run. Another important lesson is that the establishment of a community seed bank can best
be started when community people are convinced about its roles in seed security, food
security and conservation of valuable plant genetic resources. Likewise, the establishment
of a CBM fund and its mobilization for conservation of rare and threatened local varieties
and for income generation is an important strategy to sustain the process.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
72
Emerging issues and challenges
Despite several positive aspects of community seed banks, both farming communities who
have been implementing community seed banks and LI-BIRD as a facilitating organization
have faced a number of technical and policy related challenges. In community seed banks
across the country, a number of local crop varieties have been collected and conserved by
farming communities, but proper characterization and evaluation of those collections are
largely yet to be done. Science-based technical guidelines for managing community seed
banks do not yet exist despite almost 30 years of practical experience. Research on viable
local seed storage structures and of seeds stored also has been scarce.
There are also a number of policy challenges associated with community seed banks,
such as the absence of legal registration and recognition of community seed banks. A
national agrobiodiversity policy has been in place in Nepal since 2007, but there are no
acts or guidelines that support it. Furthermore, our research and extension system are
promoting improved varieties and technologies without considering the loss of genetic
resources. There are no incentives from the government of Nepal to support community
seed banks and the farmers who have been conserving valuable plant genetic resources
on-farm. Community seed bank guidelines developed and piloted by the Department of
Agriculture have limited scope and mainly intend to increase the seed replacement rate.
The guidelines do not say anything about existing community seed banks. At the local level,
there has been good collaboration with VDC, DDC and DADO, but this is mostly on an
ad-hoc basis and it is largely dependent on personal relationships. Community seed banks
are struggling to obtain institutional support from local governments. The government of
Nepal has established a national agriculture genetic resources centre or national genebank,
but a mechanism for linking the national genebank and community seed banks is still
under discussion. Linking community seed banks with the Svalbard Global Seed Vault
is another issue to be discussed. Some studies have indicated that community seed banks
could be an appropriate local unit for giving Prior Informed Consent to give access to
genetic resources to outsiders, but such a provision has not been included in the draft act
of access to and benefit sharing of the use of genetic resources.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to all farming communities that
are managing community seed banks throughout Nepal. Our sincere thanks also go to
LI-BIRD staff, namely Ashok Gurung, Giridhar Amatya, Birendra Chaudhary, Ram
Chandra Pandit, Jhalak Paudel, Samjhana Sunuwar, Shreeram Subedi, Purna Poudel,
Krishna Shrestha, Shanti Ale and Sandesh Neopane for collecting and providing data
from community seed banks. Special thanks also go to Dr. Ram Bahadur Rana, Technical
Advisor of LI-BIRD, for his critical comments and suggestions. Cash and in kind support
provided by respective VDCs, DDCs and DADOs to establish community seed banks are
gratefully acknowledged. Establishment of this model of the community seed bank was
started with the support of Bioversity International in 2003. Scaling out of community seed
banks from the Terai to the high hills and from east to west of Nepal was possible through
73
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
the financial support of The Development Fund, Norway; IDRC, Canada and WTLCP/
UNDP/GEF, Kathmandu, Nepal.
References
Development Fund. 2011. Banking for the future: Savings, Security and Seeds, a Short Study
of Community Seed Banks in Bangladesh, Costa Rica, Ethiopia, Honduras, India, Nepal,
Thailand, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The Development Fund, Oslo, Norway.
Jarvis D., T. Hodgkin, B.R. Sthapit, C. Fadda and I. Lopez-Noriega. 2011. A heuristic framework for
identifying multiple ways of supporting the conservation and use of traditional crop varieties
within the agricultural production system. Critical Reviews in Plant Science 30 (1–2): 125-76.
Rana, R.B., C.J. Garforth, B.R. Sthapit, A. Subedi, P. Chaudhary and D.I. Jarvis. 2007. On-farm
management of rice genetic diversity: understanding farmers’ knowledge on rice ecosystems
and varietal deployment. Plant Genetic Resources Newsletter 152: 58–64.
Shrestha P., A. Subedi, D. Rijal, D. Singh, B.R. Sthapit and M.P. Upadhyay. 2005. Enhancing local
seed security and on-farm conservation through a community seed bank in Bara district
of Nepal. In: Sthapit, B.R., M.P. Upadhyay, P.K. Shrestha and D.I. Jarvis, eds. On-farm
Conservation of Agricultural Biodiversity in Nepal, Volume II. Managing Diversity and Promoting
its Benefits: Proceeding of the second national workshop, 25-27 August 2004, Nagarkot, Nepal. IPGRI,
Rome, Italy, pp. 70-76.
Shrestha P., A. Subedi, S. Sthapit, D. Rijal, S. Gupta and B. Sthapit. 2012. Community seed bank:
a reliable and effective option for agricultural biodiversity conservation. In: Sthapit, B., P.
Shrestha and M. Upadhyay, eds. On-farm Management of Agricultural Biodiversity in Nepal: Good
Practices, 2012 revised ed., Nepal: NARC, LI-BIRD, Bioversity, pp. 37-40.
Shrestha, P., B. Sthapit, P.K. Shrestha, M, P. Upadhyay and M. Yadav. 2008. Community seed
banks: experiences from Nepal. In: Thijssen, M.H., Z. Bishwa, A. Beshir and W.S. de Boef,
eds. Farmers, Seeds and Varieties Supporting Informal Seed Supply in Ethiopia. Wageningen
International, Wageningen, The Netherlands, pp. 103-108.
Shrestha P., S. Sthapit, R. Devkota and R. Vernooy. 2012. Workshop Summary Report. National
Workshop on Community Seed Banks, 14-15 June 2012, Pokhara, Nepal.LI-BIRD/USC Canada
Asia/Oxfam Nepal/Bioversity International.
Shrestha P., S. Sthapit, I Paudel, S. Subedi, A. Subedi and B. Sthapit. 2012. A guide to establishing
a community biodiversity management fund for enhancing agricultural biodiversity
conservation and rural livelihoods. Good Practice Flyer. LI-BIRD, Pokhara, Nepal.
Shrestha P. and P. Chaudhary. 2012. Managing biodiversity: Nepal’s BCDCs. Farming Matters 28(3):
22-3.
Shrestha P., G. Gezu, S. Swain, B. Lassaigne, A. Subedi and W.S. de Boef. 2013. The community
seed bank: a common driver for community biodiversity management. In: de Boef, W.S., A.
Subedi, N. Peroni, M.H. Thijssen and E. O’Keeffe, eds. Community Biodiversity Management:
Promoting Resilience and the Conservation of Plant Genetic Resources. London: Earthscan, pp. 109117.
Shrestha P., S. Sthapit, A. Subedi and B. Sthapit. 2013. Community biodiversity management fund:
promoting conservation through livelihood development in Nepal. In: de Boef, W.S., A.
Subedi, N. Peroni, M.H. Thijssen and E. O’Keeffe, eds. Community Biodiversity Management:
Promoting Resilience and the Conservation of Plant Genetic Resources. London: Earthscan, pp. 118122.
Subedi A., P. Chaudhary, B. Baniya, R. Rana, R.K. Tiwari, D. Rijal, D.I. Jarvis and B. Sthapit. 2003.
Who maintains crop genetic diversity and how: implications for on farm conservation and
utilization. Culture and Agriculture 25(2): 41-50.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
74
75
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
High hill
Talium, Jumla
2179
1770
90-140
2000
1145
1694
NA
2314
1400
2115
1770
1840
1770
1840
1840
1912
1515
Annual
rainfall
(MM)
NA
Max= 36.4, Min=4.6
Max= 36-38, Min=5-10
NA
Max=25.5-35.8, Min=8.2-24.5
Max= 35.3, Min= 4.1
Max= 38.7, Min= 5
Max= 21.5-39.4, Min=6.9-25.1
Max= 19-44, Min=7.5-23.5
Max= 21.5-39.4, Min=6.9-25.1
Max= 19-44, Min=7.5-23.5
Max= 19-44, Min=7.5-23.5
Max=19-38, Min= 6-24
24.6
Mean temperature (ºC)
1425
375
1800
1157
2691
2334
2035
1721
2282
722
1404
1630
2263
1418
Jimi, Brahmin, Chhetri,
Tamang
Brahmin, Chhetri, BK
Brahmin, Chhetri
Chepang, Brahmin, Chhetri,
Newar
Brahmin, Chhetri, Tajpuria,
Tharu
Tharu, Brahmin, Chhetri
Tharu, Brahmin Chhetri
Tharu, Brahmin, Chhetri
Tharu, Brahmin, Chhetri, BK
Tharu, Brahmin, Chhetri
Tharu, Brahmin, Chhetri, BK
Tharu, Brahmin, Chhetri, BK
Tharu, Brahmin, Chhetri,
Muslim, BK
Yadav, Jayaswal, Muslim,
Total no. of Major Inhabitants
households
2240866
Max= 16.4, Min=3.5
923
Brahmin, Chhetri and Dalits
3000
Source: Baseline survey and site selection reports andhttp://www.cbs.gov.np/district_profile_contents.php.
Mid to high hills
Tamaphok,
Sankhuwasabha
629
Mid hills
Mid hills
Jogimara, Dhading
Mid to high hills
Terai lowlands plain
Shivagunj, Jhapa
Purkot, Tanahun
292-1770
Inner terai lowlands
plain
Rampur, Dang
Ghanteshor, Doti
157
Inner terai lowlands
plain
Agyauli, Nawalparasi
776
179
187
Terai lowlands plain
Pathraiya, Kailali
Beldandi, Kanchanpur Terai lowlands plain
176
180
183
Terai lowlands plain
Terai lowlands plain
Masuriya, Kailali
100-300
Terai lowlands plain
Terai lowlands plain
Belawa, Bardiya
80-90
Gadariya, Kailali
Terai lowlands plain
Kachorwa, Bara
Elevation
(masl.)
Shankarpur,
Kanchanpur
Geographic location
Name of site
Annex 1: Characteristics of community seed bank sites supported by LI-BIRD
Rice, Barley, Finger millet,
Beans, Buckwheat
Maize, Potato, Finger
millet, Cardamom
Maize, Wheat, Vegetables
Rice, Maize, Finger Millet
Maize, Finger millet,
Vegetables
Rice, Wheat, Lentil
Rice, Wheat, Lentil
Rice, Wheat, Lentil
Rice, Wheat, Lentil
Rice, Wheat, Lentil
Rice, Wheat, lentil
Rice, Wheat, Lentil
Rice, Wheat, lentil
Rice, Wheat, lentil
Rice, Wheat, Maize,
Potato, lentil
Major crops
Agrobiodiversity Resource Centre: The Cooperative
Managed Community Seed Bank of Ranibas, Sindhuli
DINESH SHRESTHA, YADAV KHANAL, MOHAN KHATIWADA AND RAM PRASAD BARAL
Parivartan Nepal, Makawanpur, Hetauda, Nepal, Corresponding email: parivartan@ntc.net.np
Introduction
Photos: Parivartan Nepal
Genetic diversity plays a significant role in improving the food security and livelihood
of humankind. Farmers have been maintaining, conserving and developing a wide array
of crops since farming was started. Nepal, in terms of species richness at the global level,
occupies the 25th position, while at the continental level it has the 11th position (MoPE
2000a). In the top 10 biodiversity hotspot countries of Asia, Nepal stands at the 5th, 9th
and 10th positions respectively with regard to species diversity of birds, mammals, and
angiospermic flowering plants (MoPE 2000b). Over 400 species of agricultural and
horticultural crops and about 200 species of vegetables have been recorded (MoPE 2000a).
The continuous survival of all floral and faunal diversity requires concerted efforts by local
communities who are the custodians of agrobiodiversity.
The community seed bank (CSB) has emerged as an effective rural institution at the
community level. CSBs strengthen farmers’ access to diversity of crop genetic resources
which in turn contributes to local food security of poor farmers and ensures the conservation
of agrobiodiversity on farm (Shrestha et al. 2005, Maharjan et al. 2011). In 2007, the community
of Ranibas Village of Sindhuli District organized a cooperative named Ranibas Organic
Agriculture Cooperative Society. This Society started conserving local varieties of various
crops through the establishment of an agrobiodiversity resource centre. The resource
centre is functioning as a community seed bank in the village. This paper will describe the
establishment process and management of the agrobiodiversity resource centre.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
76
Historical background
Ranibas is a small village of Ranibas Village Development Committee (VDC). It is
predominantly populated with Brahmin and Chhetri followed by the Majhi tribal
community. Most of the people depend on subsistence farming for their livelihoods. Rice
is the number one staple crop followed by maize, wheat and lentil.
In 2000/01, USC Canada Nepal started implementing a multidisciplinary community
development initiative named People’s Empowerment Program (PEP) at Ranibas and
other 5 VDCs of Kamala River basin area of Sindhuli District. Promotion of organic farming
was one of the major components of the program. Through a social mobilization process,
communities were encouraged to maximize the use of local resources for farming and
discouraged to use hybrid seeds, chemical fertilizer and pesticides.
In one of training sessions at Ranibas, farmers expressed the difficulty of finding seeds of
many local species and varieties. They also wanted to know whether or not they could
produce vegetable seeds on their farm. Considering farmers’ interests and the program’s
previous experiences in seed production, an exercise was conducted to identify crops and
varieties of vegetables for which seeds could be produced locally. During the discussion, a
large amount of vegetable diversity was recorded and many of the vegetables were found
to be conserved on farm. Then the program decided to build and support the community
to institutionalize on farm conservation efforts through organizing the community and
setting up an agrobiodiversity resource centre in 2006. Later on, it was developed as a
cooperative and named “Ranibas Organic Agriculture Cooperative Society” with the
following objectives:
yy to supply vegetable seeds of required quantity and quality to its members according
to the planting season
yy to promote on farm conservation of rare and endangered species of crops
yy to support poor farmers for generating income from cooperative businesses based on
on farm and off farm activities.
In 2007, the program was handed over to a local NGO called Parivartan Nepal. Since
then, Parivartan Nepal has been implementing agrobiodiversity focused programs in
partnership with USC Canada Asia. The role of Parivartan Nepal is to provide technical
guidance and financial support for strengthening the resource centre as per need basis.
The process of establishing an agrobiodiversity resource centre
The Agrobiodiversity Resource Centre, Ranibas was established as a part of long-term
multi-sector community development programme running with the funding support of
USC-Canada. There were more than 200 informal self-help groups formed and operational
during the project period (2000-07). Among them, a group of Ranibas VDC ward no.1
came up with the vision of local seed conservation. The project encouraged them to for77
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
mulate and execute various activities for the promotion of local seed conservation, quality
improvement and sustainable utilization. In the initial years, they only focused on conservation activities but later on, the centre planned to initiate seed production and marketing
for income generation. In order to institutionalize the centre’s activities, the concept of
organizing members into a cooperative emerged. Finally, the Ranibas Organic Agriculture
Cooperative Society was established with support from the project. The steps to establish
the agrobiodiversity resource centre were as follows:
yy Organization of an educational training programme focusing on the importance of
local seeds, their quality improvement and management
yy Identification of local seeds particularly of vegetables and cereals initially through
discussion, interaction and observation
yy Documentation of local crop diversity through the community biodiversity register
(CBR)
yy Exchange of ideas and experiences about seed conservation with relevant
organizations during workshops/meetings
yy Discussion amongst community members for initiating the community seed bank to
be managed by themselves
yy Establishment of an agrobiodiversity resource centre and organic agriculture
cooperative to manage the resource centre
yy Providing support for necessary infrastructure and other items (building for office
space, furniture and equipment such as a grinder, weighting scales, etc.)
yy Providing financial and technical support to promote utilization of local produce and
seeds through running an outlet of organic products that links the community with
the local market
yy Support for need based capacity development activities such as formulation of
appropriate norms, review meetings and establishing linkages with the market and
service providers
The agrobiodiversity resource centre and conservation of agricultural
biodiversity
Since its inception, the Agrobiodiversity Resource Centre has been promoting production
and conservation of local crops on farm, particularly cereals, pulses and vegetables cultivated
in the Kamala river basin area of Sindhuli district. Its major concern is conservation of
plant genetic resources and their sustainable use. In addition, it encourages its members to
adopt organic farming for livelihood improvement. As a result, the cooperative members
have been producing crops and seeds by employing organic methods of production. The
cooperative also assesses market potentiality for their produce and have opened up an
outlet at the district headquarters to sell organic produce. Currently, it is closed because
the cooperative is planning to move to their own village.
The centre has maintained 143 varieties of 43 crops (Table 1; for details, see Annex 1). Out
of these, 47 varieties are reported as rare, i.e., they could have been lost in the absence
of the agrobiodiversity resource centre. The cooperative has identified 32 seed producer/
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
78
saver farmers amongst its members. These members are voluntarily taking responsibility
for the conservation of at least one rare local variety identified by the cooperative. There
is a system of rotation of conserving rare varieties among farmers. Every year one farmer
takes responsibility for one variety and then the next year that responsibility is given to
another farmer. The cooperative has also formulated a detailed guideline for seed and
money lending (see, Annex 2).
The profiles of seed producer/saver farmers’ are kept at the centre so that everyone can know
who is responsible to conserve which crop and variety. After each harvest, seed samples
are replaced at the centre along with a detailed description of the year of production, the
names of farmers, the names of the crops/varieties and the quantity of seed produced.
The centre plays the role of mediator; if someone wants to get a particular seed the centre
contacts the respective seed producer/saver farmer. The centre also sets the price for the
seed of each crop and updates the price annually. If anyone needs a bulk volume of seed,
he/she needs to inform the centre prior to the planting season. Because of space limitation
the centre is unable to keep a large volume.
Table 1: Summary of agricultural biodiversity conserved at the agrobiodiversity resource
centre
Number of species
Number of varieties
Number of endangered
varieties
Cereal
6
58
20
Legume
8
25
7
Crop category
Vegetables
9
21
7
Spices
10
15
6
Root crop
6
15
6
Oil Seed
4
9
4
143
43
Total
43
Source: records obtained from community seed bank
In addition to conservation and seed production, the centre aims to find and collect local
varieties that had disappeared from the area. Once seeds are collected, they are provided
to interested farmers and the farmers must return double the quantity of seed originally
obtained from the centre.
Management of the agrobiodiversity resource centre
All the seed producer/saver farmers are well trained in seed selection and quality
enhancement. They are responsible for maintaining seed quality. However, there is a
monitoring team formed amongst the cooperative members for monitoring in the field
during the cropping season. The team reports directly to the executive committee of
cooperative.
79
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
At present, the cooperative has assigned two members to look after the centre’s activities
at least 3 days of each month (i.e., the very first and last 2 days of each Nepali month).
Besides this, the centre is opened when required. The assigned persons are responsible
to keep all records of the resource centre. In return, the cooperative provides a minimum
honorarium to them. There is a monthly meeting of the centre’s members wherein they
share experiences, discuss challenges and develop new plans. In addition, the members
collect monthly savings which they provide to needy members on loan.
The cooperative has a total of 153 members including 77 women. It has included 16 farmers’
groups in the neighbouring wards of Ranibas VDC as members. Each group is composed
of 10-12 members from their locality. An inclusive executive committee has been formed
through a democratic process for day to day management. The committee has 15 members,
including 4 women. The committee has collected group fund of NRs. 537 000 (around 6300
US$) as of 2011. It includes seed fund of NRs. 32 000 (380 US$) provided by different
organizations. The fund is only mobilized for seed conservation purposes. Only the seed
producer/saver farmers have access to the seed fund. The centre is planning to reduce the
interest rate of the group fund.
The benefits of the agrobiodiversity resource centre
The resource centre is playing a vital role in the conservation of local crops of the area
through social mobilization. Its regular meetings, orientations and discussions are
instrumental to encouraging community members to conserve local varieties. Members
of the cooperative are receiving direct benefits from the agrobiodiversity resource centre
in many ways. They have access to information on the availability of seeds, the type and
quantity required for the season and who has what variety of seed. The centre informs
all of its members if any new suitable variety for the area is found and/or if any variety
that is lost from the region is found in other places. The centre also responds to members’
request for new varieties through contacting larger networks. It serves as a good forum
for discussion, and eventually enhancing seed security at the community level through
conserving and promoting locally adapted crop landraces.
The centre introduced a new variety of pigeon pea named Seto local in the village during
the year 2007. It was well suited to the local condition. Hence, it was adopted by many
farmers immediately. Now, more than 5 tons of pigeon pea are produced and sold at the
local market. It is one example of how the centre is contributing to increase the income of
farmers.
Cooperative members receive loans from a revolving fund at a low interest rate (18% per
annum) for various purposes. The lending process is simple, easy and quick. In addition,
32 seed saver farmers are involved in producing seed and have earned extra income
from selling seed through the agrobiodiversity resource centre. The seed fund is utilized
to encourage farmers to conserve endangered crop varieties. Besides, seed exchange
amongst members and non-members is also promoted. Since the resource centre does not
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
80
have a systematic record keeping practice of seed production and distribution, it is hard
to quantify how much seed of a particular variety was produced and how much was sold
and exchanged within and outside community.
Sustaining mechanism of the agrobiodiversity resource centre
The centre is imbedded in a cooperative which is an active institution governed by
cooperative law. The cooperative has combined regular savings and lending services for
production purposes with seed conservation activities. The regular meeting for group
savings activities by its members directly supports the seed related activities including
seed conservation, production and marketing.
The core fund that includes savings and shared capital is providing around NRs. 100
000 revenue annually. As mentioned, there is a separate conservation fund (NRs. 32 000)
allocated from the contribution of supporting organizations, viz., Parivartan Nepal and
LI-BIRD.
The centre has its own office space and necessary physical resources previously developed
through the support of USC. There is a strong common bond amongst the members which
is an important asset for sustaining the process. These combined human, financial and
physical assets are instrumental to continue the process even though there is no direct
support from external agencies.
The cooperative has established linkages with local VDC, NGOs and district line agencies
such as District Agriculture Development Office (DADO) and District Livestock Service
Office (DLSO) to receive support and services to achieve its mission. However, the
cooperative needs to increase their effort to provide more benefits to the community
through their activities so that the young generation will follow them to take a lead role to
sustain the organization in future.
A summary of the main strengths, weaknesss, opportunities and threats can be found in
Annex 3.
81
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
References
Maharjan S.K, A. R. Gurung and B.R. Sthapit. 2011. Enhancing On-Farm Conservation of
Agrobiodiversity through Community Seed Bank: An Experience of Western Nepal, The
Journal of Agriculture and Environment Vol: 12, pp. 132-139.
MoPE. 2000. Nepal’s State of the Environment. His Majesty’s Government, Ministry of Population
and Environment, Kathmandu, Nepal, (a).
MoPE. 2000. Environment. His Majesty’s Government, Ministry of Population and Environment,
Kathmandu, Nepal, A Journal of the Environment, Vol. 5 2000 No. 6 (b).
Shrestha P., A. Subedi, D. Rijal, D. Singh, B.R. Sthapit and M.P. Upadhyay. 2005. Enhancing local
seed security and on-farm conservation through a community seed bank in Bara district
of Nepal. In: Sthapit, B.R., M.P. Upadhyay, P.K. Shrestha and D.I. Jarvis, eds. On-farm
Conservation of Agricultural Biodiversity in Nepal, Volume II. Managing Diversity and
Promoting its Benefits: Proceeding of the second national workshop, 25-27 August 2004,
Nagarkot, Nepal. Rome: IPGRI, pp. 70-76.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
82
Annex 1: Details of crops maintained at agrobiodiversity resource centre (seed bank) at
Ranibas
S.N.
Crop
# of Variety
# of Endangered Variety
1
Rice
42
14
2
Maize
6
2
3
Wheat
2
0
4
Finger millet
6
2
5
Sorghum
1
1
6
Foxtail millet
1
1
Sub-total
58
20
Cereals
Legume crops
1
Pigeon Pea
3
1
2
Lentil
2
0
3
Pea
3
1
4
Black gram
3
1
5
Chick pea
1
0
6
Horse gram
1
1
7
Cow pea
6
2
8
Bean
6
1
Sub-total
25
7
Vegetables
1
Bitter gourd
2
1
2
Lady finger
2
1
3
Bottle gourd
2
0
4
Snake gourd
2
1
5
Egg plant
2
1
6
Pumpkin
4
1
7
Chayote
1
0
8
Sponge gourd
4
1
9
Tomato
2
1
Sub-total
21
7
1
Fenugreek
1
1
2
Dill Shup
1
0
3
Cress
1
0
4
Coriander
2
1
5
Black pepper
1
1
6
Perilla
1
0
7
Garlic
1
0
Spices
83
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
S.N.
Crop
# of Variety
# of Endangered Variety
8
Chilly
3
1
9
Ginger
2
1
10
Turmeric
2
1
Sub-total
15
6
Root crop
1
Yam
3
1
2
Sweet potato
2
1
3
Potato
2
0
4
Taro
6
1
5
Elephant Foot Yam
1
0
6
Cassava
1
0
Sub-total
15
3
1
Soybean
4
2
2
Mustard
3
1
3
Linseed
1
0
4
Sunflower
1
1
Sub-total
9
4
Oil Seed
Total crops 43
Annex 2. Seed guideline of agrobiodiversity resource centre, Ranibas
Seed producer farmers' perspective:
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
Seed producer farmer must meet the terms determined for seed production.
Apart from sample seeds, farmers should store extra seeds in warehouse.
Farmers are not allowed to sell the seeds kept in their houses without any prior information to cooperative.
Seed producer farmer must produce seed according to the commitment made in a contract.
Seed sample should be sent to the cooperatives as per the season.
The seed producer farmer should take all the responsibilities for any complaints received concerning the seeds
produced and sold in the market in the case of not fulfilling basic requirements set by cooperative.
Quality and quantity of seeds determined by cooperative has to be produced.
Farmer should inform the cooperative about the result of germination test prior to sale.
Only climate adapted seed should be produced.
Produced seed should be organic.
According to the nature of seeds at least 10gm to 100kg seeds should be stored by seed producer farmer.
Rules to be considered while taking seeds from cooperative
yy
yy
yy
yy
If a customer confirms to purchase the seed as per the seed sample, are commendation from the cooperative is
required to sell the seeds to the costumer.
Cooperative will charge 10% additional costs as service charge.
If seed is leftover in the season, the cooperative returns those seeds to the relevant farmers.
Endangered corps seeds can be exchanged or traded in ‘‘double system'' among members. (One should return
double of seed taken)
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
84
Action to be taken by cooperative
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
85
At the time of registering a farmer's seed sample, the amount of seeds kept in farmers warehouse should also be
documented in a register.
Cooperative has to make arrangement for the distribution of seeds from farmers' warehouse.
Cooperative will charge 10% additional costs as service charge.
Cooperative has to form monitoring committee to monitor the seed production process and also it is responsible
to get reports from monitoring committee.
All the stored seed will not be sold, old seeds will be replaced and used for other purposes (e.g. food and feed).
Cooperative should arrange to collect and provide the seeds of endangered and existence varieties to seed
producer farmers for the purpose of seed production.
Seeds of those varieties for which seed production cannot be done by farmers but can be grown locally. The
cooperative should procure the seeds of those varieties and arrange to distribute to the farmers by keeping
appropriate revenue.
The record of seeds and seed quantity according to their growing season should be disclosed publicly to the
farmers in the growing season.
Cooperative should arrange for truthful labelling to sell seeds.
If famer deposits the seeds which have not fulfilled the minimum requirement while producing, the cooperative
can take remediating action against those farmers but should refrain from discrimination based on caste, class,
religion, gender and social status.
Cooperative will organize promotional and dissemination activities of seeds collected in the cooperative, and
prepare action plan, including seed collection of endangered species, coordinate with stakeholders, organize
training and workshop etc.
Cooperative should have prior approval from executive committee for farmer's participation in any training or
workshop.
Cooperative has to participate in district, regional or national level agriculture or seed fair and has to publish
financial statement after returning from fair.
Cost of seeds has to be determined by cooperative according to seasons. However, price will be different for
group members and non-member.
If cooperative provides seeds of extinct variety to farmers for seed production, farmers' have to return double
amount of originally received.
If non-member farmers want to produce seeds, they will be included for seed production only after subscribing
as member and charging additional NRs. 51 as per the rule of cooperative.
If any seeds are damaged for any reason during transaction from other areas, cooperative will to provide
compensation as per the decision made by executive committee according to availability of the fund.
If farmers are seeking seed after the season, the cooperative will arrange to provide seasonable seeds as
alternative.
Cooperative should inform farmers about the market demand timely.
Suggestion will be provided for planting crops according to crop calendar.
Seeds will be distributed to the farmer with group guarantee.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Annex 3: SWOT analysis of the agrobiodiversity resource centre, Ranibas, Sindhuli
Strengths
Weakness
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
Common bond among the members.
Own building.
Equipped with minimum equipment, furniture &
materials.
Trained persons on seed related issues
Good diversity in crops and varieties.
Committed members on conservation.
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
Less skills/knowledge on Participatory Variety
Selection (PVS)&Participatory Plant Breeding
(PPB)
Less dynamic leadership
Lack of linkages & coordination with research
centres
Not properly implied rules formulated
Less involvement of youths
Lack of fund raising skills.
Opportunities
Threats
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
Increasing local and outside market demand for
organic products.
Increased local market for local seeds particularly
vegetables.
Good diversity on crops & varieties
Good communication and transportation facilities
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
yy
Increased promotion of improved and hybrid seeds
in the area recently by development organizations
in recent period.
Low attraction of youths to stay in village and do
farming.
86
The Story of Establishment and Management of a
Community Seed Bank in Kachorwa Village of Bara District
in Central Terai Nepal34
RAMEKWAL YADAV
Agriculture Development and Conservation Society (ADCS), Kachorwa, Bara, Nepal
Photos: Pitambar Shrestha (left and bottom right)
Summary
Kachorwa village is characterized as a high potential production system and farmers have
ample access to agriculture input and technologies. Farmers opted for modern agriculture
input and technologies to increase farm production but this led to the loss of rice landraces
from farmers’ fields even though an on farm conservation of agricultural biodiversity
project was underway. Thirty three rice landraces reported in the baseline study in 1998
decreased to 14 when compiling a community biodiversity register in 2003. This scenario
led the project team and community to establish a community seed bank. A nodal farmers’
organization called ‘Agriculture Development and Conservation Society’ (ADCS) was
established to manage the community seed bank as well as to lead overall management of
agricultural biodiversity at the community level. Since its establishment, with support from
various national and international development organizations, it has developed its physical,
financial, social and human capital to mobilize natural capital, i.e., plant genetic resources.
The number of women groups has increased from two to nine with 380 members, including
355 women. Until now, the community seed bank has collected and conserved more than
34
87
Author of this chapter represents farmers’ organization called ADCS, which has been managing a
community seed bank since 2003. To encourage and recognize them, this chapter has been presented in
Nepali language except summary.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
100 local varieties of various crops. ADCS has been managing a community biodiversity
management fund of nearly 1 million Nepalese rupees which has contributed to on farm
conservation of landraces collected through the community seed bank and increased income
of its members through income generating activities. Apart from this fund management, a
saving and credit cooperative has also been established to formalize the monthly saving of its
members which is nearly 2.5 million Nepalese rupees at present. Establishment of a diversity
block, participatory plant breeding, seed production and marketing are other regular
activities which are not only benefiting local people but are also sustaining mechanisms of
the community seed bank, even if there is no support from external agencies.
srf]jf{ ufp“df ;fd'bflos aLp a}+ssf] :yfkgf tyf ljsf;k|lqmof
/fdPsjfn k|;fb ofbj
s[lif ljsf; tyf ;+/If0f ;dfh, srf]jf{, af/f, g]kfn
kl/ro
srf]jf{ uf=lj=;= g]kfnsf] dWot/fO{df cjl:yt af/f lhNnfsf] blIf0fk"jd{ f ef/t;Fu l;dfgf hf]l8P/ /x]sf]
5 . oxfF k"0f{?kdf dw];Ld"nsf ofbj, snjf/, d'l:nd, ;fx, t]nL tyf blnt hfltsf dflg;x?sf] a;f]
jf; 5 . o; ufpFsf s[ifs ;d'bfo tyf ;d"xx?;Fu ldn]/ lj=;=+ @)%% b]lv @)^# ;Dd h}ljs ljljwtf,
cg';Gwfg tyf ljsf;sf nflu :yfgLo kxn -nL–a8{_, g]kfn s[lif cg';Gwfg kl/ifb\ -gfs{_ / Affof]el;{6L
OG6/g]zngåf/f OlG;6' kl/of]hgf ;~rfng ePsf lyP . oL kl/of]hgfsf d'Vo p2]Zo d"ntM s[lif h}ljs
ljljwtfsf ljleGg kIfx?sf af/]df cg';Gwfg ug'{ lyof] . To;qmddf kl/of]hgfsf] lgoldt sfo{qmdsf
?kdf :yfgLo hftsf afnLx?sf] oyf:yfgLo ;+/If0fsf nflu ljleGg lsl;dsf hgr]tgfd"ns tyf
cg';Gwfgd"ns sfo{qmdx? ;DkGg eP . kl/of]hgfsf] z'¿df ufpFsf ;a} 6f]nnfO{ ;d]6/] @@ j6f s[ifs
;d"xx? u7g ul/Psf lyP t/ kl/of]hgfn] ;d"x kl/rfngsf kIfdf cfjZos Wofg k'¥ofpg g;s]sfn] tL
;d"xx? lj:tf/} lgl:qmo aGb} uP . csf{lt/ :yfgLo hftsf afnLx?sf] ;+/If0f;DaGwL cWoog cg';Gwfg
tyf ;j]I{ f0fx? lg/Gt/ ;~rfng eO/x]sf lyP, o;}qmddf wfgsf :yfgLo hftx?sf] nf]k x'gq] md lg/Gt/
al9/Xof] . kl/of]hgfn] ;DkGg u/]sf] cfwf//]vf ;j]I{ f0fdf ## lsl;dsf wfgsf :yfgLo hftx? klxrfg
ul/Psf lyP t/ To;sf] s]xL jif{kl5 ;d'bfon] ;~rfng u/]sf] ;fd'bflos h}ljs ljljwtf clen]v cg';f/
wfgsf !$ lsl;dsf hftx? dfq km]nf k/] . csf{lt/ z'¿df u7g ul/Psf s[ifs;d"x? lgliqmo ePkl5
k'gM b'Oj{ 6f dlxnf ;d"xx? u7g ul/Psf lyP t/ tL ;d"xx? :yfgLo hftsf afnLx?sf] ;+/If0f tyf
k|jw{gdf eGbf klg d"ntM art ;ª\sng u/L 3/fo;L sfddf kl/rfng ug]{ sfo{df ;Lldt lyP . To;avt
dlxnfx?nfO{ sfo{qmddf ;xefuL x'gfsf nflu w]/} ;fdflhs k|ltaGwx? klg ljBdfg lyP .
log} s'/fx?nfO{ dWogh/ u/L lj=;+= @)%( d+l;/ dlxgfdf nL–a8{sf cg';Gwfgstf{x? tyf ;fd'bflos
h}ljs ljljwtf clen]v eg{ ;+nUg ;d'bfosf ;b:ox?sf] ;xeflutfdf a;]sf] a}7sdf :yfgLo
afnLx?sf] ;+/If0f tyf k|jw{gsf nflu ljleGg ljsNkx?sf af/]df 5nkmn eof] . cGttM ;fd'bflos
aLp a}+s :yfkgf ug'{ g} pko'Qm ljsNk x'g] 7fgL To;} cg';f/ lg0f{o ul/of] . o; sfo{kqdf
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
88
srf]jf{df ;fd'bflos aLp a}+s :yfkgf ug]{ sfo{ s;/L cl3 a9\of] / xfn ;fd'bflos aLp a}+ssf]
cj:yf s:tf] 5 eGg] af/]df rrf{ ul/Psf] 5 .
;fd'bflos ;+:yfsf] :yfkgf / aLp a}+ssf] yfngL
srf]jf{ ufpFdf ;fd'bflos aLp a}s
+ :yfkgf ug]{ s'/f lgs} cfsif{s lyof] t/ To;}cg';f/ sfd ug'{ Tolts}
r'gf}tL klg . Psflt/ kl/of]hgfsf] k|f/Dedf u7g ul/Psf @@ j6f ;d"xx? lgliqmo ePsf lyP eg] csf{lt/
cfd s[ifsx? pGgt hft / k|ljlwsf] lj:tf/df lgs} cl3 al9;s]sf lyP . v'Nnf l;dfgfsf sf/0f
pgLx?nfO{ pGgt dn, aLp / k|ljlwdf ;'ne kx'rF klg lyof] . ctM nL–a8{sf sd{rf/Lx? / ;fd'bflos
h}ljs ljljwtf clen]vLs/0f sfo{df ;+nUg s[ifsx?;Fu uxg 5nkmnu/L srf]jf{ ufpFsf ;a} 6f]nsf
k|ltlglw s[ifsx?sf] ;xeflutfdf lj=;=+ @)^) j}zfv ( ut] s[lif ljsf; tyf ;+/If0f ;dfh gfdsf] ;+:yf
:yfkgf u/L lhNnf k|zf;g sfof{no sn}ofdf :yfgLo u}/;/sf/L ;+:yfsf ?kdf btf{ ul/of] .
srf]jf{df ;fd'bflos aLp a}+ssf] yfngL lj=;+= @)^) j}zfv ( ut] ul/Psf] xf] . k|f/Dedf kl/of]hgfn]
pknAw u/fPsf !( lsl;dsf :yfgLo hftsf wfg tyf s]xL /x/ / sf]bfsf] aLp ;d'bfosf Pshgf
;b:osf 3/sf] Pp6f sf]7fdf k/fnsf] df]/, df6fsf] 3}nf / afF;sf] sf]7L h:tf s[ifsx?n] aLp
e08f/0f ug]{ ;fdfu|Lx?sf] Joj:yf u/L k/Dk/fut ?kdf /flvPsf] lyof] . srf]jf{df ;fd'bflos aLp
a}+ssf] yfngLsf nflu kl/of]hgfsf Pshgf sd{rf/Ln] pgsf] JolQmut tkm{af6 ¿= kGw| ;o gub;d]t
pknAw u/fPsf lyP .
;dGjo, ;xsfo{ tyf ef}lts ;+/rgfsf] ljsf;
srf]jf{df ;fd'bflos aLp a}+ssf] yfngLsf] rrf{ rNg yfNof] . OlG;6' kl/of]hgfsf] Ps ;fem]bf/
;+:yf afof]el;{6L OG6/g]zgnn] ;fd'bflos aLp a}+ssf] ejg lgdf{0f / ;+:yfut ljsf;sf nflu
!)))÷– 8n/ pknAw u/fpg] lg0f{o u¥of] . ;d'bfosf ;b:ox?sf] kxndf uf=lj=;=af6 ! sÝf hUuf
/ ¿= !@,)))÷– a/fa/sf] h:tfkftf k|fKt eof] . cGttM dlxnf ;d"x tyf ;+:yfsf ;b:ox?sf]
¿= #%,)))÷– a/fa/sf] gub / >dbfg ;xof]udf aLp e08f/0f sf]7f / a}7ssf]7fsf] lgdf{0f ;DkGg
ul/of] . nL–a8{sf] kxndf ;fd'bflos aLp a}+ssf] Ifdtf clej[l4sf nlfu ;fgkm]s g]6js{af6
kof{j/0fLo s[lif / k/Dk/fut s[lifsf] cfly{s kIfsf] t'ngfTds cWoogsf nflu / o"Pg8LkLsf]
;fgf cg'bfg sfo{qmdaf6 klg kl/of]hgfx? k|fKt eP . oL kl/of]hgfx? / s[lif ljsf; tyf
;+/If0f ;dfhsf] cfg} ;|f]t;d]t u/]/ xfn ;fd'bflos aLp a}+ssf nflu cfjZosaLp e08f/0f sIf,
sfof{no, ;efsIf cflb ef}lts ;+/rgfsf] Joj:yf eO{;s]sf] 5 .
:yfgLo aLp ;ªsng, ;+/If0f / ljt/0f
:yfgLo hftsf afnLx?sf] klxrfg, aLp tyf hfgsf/Lx?sf] vf]hLlgtL, ;ª\sng, clen]vLs/0f
/ :yfgLo s[ifsx?sf] dfuadf]lhd aLp–pTkfbg tyf ljt/0f ug'{ ;fd'bflos aLp a}+ssf] d'Vo sfd
xf] . lj=;+= @)^) df ;fd'bflos aLp a}+s z'¿ ubf{ wfgsf !( hftx? lyP . To;kl5 xfn;Dd
klg ;fd'bflos aLp a}+sn] aLp ;ª\sngsf] sfo{nfO{ lg/Gt/tf lbO/x]sf] 5 . xfn;Dd o;
aLp a}+sdf wfgsf ** lsl;dsf :yfgLo hftx?sf] ;ª\sng / ;+/If0f ePsf] 5 . lj=;+= @)^(
b]lv nL–a8{sf] g'; kl/of]hgfsf] ;xof]udf km;L{, uxt, cfn;, cf]n, hf}, j+unfh:tf sd
89
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
k|of]udf cfPsf / x/fpFb} uPsf afnLx?sf] klg aLp ;ª\sng, ;+/If0f / k|jw{gsf] sfd z'¿ ePsf]
5 . ;ª\sng ul/Psf :yfgLo hftsf aLpx? lg/Gt/ pTkfbg tyf s[ifsx?sf] dfuadf]lhd
;'ne?kdf ljt/0f ul/G5 . o;/L aLp ljt/0f ubf{ ;fdfGotof ;b:ox?nfO{ 8]9f rng cg';f/ /
;b:o gePsf s[ifsx?nfO{ ;/n d"Nodf pknAw u/fOG5 .
:yfgLo hftsf afnLx?sf] ;+/If0fsf cltl/Qm :yfgLo s[ifsx?sf] cfjZostfnfO{ dWogh/ u/L
s[lif ljsf; tyf ;+/If0f ;dfhn] pGgt hftsf aLpx?sf] klg pTkfbg tyf ljqmLljt/0f ug]{
ub{5 . o;af6 aLp–pTkfbg ug]{ s[ifsx? Psflt/ k|ToIf nfeflGjt ePsf 5g\ eg] csf]{lt/ :yfgLo
s[ifsx?n] klg t'ngfTds?kdf sd d"Nodf u'0f:t/Lo aLp ;lhn} kfPsf 5g\ . o;sf cltl/Qm
;fd'bflos aLp a}+ssf nflu of] sfo{qmd lbuf] cfly{s ;|f]tsf] dfWod klg ag]sf] 5 .
tflnsf !M srf]jf{ ;fd'bflos aLp a}+sdf ;ª\sng
afnL
hft;ª\Vof
wfg
**
/x/
@
l3/f}+nf
@
sf]bf]
@
km;L{
@
u/L ;+/If0f ul/Psf :yfgLo hftsf afnLx?
afnL
hft;ª\Vof
uxt
!
cfn;
!
a+unf
@
hf}
!
cf]n
@
hDdf
!)#
;|f]tM ;fd'bflos aLp a}+s;DaGwL /lhi6/x?
h}ljs ljljwtf k|bz{gL If]qsf] Joj:yfkg
;fd'bflos aLp a}+sdf ;ª\sng / ;+/If0f ul/Psf :yfgLo hftsf aLpx?sf] lgoldt ?kdf
aLp–pTkfbgsf nlfu h}ljs ljljwtf k|bz{gL If]qsf] :yfkgf ul/G5 . o; sfo{af6 k|To]s jif{ aLp
gjLs/0f x'G5, :yfgLo aLpsf] dfu ug]{ s[ifsnfO{ o;}af6 aLp lbg ;lsG5 / s]xL xb;Dd :yfgLo
hftx?sf] ;+/If0fsf nflu r]tgf clej[l4sf] sfd klg x'G5 . h}ljs ljljwtf k|bz{gL If]qsf] :yfkgf
ubf{ wfgsf xsdf k|To]s hftsf] wfg ( ju{ld6/ If]qkmndf nufOG5 eg] cGo afnLx?sf] k|lthft
If]qkmn afnLcg';f/ km/skm/s x'G5 . o;sf] ;Dk"0f{ Joj:yfkg s[lif ljsf; tyf ;+/If0f ;dfhn]
ub{5 .
tflnsf @M srf]jf{ ;fd'bflos aLp a}s
+ n] pTkfbg tyf laqmLljt/0f u/]sf pGgt hftsf aLpsf] ljj/0f
aLp vl/b ug]{
jif{ -lj=;+=_ afnL
aLp–pTkfbg ul/Psf] hft
laqmL kl/df0f -s]=hL=_
s[ifs ;ªVof
@)^$
wfg
srf]jf{–$, srf]jf{–%, xlb{gfy–!
#&#@
!))
@)^%
wfg
srf]jf{–$, xlb{gfy–!
#$))
!@(
@)^^
wfg
srf]jf{–$, srf]jf–%, xlb{gfy–!
$@))
@@%
@)^&
wfg
srf]jf{–$, srf]jf{–%, xlb{gfy–!
%^)*
!&%
@)^*
wfg
srf]jf{–$, xlb{gfy–!
*%))
#!%
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
90
jif{ -lj=;+=_ afnL
aLp–pTkfbg ul/Psf] hft
@)^*
@)^(
@)^(
Pn=Pn=–@(&
Pn=Pn=–@(&, cflbTo
srf]jf{–$, xlb{gfy–!
ux'F
ux'F
wfg
laqmL kl/df0f -s]=hL=_
!!%
#))
–
aLp vl/b ug]{
s[ifs ;ªVof
#
!@
–
;|f]tM aLp–pTkfbg tyf laqmLljlt/0f;DaGwL /lhi6/x?
;fd'bflos h}ljs ljljwtf Joj:yfkg sf]if :yfkgf tyf kl/rfng
:yfgLo hftsf afnLx?sf] lbuf] ?kdf ;+/If0f ug]s
{ fo{ lgs} r'gf}tLk"0f{ 5 . :yfgLo hftsf x/]s afnLx?sf
cf–cfg} u'0f, ljz]iftf / dxÎj x'G5g\ t/ cfds[ifsx?df :yfgLo hftsf afnLx? sd kmN5g\ eGg] wf/0ff
5 . h:fn] ubf{ w]/} s[ifsx?n] jiff}b{ l] v v]tL ub}{ cfPsf :yfgLo hftsf afnLx? v]tL ug{ 5fl8;s]sf
5g\ . o:tf] cj:yfdf ;fd'bflos aLp a}s
+ sf] :yfgLo hftx?sf] oyf:yfgLo ;+/If0f ug]{ sfo{ r'gf}tLk"0f{
ag]sf] xf] . of] r'gf}tLsf] ;fdgf ug{ OlG;6' kl/of]hgfsf] cGTolt/ ;fd'bflos h}ljs ljljwtf Joj:yfkg
sf]ifsf] cjwf/0ffsf] ljsf; ul/Psf] xf] . h;cg';f/ k|f/Dedf s[lif ljsf; tyf ;+/If0f ;dfh / :yfgLo
dlxnf ;d"xx?sf] ¿= @%,)))÷– / nL–a8{sf] ¿= %),)))÷– sf] cfly{s ;xof]udf Pp6f sf]ifsf] :yfkgf
ul/of] . sf]ifsf] /sd ;d"xdf cfa4 lgDgju{sf s[ifsx?nfO{ k|fyldstf lbO{ C0fsf ?kdf sd Aofhb/df
-jflif{s !@ k|ltzt_ pknAw u/fpg] / C0f lng] s[ifsx?n] pQm /sd ljz'4 cfocfh{gsf] sfddf nufgL
ug'k{ g]{ k|fjwfg cg';f/ kl/rfng ug{ yflnof] . o;sf cltl/Qm C0f lng] s[ifsn]] ;fd'bflos aLp a}s
+ df
;+/lIft :yfgLo hftsf] Pp6f afnL /f]Kg}kg]{ lgod klg a;flnof] . o;af6 Psflt/ lgDgju{sf s[ifsx?sf]
cfDbfgL a9\of] eg] csf{lt/ :yfgLo hftsf afnLx?sf] ;+/If0fsf] ;'lglZrttf klg eof] . cfgf] v]taf/L
gx'g] ;b:on] klg 3/jl/kl/ /x/ jf l3/f}n
+ f tyf cGo pko'Qm afnL nufpg}kg]{ x'G5 . o; sf]ifdf xfn;Dd
nL–a8{af6 ¿= !$),)))÷– o"Pg8LkLsf] ;fgf cg'bfg sfo{qmdaf6 ¿= #,@!,@%)÷– dlxnf ;d"xx?af6
¿= ^),)))÷– / Aofh ¿= @,!$,&%)÷– ;d]t u/L hDDff ¿= &,#^,)))÷– k'us
] f] 5 . o; sf]ifaf6 nfeflGjt
x'g] s[ifsx?sf] ljj/0f lgDg tflnsfdf k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 M
tflnsf #M srf]jf{ uf=lj=;=df ;fd'bflos h}ljs ljljwtf Joj:yfkg sf]if kl/rfngaf6 nfeflGjt
x'g] s[ifsx?sf] ljj/0f
jif{ - lj=;+=_
C0f /sd ¿=
nfeflGjt ;b:o;ªVof
@)^@
&%,%))÷–
@^
@)^#
!,%),)))÷–
#%
@)^$
@,%%,@#%÷–
^*
@)^%
$,$*,)))÷–
(@
@)^^
%,)),)))÷–
!))
@)^&
%,&%,)))÷–
!!%
@)^*
^,#$,)))÷–
!@@
@)^(
&,#^,)))÷–
(@
;|f]tM ;fd'bflos h}ljs ljljwtf sf]if kl/rfng;DaGwL /lhi6/x?
91
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
;+:yfut ljsf; tyf dlxnf ;zQmLs/0f
srf]jf{ ufpFdf s[lif h}ljs ljljwtf ;+/If0fsf nflu ;+:yfut ;+/rgfsf] /fd|f] ljsf; ePsf]
5 . s[lif ljsf; tyf ;+/If0f ;dfhsf ax';ªVos ;b:ox? s[lif h}ljs ljljwtfsf] dxÎj / o;sf]
oyf:yfgLo ;+/If0fsf af/]df ;r]t 5g\ . ;fd'bflos aLp a}+s, ;fd'bflos h}ljs ljljwtf Joj:yfkg
sf]if, dfl;s art ;ª\sng tyf kl/rfngh:tf sfo{qmdx?n] ubf{ dlxnf ;d"xsf] ;ª\Vof @ af6
!) k'u]sf] 5 . #*) hgf ;b:ox?dWo] #%% hgf t dlxnfx? dfq} 5g\ . ;b:ox?sf] dfl;s art
/sdnfO{ j}wflgstf / Jojl:yt ?kdf kl/rfngsf nflu lbuf] s[lif art tyf C0f ;xsf/L ;+:yfsf]
:yfkgf ul/Psf] 5 . xfn;Dd ;xsf/Ldf C0f k"FhL ¿= !$,^&,((!÷– k'u]sf] 5 eg] ¿= $!,@!&÷– hu]8f
sf]ifdf /flvPsf] 5 . Jojl:yt ?kdf ;~rfng ul/Psf] of] ;xsf/L :yfkgfsf] b'O{ jif{df g} lhNnfdf
pTs[i6 ;xsf/L aGg ;kmn ePsf] 5 .
wfgdf ;xeflutfd"ns afnL k|hgg sfo{qmd
gfs{ / nL–a8{sf j}1flgsx? tyf s[ifs;d"x ldn]/ OlG;6' kl/of]hgf cjlwdf wfgsf :yfgLo
s]xL hftx?df z'¿ ul/Psf] ;xeflutfd"ns afnL k|hgg sfo{qmdaf6 :yfgLo hftsf] u'0f ePsf]
pGgt hftsf] ljsf; ePsf] 5 . ljsf; ePsf hftx?dWo] srf]jf{–$ ;a}eGbf /fd|f] dflgPsf] 5
/ nL–a8{n] /fli6«o :t/df l;kmfl/;sf] k|of; ul//x]sf] 5 . aLp–pTkfbg sfo{qmddfkm{t k|To]s jif{
srf]jf{–$ sf] aLp–pTkfbg / laqmLljt/0f eO/xsf] 5 .
;fd'bflos h}ljs ljljwtf Joj:yfkgsf] ;|f]t s]Gb|sf ?kdf srf]jf{sf] klxrfg
s[lif ljsf; tyf ;+/If0f ;dfh o;sf] :yfkgfsfnb]lv g} nL–a8{sf] ;fem]bf/ ;+:yfsf ?kdf sfo{/t
5 . uf=lj=;=÷lh=lj=;=, g]kfn s[lif cg';Gwfg kl/ifb\ / lhNnf s[lif ljsf; sfof{no;Fu klg lg/Gt/
;dGjodf 5 eg] k/:k/ ;]jf g]kfn / o"=Pg=8L=kL=÷;fgf cg'bfg sfo{qmd;Fusf] ;fem]bf/Ldf Ps–Ps
j6f kl/of]hgf ;DkGg eO;s]sf 5g\ . xfn;Dd g]kfnleqaf6 %@ j6f / cGt/{fli6«o :t/af6 !! j6f
e|d0f 6f]nLn] oxfFsf] ;fd'bflos aLp a}+ssf] e|d0f ul/;s]sf 5g\ . oL e|d0f 6f]nL d"ntM nL–a8{dfkm{t
cfPsf x'g\ . ctM srf]jf{ ufpF / s[lif ljsf; tyf ;+/If0f ;dfhn] ;~rfng u/]sf ;fd'bflos h}ljs
ljljwtf Joj:yfkgsf sfo{qmdx?n] ubf{ srf]jf{ ufpFn] ;|f]ts]Gb|sf] ?kdf klxrfg kfPsf] 5 .
;fd'bflos aLp a}+s lbuf]kgfsf cfwf/x?
;fd'bflos aLp a}+s lbuf] ?kdf s;/L ;~rfng ug{ ;lsG5 eGg] s'/f w]/}sf nflu rrf{sf] ljifo
x'g ;S5 . t/ s[lif ljsf; tyf ;+/If0f ;dfhn] eg] o;sf] lbuf]kgfsf nflu k|z:t k"jf{wf/x?
tof/ ul/;s]sf] 5 . lsgeg] o;sf ;b:ox? ;+/If0fk|lt k|lta4 5g\ s[lif h}ljs ljljwtf ;+/If0f
jt{dfg tyf eljiosf] vfB;'/Iffsf] cfwf/ xf] eGg] s'/fdf Psdt 5g\ . ;+:yfsf ax';ª\Vos
;b:ox? o'jfk':tfsf 5g\ / pgLx?sf] g]t[Tj ljsf; k|lqmofdf ;+:yfn] k"0f{ ;xeflutf hgfPsf]
5 . To;} u/L ;fd'bflos aLp a}+sn] ;xeflutfd"ns afnL k|hgg sfo{qmdaf6 ljsf; ePsf /
:yfgLo :t/df a9L dfu ePsf pGgt hftsf afnLx?sf] aLp–pTkfbg tyf laqmLljt/0f ub{5,
h;af6 ;fd'bflos aLp a}+sn] lgoldt ?kdf cfocfh{g ub{5 . To;} u/L csf]{ dxÎjk"0f{ sfd
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
92
eg]sf] ;fd'bflos h}ljs ljljwtf Joj:yfkg sf]ifsf] ;~rfng xf] . o;af6 klg ;+:yfn] Aofhsf
?kdf lgoldt cfocfh{g ub{5 . o;sf cltl/Qm s[lif ljsf; tyf ;+/If0f ;dfhn] ;fd'bflos aLp
a}+s :yfkgf ubf{b]lv g} uf=lj=;= tyf lh=lj=;= af6 klg ;do–;dodf ;xof]u tyf sfo{qmd kfO/x]sf]
5 . t;y{ oL ;a} sfo{x? ;fd'bflos aLp a+}ssf] lbuf]kgfsf cfwf/x? x'g\ .
;fd'bflos aLp a}+ssf ;d:of, r'gf}tL / ;dfwfgsf pkfox?
;fd'bflos aLp a}+s em§ ;'Gbf lgs} cfsif{s nfU5 t/ To;sf r'gf}tLx? klg k|z:t} 5g\ . k|ydtM
s'g} klg /fli6«o gLlt tyf sfo{qmdn] ;fd'bflos aLp a}+snfO{ 5'g ;s]sf] 5}g . afnL ljsf;
lgb]{zgfno cGtu{tsf] ;fd'bflos aLp a}+s;DaGwL sfo{qmd tyf lgb]{lzsfn] afnL ljsf; lgb]{zgfnon]
;Lldt lhNnfdf ;~rfng u/]sf ;fd'bflos aLp a}+sx?nfO{ dfq ;d]6]sf] 5 . s[lif h}ljs
ljljwtf gLltdf klg o;;DaGwL s'/fx? kg{ ;s]sf 5}gg\ . tLafx]s :yfgLo :t/df klg :yfgLo
aLpk|lt cfd s[ifsx?sf] rf;f] / rfxgf 36\bf] 5 . ;fd'bflos aLp a}+ssf] lbuf] ;~rfngsf
nflu cfjZos cfGtl/s cfly{s ;|f]tx? t 5g\ t/ ;Lldt tyf ;fgf cfsf/sf 5g\ . ;b:ox?n]
k|foM h;f] lagf kfl/>lds sfd ug'{kl//x]sf] 5 . cem} w]/} s[ifsx?sf] rfxgf x'Fbfx'Fb} klg
srf]jf{sf ax';ª\Vos s[ifsx?nfO{ o; sfo{qmddf ;dfj]z ug{ ;lsPsf] 5}g .
ctM oyfzSo s[lif h}ljs ljljwtf ;+/If0f;Fu ;DalGwt ;/sf/L tyf u}/;/sf/L lgsfox?n]
xfn;Dd ;fd'bflos aLp a}+sx?n] u/]sf sfdx? ;d]l6g] u/L s[lif h}ljs ljljwtf gLltdf
kl/dfh{g ug'{ cTofjZos b]lvG5 . bf];|f] ;fd'bflos aLp a}+s tyf /fli6«o s[lif cfg'j+lzs ;|f]t
s]Gb| cyf{t /fli6«o hLg a}+s / ;fd'bflos aLp a}+ssf aLrdf ;dGjosf nflu /fli6«o hLg a}+sn]
cfjZos kxn u/L jflif{s ?kdf sfo{qmd tyf lglZrt ah]6 ljlgof]hg ul/g' cTjfjZos 5 .
o;af6 ;fd'bflos aLp a}+sdf cfa4 s[ifs tyf :yfgLo ;d'bfosf ;fy} ;du| /fi6«s} lxt x'g]
s'/fdf b'O{ dt x'g ;Sb}g .
;Gbe{;fdu|Lx?
>]i7, kLtfDa/, cfljisf/ ;'j]bL, ljsf; kf}8]n / e/t e08f/L, @)^&Ù ;fd'bflos aLp a}+sM
;|f]t k'l:tsf, nL–a8{, kf]v/f, g]kfn .
>]i7, kLtfDa/, cfljisf/ ;'j]bL, /fhs'df/ ofbj, ?kgf/fo0f ofbj/ dxfgf/fo0f ofbj, @)^$Ù k'/fgf]
aLp gofF ;+/If0f k4ltM s[lif h}ljsljljwtfsf] lbuf] ;+/If0f / :yfgLo aLpsf] ;'ne pknAwtfsf
nflu ;fd'bflos aLp a}+s– :yfkgf / Joj:yfkg ;xof]uL, nL–a8{÷s[lif ljsf; tyf ;+/If0f,
kf]v/f, g]kfn .
93
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Oxfam’s Experiences with Supporting Community Seed
Banks to Enhance Local Seed Security
SUDHA KHADKA, SAFAL A. SUBBA, MAHENDRA N. MAHATO, RAJ K. ADHIKARI AND HEEMA
KHADKA
Oxfam, Nepal, Jawalakhel, Lalitpur, Nepal, Corresponding email: skhadka@oxfam.org.uk
Photos: Oxfam, Nepal
Background
Availability and use of quality seeds can play an important role in increasing agricultural
production and productivity thereby contributing to improved food security. However,
poor availability and access of bountiful quality seeds is a key constraint to agricultural
productivity, especially for farmers who are residing in remote areas of Nepal. Traditionally,
farmers in remote areas retain seed from each harvest thus maintaining local genetic
materials while reducing the need to buy seeds every season. But this practice also hampers
the introduction and use of new varieties and can result in a decline of seed quality in
many areas following a poor harvest. Moreover, lack of improvements in seed storage at
the farmers’ level accounts for considerable storage losses (up to 20%). Considering this as
a pertinent issue, since 2009, Oxfam and its partners imbedded the community seed bank
(CSB) approach in Oxfam’s Sustainable Livelihood and Food Security (SLFS) programme
to provide a community managed ‘social safety net’ for seeds.
The CSB model promoted by Oxfam
Community seed bank is a community-led seed management approach (production,
collection, processing, storage, exchange and marketing), which serves both local crop
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
94
varieties and improved varieties, thus enhancing local seed security. A key outcome
of such an approach is the strengthening of local capacity to produce, multiply and
manage adequate quality seed that will provide a sustained model for community-based
management of this key food security asset.
Community seed banks promote retention of quality seed that is screened on ‘deposit’ and
augmented by improved multiplied seed; improved storage reducing losses due to rodents,
insects and moisture; and improved access to different seed (crops and varieties). Farmers
will be able to spread storage risk between their home and the community seed bank and
be able to ‘borrow’ seed when needed (including different varieties). This provides the
opportunity for the farmers to try new crops or cropping strategies, or simply use different
seeds of the same crops. The approach makes use of a multi-stakeholder approach by
engaging farmers, Village Development Committees (VDCs), district line agencies and the
private sector (local seed suppliers and traders) in the development process. The advantage
of involving local suppliers is an injection of cash into the local economy, utilization of
locally adapted seeds, more competitive prices and increased integration of small farmers
into the local seed market, which also stimulates the development of the seed market.
The pricing mechanism during seed transaction is agreed upon in coordination with the
District Agriculture Development Office (DADO), District Chamber of Commerce and
Industries (DCCI) and farmers, keeping the market fluctuation and subsidized rates in
concern. Figure 1 depicts the model used by Oxfam.
Community seed banks therefore play a vital role in ensuring seed security and improving
farmers’ access to seeds, developing entrepreneurship, conserving agricultural biodiversity
and associated traditional knowledge and providing options for adapting to climate
change. The specific objectives of community seed banks are to:
yy promote easy access of community members to quality seeds of preferred crop
varieties and associated technologies
yy establish a resource centre in the community for quality seeds and information
yy conserve local crop varieties
yy empower community and increase social cohesiveness
The process of CSB establishment
Prior to establishing a community seed bank, a participatory assessment of food security
and agricultural development is done which helps to identify gaps and opportunities. An
assessment of the local seed system is considered to be an integral part of such a study.
In Oxfam’s working areas, the following steps were employed to establish a community
seed bank.
Step 1: Orientation and community sensitization
Step 2: Identification of seed producing farmers and formation of a seed producers
group
95
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Step 3: Establishment of a seed management committee consisting of 5-7 members
(members of community seed producers and the producers group are eligible to
become members of such committee)
Step 4: Capacity building of the committee members on both technical and
administrative aspects
Step 5: Formulation of operating guidelines, regulations and development of a seed
production and management plan
Step 6: Registration of seed management committee at DADO and formulation of
steering committee for quality assurance (Coordination with regional seed
laboratory to adopt seed quality control mechanisms, including monitoring
visits)
Step 7: Production of seed at the local level as per the plan
Step 8: Construction of a community seed bank structure (using locally available
materials as far as possible)
Step 9: Equipping the structure with storage bins, mini seed processors and weighing
machine (value addition options)
Step 10: Collection of quality seeds by various means, including purchasing from contact
farmers (For storage facilities minimum charge or guarantee is taken, generally
one of the following):
yy On fixed price
yy Exchange
yy On loan (payment after harvesting)
Step 11: Documentation of deposits to and withdrawals of seeds from the bank and seed
stocks in the CSB
Step 12: Establishing linkages and collaboration with governmental and non-
governmental organizations (collaboration to adopt seed quality control
mechanisms)
Step 13: Improving affiliation with existing or a newly formed cooperative
Step 14: Monitoring impacts of community seed bank interventions
Note: These steps are not necessarily followed in this order and some of them can be
accomplished simultaneously.
Functioning of community seed banks
Community seed banks are established either in the community or at the VDC level based
on the preferences of the communities and other local stakeholders. The VDC level seed
banks play a coordinating role to link the network of community level seed banks and
provide services to seed producers/keepers at the community level. All community and
VDC level CSBs/Cooperatives have their own three years business plans. Cooperatives
are registered through the District Agriculture Development Office in the respective
Regional Cooperative Division Office. Each community seed bank is managed by a Seed
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
96
Management Committee (SMC) selected from the seed producer group which consists of
5 to 7 members. Seed producer farmers are selected based on criteria such as willingness
to participate, teach, learn and continue the production, gender and commitment to run
the enterprise by managing quality and quantity of seeds. Each SMC receives trainings in
both technical and administrative aspects of seed management and also receives support
to develop the operating guidelines and regulations for operation of the seed banks. At
cooperatives there is a CSB sub-committee. Monitoring of CSBs is coordinated by this
sub-committee, focusing on documentation of seed deposits and withdrawals from the
banks by the beneficiaries, seed stocks (variety, quality and quantity) and adherence to the
operating guidelines and regulations.
Strong linkages and collaboration with governmental and non-governmental organizations
(Collaboration with regional seed laboratory to adopt seed quality control mechanisms,
e.g., certification, quality, and truthful labels) are fostered by cooperatives.
Either loan, exchange or payment basis within the
community (producers group, others)
Provide both individual
and group institutional
membership
Distribution
VDC Level Co-operatives
(Multipurpose) (14)
On payment out side community
Govt. line agencies
(DADO, DCA, WDO,
DLSO, DDC)
Collection and
Distribution
VDCs, S/HPs
CGUGs, ASC, LSC
VDCs, S/HPs
CGUGs, ASC, LSC
Community Seed BankSeed Management Committee
Community Seed BankSeed Management Committee
Seed
Producer
Seed
Producer
Figure 1: Community seed bank operation and management model adopted by Oxfam
Note:- DADO: District Agriculture Development Office, DCA: , WDO: Women Development Office,
DLSO: District Livestock Service Office, DDC: District Development Committee
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Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Status of Oxfam supported CSBs
There are 90 community seed banks in
Lal Bahadur Oli (48) of Jharkanda community
two districts (25 in Dadeldhura and 65 in
says, “With establishment of a seed bank in our
Dailekh). 14 of these are at the VDC level
community, we have stored 700 kg wheat (WK-1204)
(5 in Dadeldhura and 9 in Dailekh) under
and 150 kg pea (Sikkim local) in the seed bank. A
SMC management and are registered as
sum of 200 kg wheat was distributed to farmers last
September and the rest is in the process. Therefore,
cooperatives in the Regional Division
there has been a huge improvement in seed storage
Cooperative Office with facilitation support
and we don't have to go to our neighbours to
from the District Agriculture Development
borrow seeds, as we are able to obtain them from
Office. The average cost of infrastructure
our seed bank and plant them on time. Moreover,
we obtain quality seeds with no rodent affect."
construction and required equipments for a
CSB was about NRs four hundred thousand
which was done in collaboration with local
community organizations and other stakeholders. Out of the total cost, community forest
user’s groups (CFUGs) contributed 20%, local communities contributed 13% in kind for
the purpose and the project supported a remaining 67% of construction costs.
The community level seed banks are equipped with a total of 797 metal seed bins with
100-300 Kg capacity and a total of 60 Dolias (locally made bamboo seed containers) to store
seeds. The VDC level seed banks are equipped with more equipment apart from seed
bins, such as weighing machine sets (36 in total), corn cellars, jute sacks (1000 pieces), 150
sprayers (plastic and metallic), seed treating drums (9) and sprinklers (140) and insecticides/
pesticides against rodents/pests which are used by farmers groups and controlled by SMCs
as required in the CSBs. Apart from machinery, these are also equipped with stationeries
(registers, safe box, markers, etc.) to keep record of seed transactions. The community seed
banks at the VDC level have been storing an average 40.45 MT/year of seed and those at the
community level have been storing on average 20 MT/year of improved variety seeds of
different crops (maize, paddy, peas, beans, wheat, ginger and groundnut). The improved
seeds are of superior quality with higher productivity potential. Oxfam and DADO have
provided source seed of these improved varieties to seed producing farmers. Out of 90,
76 CSBs are established in a simple wooden house and some are placed in a lead farmer’s
or seed keeper’s house. Some of them are collectively used as seed bank and Participatory
Learning Centers35 (PLCs). A total of 8592 households (26% Dalits and 20% Janjati) directly
benefitted from constructed seed banks.
Impact
It was observed that most of the village level seed banks are operating well and have
already started buying seeds from seed producing farmers, who are contracted to produce
agreed crop varieties and sell them to the farmers in their respective villages. In addition,
the CSBs are also selling seeds to district level seed cooperatives and development agencies
35
PLC is the forum for local people, especially women, to discuss their own issues and plan their activities
to secure their rights along with other developmental agendas.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
98
operating in nearby districts. For instance, the seed bank of Dewal Divyapur sold maize
seeds to Dadeldhura Farmers’ Cooperative (Dafacos) and the Seed bank of Jogbuda sold
wheat seed to an NGO called RUDES, Baitadi.
Establishment of seed banks has increased the access of the target households as well as
other beneficiaries of nearby villages to improved varieties and better quality of seeds.
As per the baseline survey carried out by Oxfam in 2011 in 14 VDCs of Dailekh and
Dadeldhura districts, only 16.1% of farmers were using improved cereal seeds. After the
intervention of the project, it was reported in the End of Action Evaluation (EAE) that
100% of the target households had access to improved cereals in 2011. The seed banks
established in targeted VDCs have significantly reduced the loss of seeds in storage (due
to rodents, pests and dampness) to less than 15% as compared with 25-30% in traditional
seed management practice.
The process has empowered the community with regard to management, use and
marketing skills. There is a strong realization of improved farmers’ capacity in seed
management skills/ practices, seed preservation, storage and post-harvest techniques.
From seed sales, farmers earned a total of NRs 4 851 161 which ultimately improved the
village economies and increased the purchasing power of these groups. They were able to
spend more on their household expenses, nutritious food, and on the health and education
of their children from this income.
Most of the CSBs have already established linkages and coordination with government
bodies, non-government organizations and the private sector within and outside their own
districts. This has increased support from those entities as well as trading opportunities.
Farmers and farmers’ groups visit community seed banks for seeds, technical input/advice
and facilitation of savings and credit schemes, hence, CSBs are becoming key institutions
in the communities.
Sustaining mechanism
The following measures have been taken as sustaining mechanisms for community seed
banks:
yy Community seed banks are linked with farmers’ groups and with VDC level
cooperatives for marketing and access to services and inputs.
yy Registration of farmers groups and cooperatives with DADO and cooperative
division from whom they receive substantial technical support and regular
monitoring by DADO and Cooperative division.
yy Funds generated from selling produced seeds to other communities/cooperatives/
agro vets/NGOS, etc., are being used as a credit facility to farmers.
99
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
yy CSBs not only increased coordination with government bodies, but also with private
sector actors within and outside districts. These linkages have expanded the horizons
of the farmers for trading opportunities for their agricultural products.
Challenges
In spite of great scope and importance of community seed banks, there are some
challenges:
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
yy
Self-sustainability of community seed bank due to lack of fund
Inadequate capacity and knowledge of farmers in managing seeds
Inadequate technical skill to maintain seed quality
Inadequate storage facilities
Inadequate market linkage for farmers' seeds
Shortage and poor quality of foundation seed
High dependence on NGOs or a few dedicated farmers
Recommendations
To fully reap the benefits of CSBs in enhancing farmers’ access to and control of seeds, as
well as their contribution to managing seed systems, we recommend that:
yy The CSB approach is one of the best mechanisms to improve food security by
improving seed quality and conserving local seed stock and knowledge. Thus
out-scaling of CSBs is needed to reach as many farmers as possible, especially in
marginalized areas. We need to adapt mechanisms to share experiences of the CSB
development process with interested farmers, farmers' groups and communities.
yy CSBs should be included in government agriculture development and food security
strategies as a vehicle to improve food security and adaptation to climate change.
yy More extension services should be provided for sustainable market linkages of seeds
at the national level.
yy Regular support should be provided to CSBs for quality assurance of seeds.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
100
Policies and Procedures for Implementing Community Seed
Banks in Nepal
SUROJ POKHREL AND PRIYAMBADA JOSHI
Crop Development Directorate, Department of Agriculture, Lalitpur, Nepal, Corresponding email: priyam45@yahoo.com
Photos: Pitambar Shrestha (left), Chandra Gurung (bottom right)
Introduction
The Seed Replacement Rate (SRR) of major cereal crops (rice, maize and wheat) was
only about 7 % during the year 2008 in Nepal (CDD, 2008/2009). The Crop Development
Directorate (CDD), which is the main responsible organization for the seed production
program under Department of Agriculture, found two major reasons for the low SRR. Seed
production programs were thought to be important to improve SRR by making improved
seeds available at the farmers’ level so that more and more farmers can benefit. However,
the major problem found to be addressed in the seed production programs was the problem
of seed storage and seed used as food because of the presence of a majority of subsistence
level farmers. On the other hand, local varieties that play a vital role in the food security
of subsistence farmers were found to be vanishing at a fast rate. Hence, emphasizing only
improved varieties may accelerate the rate of disappearance of local varieties.
The Crop Development Directorate felt the need to implement a program that could resolve
all these problems ranging from seed production and distribution of improved varieties
to conservation of local varieties. To address these challenges in the light of improving
agricultural systems of poor, marginalized and subsistence farmers, the Government
of Nepal endorsed the concept of the Community Seed Bank (CSB) through the budget
speech of 2008/09. CSBs were thought to be effective to improve farmers’ access to quality
seeds. The program was implemented in the fiscal year 2008/2009.
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Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Initially, the CSB programme was piloted in three districts, viz., Dadeldhura,
Sindhupalchwok and Okhaldhunga. From 2011/2012, two more districts viz. Gulmi and
Jajarkot were added in the programme.
Purpose of community seed banks
The main objective of CSBs are to enhance access, exchange, use and management of quality
seeds according to the preferences of farmers produced, processed and stored locally in a
community undertaking.
Specific objectives of CSBs are:
yy to establish and strengthen community seed banks to carry out collection, storage
and exchange of quality seeds
yy to develop community managed infrastructure, such as seed storage house, seed
processing plant, threshing floor etc.
yy to introduce formal seed quality control systems (seed certification, quality declared
seed and truthful labelling) as a joint action by farmers and Regional Seed Testing
Laboratories (RSTL)
yy to promote conservation and utilization of local landraces
yy to improve farmers' access to quality seeds, especially to Dalit, ethnic groups, women
and conflict affected households
The scope of community seed banks
The community seed bank programme implemented by Department of Agriculture
(DoA) mainly focuses on food security, but it emphasizes the conservation of landraces
simultaneously. Thus, it is a mixed model, focusing on the circulation of improved varieties
to enhance their availability which in return will improve food security status. In addition,
conservation of endangered local varieties is also an important activity of a CSB.
Process of establishment of community seed bank
Setting up a CSB requires rigorous work by dedicated people to ensure expected outputs.
As suggested in the CSB implementation guidelines, the following steps are employed to
initiate community seed banks (see, Figure 1 for a schematic representation):
Step 1: Sharing of CSB operational guidelines with stakeholders
The procedure begins with the organization of half-day orientations and
consultative workshops for major stakeholders. Finalization and the approval
process are initiated at local level after this workshop.
Step 2: Orientation Training for DADOs on the procedures of establishing a CSB
Orientation training on setting up a community seed bank is organized for
DADO staff. Participants are trained on the various aspects of establishing a
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
102
Collective
Individual
Farmer’s method
Modern Varieties
(MV)
Both MV and FV
2. Multiplication
3. Processing
Use of modern
methods
CSB
1. Type of seed
4. Storage
Farmer’s Varieties
(FV)
Individual
Collective
5. Exchange
Pledging
Cash transaction
Barter
Seed loan
Figure 1: Modality for setting up a community seed bank (CDD, 2010/11)
Step 3:
Step 4:
Step 5:
Step 6:
103
community seed bank such as VDC and community selection, training to be
provided, facilities to be developed, arrangements for seed multiplication,
collection, cleaning, storage and exchange, including social mobilization.
Selection of VDCs and Community for CSB
After the training, DADOs identified VDCs and communities for establishing
CSB. Criteria set out in the strategy are used to identify VDCs and communities.
Social inclusion is ensured during this stage by giving priority to socially
marginalized groups.
Formation of Community Seed Producer Groups (CSPG) and a Community Seed Bank
Committee
A village level awareness raising workshop involving all potential beneficiaries
is organized and the importance of seeds and CSBs discussed at local level.
After this, CSPGs are organized at the village level, consisting of 20-25 members.
From the representation of CSPGs, a CSB Committee is formed at the VDC level.
The CSB-Committee will later be developed into a cooperative.
Support and subsidies
Support for seed store house construction, seed processing equipment
purchases and seed revolving funds are provided as provisioned in the CSB
implementation guideline. The costs of the establishment and management are
presented in Annex 1.
Capacity building training to CSPG and CSB Committee
Capacity building training is provided to the members of CSPGs and the CSB
Committee on the social and technical aspects of seed multiplication, collection,
cleaning, storage, seed quality control and seed exchange.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Components of community seed banks
Seed and variety mapping
This exercise aims at identification of the locally important landraces and improved varieties
that are suitable to local agroclimatic and socio-economic conditions. Participatory rural
appraisal exercises are carried out to prepare a list of local and improved varieties.
Implementation of the Participatory Variety Selection (PVS)
To provide community an opportunity to select suitable varieties of their own preference
and need, at least two PVS trails in each CSPG are implemented and local, released and
promising varieties are displayed through PVS trials.
Implementation of seed multiplication
Seed multiplication is initiated after identification of the varieties suitable to local
conditions. In the case of improved varieties, source seeds of the listed varieties are made
available from Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC) and DoA farms.
Seed quality control
Seed quality control trainings are provided to the members of CSPGs and the CSB Commitee
to promote farmers as seed technicians who will be responsible for assisting members in
seed production and quality control. In the meantime, seed technologists from Regional
Seed Testing Laboratories (RSTLs) provide field inspection, seed testing and certifications
to the CSPGs.
Seed collection or purchase
After the minimum field standards are met, seeds are collected by the CSB Committee from
its members. Seed pledging is introduced, seed storage fees are decided and minimum
seed prices for purchase are fixed by CSB Committee.
Seed processing and storage
A community store house is constructed under the ownership of CSB Committee. The
CSB is supported with processing equipment as needed, including threshing, drying
and cleaning floor. After collection from individual members, seeds are dried, cleaned,
packaged and stored in the community storage house. Regular monitoring and seed
treatment are carried out after seeds are stored. Seed samples are regularly sent to the
RSTL for seed testing and analysis.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
104
Seed exchange and distribution
Seed exchange is the most important function of CSB. Through seed exchange, seed
security, or the on-going availability of seeds during planting time, drought, flooding, etc.,
is assured. Multiple approaches are introduced to facilitate seed exchange and ensure poor
and marginalized farmers’ access to quality seeds. Farmers can borrow good crop varieties
from the seed bank, which they must repay. Seed barter involves the exchange of seed
with the equal or additional amount of seed to be decided by the CSBC. Free distribution
of seed may be provided as a government subsidized relief package. Lastly, seed may be
purchased at prices determined by community members.
Biodiversity conservation
Study, research, selection and production of landraces are done in coordination and
collaboration with the national genebank, NARC.
Training and workshops
Trainings on seed production, post harvesting and marketing are conducted to enhance
farmers’ capacity. In addition, workshops are also organized to increase knowledge,
linkage, coordination and collaboration amongst CSB members and stakeholders.
Monitoring, evaluation and reporting
Arrangement of regular field monitoring and reporting by DADO and District Development
office (DDC), Regional Agricultural Directorate (RAD), and DoA is done and a system of
documentation of the monitoring reports is established at the central level.
Collaboration, partnership and linkages
The Community Seed Bank Guidelines identifies a total of 13 actors that have a role to play
in the process, as detailed in the following table.
S.N.
Institution
Responsibilities
1.
Community seed producer groups
•
•
•
Seed production of suitable varieties
Provide produced seed to CSB for storage
Maintain seed quality
2.
Community seed bank committee
•
•
•
•
Help seed producing groups to make annual work plan
Monitoring and evaluation
Provide technical service to seed producing groups.
Invest a minimum 10% of the total cost of the programme
105
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
S.N.
Institution
Responsibilities
3.
District Agriculture Development
Offices (DADO)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Help in making work plan
Provide services to seed producing groups
Seed revolving fund mobilization
Reporting to the Crop Development Directorate (CDD) and
related institutions
Technology transfer (training, demonstration, workshops, etc.)
Manage source seed
Record seed statistics of the districts
Coordination in marketing of seed
Monitoring and evaluation
4.
District Development Committee
(DDC)/ Village Development
Committee (VDC)
•
•
•
Coordination
Monitoring and evaluation
Mobilization of fund and resources on the basis of the needs
and priorities of the district
5.
Agrovets and private seed
distributors
•
•
Seed market management
Monitoring and evaluation as well as training management
6.
Regional Agriculture Directorate
•
•
Monitoring and evaluation
Provide administrative services
7.
SQCC/ Central Seed Testing
Laboratory/ RSTLs
•
•
•
•
Field inspection and certification
Seed testing an d reporting
Seed storage and processing inspection
Monitoring
8.
NGOs/INGOs
•
•
Program execution on seed group formation and mobilization
Social mobilization
9.
NARC
•
•
•
•
Provide source seed as per demand
Conduct participatory research
Testing and selecting local landraces
Monitoring and evaluation
10.
DoA/CDD
•
•
•
•
•
•
Coordination at the central level
Program norms and guidelines preparation
Support in making annual program
Reporting to DoA and Ministry
Administrative support
Community institutions and NGO selection
12.
National Seed Board (NSB)
•
•
Services related to seed policy
Seed balance sheet preparation and coordination for seed
demand and supply
Monitoring and evaluation
•
13.
Ministry of Agriculture Development
(MoD)
•
Approve budget and program
•
Manage manpower
•
Monitoring and evaluation
Source: Community seed bank guidelines, 2008/09
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
106
Status of seed production and distribution
In 2010/11, 142 metric tons of seed were produced from 75 ha (table 1) in the three
community seed banks of Dadeldhura, Okhaldhunga and Sindhupalchwok. Varieties of
farmers’ preferences were identified and market linkages were established. Information
about quality seed was delivered using flash boards, booklets, pamphlets, and F.M radio.
In 2010/11, training on seed production and marketing was given to 221 farmers (133
females and 88 males).
Table 1: Summary of seed production by community seed banks (2010/11)
Paddy
District
Wheat
Maize
Area (ha.)
Production
(mt.)
Area (ha.)
Production
(mt.)
Area (ha.)
Production
(mt.)
8
15
8
14
8
11
Dadeldhura
Sindhupalchwok
9
20
9
19
9
18
Okhaldhunga
8
17
8
16
8
12
52
25
49
25
41
Total
25
Source: CDD, Annual report, 2067/68
Table 2: Summary of seed production by community seed banks
Seed Production (mt.)
Name of Crop
2009/10
2010/11
Paddy
49
52
Maize
42
41
Wheat
Total
Source: CDD, Annual report, 2067/068
44
49
135
142
Table 3: Summary of seed collection and marketing by community seed banks in 2010/11
Districts
Dadeldhura
Sindhupalchwok
Okhaldhunga
Seed purchased by
Paddy
Wheat
Maize
Total
amount
(mt.)
8
1.6
12
21.6
NGOs, DADO, farmers and agrovets
8.9
10.1
40
59
NGOs, DADOs, farmers and agrovets
5
9
6
20
Other farmers from same and different VDCs
Amount of seed (mt.) by crop
Total
21.9
20.7
58
99.6
Note: The community seed banks of Dadeldhura and Sindhupalchwok distribute seed with bagging and
tagging but the community seed bank Okhaldhunga does not use this practice, Source: CDD, Annual
report, 2010/2011,
107
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Biodiversity conservation
This program has been started in three community seed bank (Sindhupalchwok,
Dadeldhura and Okhaldhunga), however, procedural improvement in collaboration with
the national genebank is necessary. Up to now, 60 varieties of different crops (paddy-15,
maize-6, pulses-7, buckwheat-2, sesame- 2, soybean-4, horsegram-3, millet-3, uwa-1 ,
barley-1 and kaguno-2) have been collected in CSB, Dadeldhura. Similarly, 80 varieties of
different crops have been collected in Sindhupalchwok. Endangered varieties among the
collected varieties will be handed over to the national genebank.
Beneficiaries of community seed banks
Poor, marginalized and subsistence farmers are the primary beneficiaries of this
programme. All members of the CSPGs who are directly involving in seed production are
direct beneficiaries (Table 4).
Table 4: Direct beneficiaries of the community seed bank Programme
District
Number of SPGs
Number of Members
Male
Female
Total
Dadeldhura
8
32
68
100
Sindhupalchwok
7
71
91
162
Okhaldhunga
5
73
55
128
Jajarkot
6
84
61
145
Gulmi
6
53
85
138
Total
32
313
360
673
Source: Records obtained from community seed banks through District Agriculture Development offices
The farmers using quality seed produced by the community seed bank are indirect
beneficiaries. As they use quality seed of improved varieties, increases in crop yield can
be expected.
Local institutional structure and members
Community Seed Producing Groups are organized at the village level, consisting of 20-25
members with the support of community seed bank. Community seed bank committees
are formed by the representative of Community Seed Producing Groups at VDC level.
Sustaining mechanism
Using a large portion of the budget as a seed revolving fund can be an important factor for
sustainability of seed production and distribution activities. Seed revolving funds can be
used to purchase produced seed from farmers so that they will not use produced seed as
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
108
food. It can also be used to purchase source seed for the farmers under the condition that
they have to return the amount after harvesting their crops.
Seed quality control (through truthful labelling) and linkage with the market are also
activities in the Community Seed Bank Programme. Once a seed bank is linked up with
the market with their quality labelled seeds, there is no problem in marketing of seeds and
getting benefits so that they will never give up on seed production.
In the case of source seed production, community seed banks are provided a seed balance
sheet prepared by the Seed Quality Control Centre (SQCC) so that they can enter into
the seed demand supply channel. Demand and possible supply of seeds from different
institutions are collected and included in the seed balance sheet. In 2013, the community
seed bank of Sindhupalchwok received a seed balance sheet for the demand and supply of
source seed produced in farmers’ fields.
The Community Seed Bank Programme is still in its infancy facing several challenges. A
summary of weaknesses and threats is presented in Annex 2.
References
CDD. 2009. Seed Replacement Rate. Annual report. Crop Development Directorate, Department of
Agriculture, Lalitpur, Nepal, pp. 84.
CDD. 2009. Community Seed Bank Guidelines. Crop Development Directorate, Department of
Agriculture, Lalitpur, Nepal,
CDD. 2011. Targeted Programs and Achievements. Annual report. Crop Development Directorate,
Department of Agriculture, Lalitpur, Nepal, pp.26.
109
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Annex 1: Cost of establishment and management (estimated)
S.N.
Activities
Cost (Rs.000)
Remarks
Fixed Costs
1
Seed purchase collection
1.1
Seed Revolving fund
1000
1.2
Seed Store house (75% subsidy)
300
1.3
Threshing floor (75% subsidy)
100
1.4
Equipment –moisture meter, weighing balance, sewing
machine etc. (100% subsidy)
50
1.5
Seed processing machine- small scale (100% subsidy)
100
Total
1550
Variable costs
2
Seed production
2.1
50% subsidy in source seed (Tentative for 30 ha)
2.2
50% subsidy in fertilizers
2.3
100% source seed transport subsidy (LS)
55.2
Not yet
implemented
40
2.4
Plant protection @ of NRs. 1000/ha.
20
3
Seed/Varietal mapping
15
4
PVS (Required amount of seed, fertilizers and pesticides for
15 m2)
10
5
Trainings and workshops (as per required)
85
Sub Total
Grand total
Source: Current running program of CDD
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
190.2
1775.2
110
Annex 2: SWOT analysis of community seed bank programme
Strengths
Weakness
yy
yy
yy
yy
Farmers involved for their own sake to make seed
available in their community
Seed revolving fund of the program is a major
strength since it can decrease the use of produced
seed as food and hence helps to maintain the seed
cycle.
yy
yy
yy
Inadequate market linkages
Inadequate knowledge and capacity in seed
production and marketing
Lack of manpower
Sometimes insufficient source seed of required
varieties
Highly dependent
Opportunities
Threats
yy
yy
yy
111
CSB can supply seed to neighbouring districts as
well with their tagging and bagging
If there is a successful CSB in a district, there will
be no more crisis in seed availability
yy
Sustainability of the seed bank when supports are
withdrawn
Misuse of the seed revolving fund
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
The Story of Establishment and Management of the
Sindhu Community Seed Bank in Thumpakhar Village of
Sindhupalchok District36
D.B. BHANDARI
Sindhu Community Seed Bank, Thumpakhar, Sindhupalchok
Photos: Sajal Sthapit
Summary
Seed production and marketing of maize was started in Thumpakhar village of
Sindhupalchok with the support from the Hill Maize Research Programme of International
Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT). It took three years to convince farmers
to produce quality seeds and to create a market. In 2009, the Crop Development Directorate
of the Department of Agriculture came up with the concept of a community seed bank and
provided financial and technical support. Altogether, there are 14 seed producer farmers
groups in 4 Village Development Committees, viz. Thumpakhar, Sunkhani, Yamunadanda
and Phulpingdanda. A community seed bank management committee has been formed
with representatives from each farmers’ group. A cooperative and also a seed company
have been registered to market the seeds.
The community seed bank conducts participatory variety selection to identify appropriate
varieties for the locality to include in seed production activities. About 50 tons of seeds
of rice, wheat and maize are produced and marketed each year. The community seed
36
Author of this chapter represents Sindhu Community Seed Bank, which has been managing a
community seed bank since 2009. To encourage and recognize them, this chapter has been presented in
Nepali language except summary.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
112
bank works with the District Agriculture Development Office to get source seeds both
for participatory variety selection and seed production, as well as with the regional seed
laboratory for seed certification. As the community seed bank organizes a number of
discussions, trainings, workshops and visits, increased awareness on the production and
use of quality seeds of improved varieties has not only contributed to increased income of
seed producers, but also to the overall production of maize and rice.
l;Gw' ;fd'bflos aLp a}+s :yfkgf tyf Joj:yfkg;DaGwL
;d'bfosf] cg'ej
8L= aL= e08f/L
l;Gw' ;fd'bflos aLp a}+s, y'Dkfv/, l;Gw'kfNrf]s
k[i7e"ld
lxdfn, kxf8, t/fO{, leqL dw]z / dgf]/d pkTosfdf ljeflht g]kfn k|fs[lts ;'Gb/tf clg
ljljwtfo'Qm xfjfkfgLn] ubf{ vfB tyf s[lif;Fu ;DalGwt cg]sf}+ jg:klt tyf k|f0fLx?n] el/k"0f{
5 . :yfgLo s[ifsx?sf] cyfx 1fg, ;Lk tyf cg'ej / pknAw s[lif k|ljlwx?sf] ;b'kof]uaf6
lbuf] cfly{s ljsf; tyf vfB;'/Iff ;'lglZrt ug{ ;lsg] k|z:t ;Defjgf 5 . Psflt/ /f;folgs
v]tLk|0ffnLsf] j[l4, cfoftLt j0f{;ª\s/ aLpx?sf] a9\bf] k|of]u / pTkfbgsf clwsf+z ;fdu|Lx?df
k/lge{/tf a9\b} uPsf] 5 eg] csf{lt/ a9\bf] zx/Ls/0f, hldgsf] v08Ls/0f cflb sf/0fx?n] s[lif
e"ldsf] x|f; xF'b}uPsf] 5 . To;} u/L s[ifsx?df s[lif h}ljs ljljwtfsf] dxÎjaf/]df hfgsf/L gx'g' /
h}ljs ljljwtf ;+/If0fdf ;/f]sf/ lgsfosf] Wofg sd hfg'n] xfd|f] s[lif If]q ;d:ofu|:t aGb} uO/x]sf]
b]vfpF5 . h}ljs ljljwtfdf g]kfn wgL elgP tfklg o;sf] ;++/If0f / k|j4{gaf6 /f]huf/ ;[hgfu/L
cfly{s nfe lng]tkm{ cToGt Go"g k|oTg ePsf 5g\ . csf{tkm{ pTkfbgj[l4sf nflu u'0f:t/Lo aLpsf]
dxÎjk"0f{ e"ldsfx'g] ePtf klg o;tkm{ klg pNn]vgLo sfd x'g ;s]sf] 5}g .
l;Gw'kfNrf]s lhNnfdf pGgt hftsf ds}sf] aLp–pTkfbg;DaGwL sfo{sf] yfngL kxf8L ds}afnL
cg';Gwfg sfo{qmdsf] ;xof]udf ePsf] xf] t/ :yfgLo :t/df pTkflbt pQm aLp u'0f:t/Lo 5 egL
;d'bfodf ljZjf; lbnfpg o; ;+:yfnfO{ em08} tLg jif{ nfUof] . csf{lt/ aLp–;ª\sng, e08f/0f /
ljt/0fsf] Joj:yf ldnfpg' klg TolQs} r'gf}tLk"0f{ /x\of] . ;g\ @))* df aLp–pTkfbs s[ifs ;d"xsf
;b:ox?sf] ;+nUgtfdf aLp–;ª\sng, e08f/0f tyf ljt/0fsf] plrt Joj:yf ug]{ sfdsf ;fy}
:yfgLo :t/df pTkflbt aLpsf] k|efjsf/L ?kdf ahf/Ls/0fsf nflu ;xsf/L ;+:yfsf] :yfkgf ul/of]
t/ cfjZos ;|f]t;fwgsf] cefjn] pQm sfo{nfO{ k|efjsf/L ?kdf cl3 a9fpg eg] ljleGg sl7gfOsf]
;fdgf ug'{k¥of] . ;g\ @))( b]lv eg] s[lif dGqfnosf] afnL ljsf; lgb]{zgfnoåf/f ;fd'bflos aLp
a}+ssf] cjwf/0ff cl3 ;fl/of] / l;Gw'kfNrf]s lhNnfnfO{ klg klxnf] r/0fsf] sfo{qmdsf nflu 5gf]6
ul/of] . o; sfo{kqdf l;Gw'kfNrf]s lhNnfdf afnL ljsf; lgb]{zgfnosf] cfly{s tyf k|fljlws
;xof]udf :yfkgf ePsf] ;fd'bflos aLp a}+ssf ultljlwx?sf af/]df rrf{ ul/Psf] 5 .
113
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
;fd'bflos aLp a}+ssf] kl/ro tyf p2]Zo
g]kfn ;/sf/n] NofPsf] ;fd'bflos aLp a+}ssf cjwf/0ff cg';f/ l;Gw' ;fd'bflos aLp a}+ssf]
:yfkgf lj=;+= @)^$ df ePsf] xf] . o;sf] sfof{no l;Gw'kfNrf]s lhNnfsf] y'Dkfv/ uf=lj=;=,
j8f g+ ( df cjl:yt 5 . o; ;fd'bflos aLp a}+ssf sfo{If]q y'Dkfv/, ;'gvfgL, od'gf8fF8f
/ k'mlNk8fF8f uf=lj=;=x? x'g\ . o; ;fd'bflos aLp a}+ssf] ;~rfng !$ j6f s[ifs ;d"xx?,
Pp6f aLp–pTkfbs ;xsf/L / Pp6f ;fd'bflos aLp lahg sDkgLn] ;+o'Qm ?kdf ul//x]sf
5g\ . wfg, ds} / ux'F afnLx?sf] pGgt hftsf] aLp–pTkfbg tyf ljqmLljt/0fsf cltl/Qm s[lif
h}ljs ljljwtfsf] ;+/If0ftkm{ klg of] ;fd'bflos aLp a+}sn] sfo{qmd ;~rfng ub{5 . aLp–pTkfbs
;xsf/L ;+:yfn] cGgafnL / t/sf/LafnLx?sf] aLp–pTkfbgsf] sfd ub}{cfPsf] 5 eg] ;fd'bflos
aLplahg sDkgLn] :yfgLo :t/df pTkflbt aLpsf] ahf/Ls/0f sfo{df ;xhLs/0f ub}{ cfPsf] 5 .
;du|df o; ;fd'bflos aLp a}+ssf lgDg p2]Zox? 5g\M
yy vfBfGg tyf t/sf/L afnLx?sf] hftLo k/LIf0f k|bz{g u/L 7fpF tyf xfjfkfgL cg';f/
;'xfpFbf hftx?sf] 5gf}6 ug]{Ù
yy vfBfGg tyf t/sf/LafnLx?sf d"naLp, k|dfl0ft aLp / pGgt aLp–pTkfbg, ;ªsng,
k|zf]wg, e08f/0f, Kofs]lhª / n]alnªsf] sfd ug]{Ù
yy aLp–pTkfbs s[ifs ;d"xu7g u/L ;d"xx?nfO{ ;Lk, 1fg / pGgt k|ljlwx? pknJw u/fO{
pGgt aLp–pTkfbgsf dfWodaf6 s[ifssf] cfoj[l4 ug]{Ù
yy o; ;fd'bflos aLp a}+ssf] sfo{If]qleq ;du| s[lif If]qsf] ;'wf/ / lj:tf/sf nflu tflnd,
uf]i7L, a}7s, e]nf / 5nkmnsf] cfof]hgf u/L u|fdL0f ;d'bfosf ls;fgx?sf] r]tgf clej[l4
u/fO{ h}ljs ljljwtfsf] klxrfg / nf]k x'g nfu]sf hftx?sf] ;+/If0f ug]{ .
;fd'bflos aLpa+}ssf] :yfkgfk|lqmof
;fd'bflos aLp a}+ssf] :yfkgfsf] k|f/lDes r/0fdf ;j{k|yd y'Dkfv/ uf=lj=;=sf ;a} 6f]nsf
s[ifsx?sf] e]nf u/fO{ h}ljs ljljwtfsf] dxÎj, pTkfbg j[l4sf nflu u'0f:t/Lo aLpsf] dxÎj /
e"ldsfaf/]df hfgsf/L u/fOof] . To;kl5 & j6f aLp–pTkfbs s[ifs ;d"xx? u7g ul/P / & j6f
;d"xsf Ps–Ps hgf k|ltlglw 5gf]6 u/L & ;b:oLo ;fd'bflos aLp a}+s ;~rfns ;ldltsf]
u7g ul/of] . oL ;d"xsf ;b:ox? lgoldt a}7s a:g], art ;ª\sng ug{] / sfo{of]hgf agfO{
cGgafnLx?sf pGgt aLp–pTkfbg ug]{ ub{5g . xfn;Dd o:tf aLp–pTkfbs s[ifs ;d"xx?sf]
;ª\Vof !$ k'u]sf] 5 . aLp–pTkfbgsf cltl/Qm oL ;d"xx? s[lif h}ljs ljljwtfsf] ljZn]if0f,
d"Nof°g, nf]kf]Gd"v :yfgLo hftx?sf] ;ª\sng tyf pTkfbg h:tf sfo{x?df klg ;+nUg 5g\ .
l;Gw' ;fd'bflos aLp a}+såf/f ;~rflnt sfo{qmdx? / To;sf] k|f/lDes glthf
r]tgf clej[l4
:yfgLo s[ifsx?;Fusf] 5nkmn tyf cGt/lqmofkl5 s[ifssf] rfxgf cg';f/ aLp–pTkfbg sfo{qmd
;~rfngsf nflu s[ifs ;d"xx? u7g ePsf 5g\ . aLp–pTkfbgsf nflu s[ifsx?sf] Ifdtf clej[l4
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
114
ug{ ;~rfng ul/Psf a}7s, e]nf, uf]i7L / tflndx?sf] lgoldt ;~rfngn] ;d"xsf ;b:ox?df
qmlds ?kn] 1fg, ;Lk, Ifdtf / cg'ej a9\b} uO/x]sf] 5 . pgLx?df pTkfbg j[l4sf nflu z'4
aLpsf] dxÎj / :yfgLo hftsf afnLx?sf] ;+/If0fsf] cfjZostf dx;'; ePsf] 5 . s[ifs ;d"xx?n]
sfoqmdsf] lbuf] ljsf;sf nflu lgoldt dfl;s art ug{ yfn]sf 5g\ / ;/sf/L tyf u}/;/sf/L
;ª\3;+:yfaLr ;Dks{ tyf ;dGjo klg a9\b} uPsf] 5 .
h}ljs ljljwtf ;+/If0f
;fd'bflos aLp a}+s;DaGwL sfo{qmdn] o; If]qsf s[ifs ;d'bfodf h}ljs ljljwtfsf] dxÎj / o;n]
lgjf{x ug{] e"ldsfsf] af/]df hfgsf/L a9\b} uPsf] 5 . nf]kf]Gd'v :yfgLo hftx?sf] aLp ;ª\sng
u/L ;fd'bflos aLp a}+sdf k|bz{gdf /flvPsf 5g\ / ;+/If0fsf nflu k'gM aLp–pTkfbgsf] sfd ;'¿
ul/Psf] 5 .
tflnsf !M l;Gw' ;fd'bflos aLp a}+ssf] sfo{If]qaf6 ;ª\sng u/L k|bz{gdf /flvPsf :yfgLo
hftx?
afnL
k|bz{gdf /flvPsf :yfgLo hftx?
sf]bf]
n's]{, d'8\s], 8Nn] ;]tf], RofN7], l;¿jf/]], lsg]{], c¿0f], l;Gw'sf]6] -*_
ds}
7"nf] kx]n
+ f], d'/nL, 7"nf] r]K6] ;]tf], r]K6] kx+]nL, ;fgf] ;]tL, l8Dd'/], s/Ë], sfF8], rf}
sf]6], sfnf] ds]}, ;fgf] kx+]nf] ds} -!!_
b n x g – sflts] af]8L, ds} af]8L, d:ofª, /x/, uxt, sfnf] df;, rf}df;] l;dL, l3pl;dL,
afnL
d;'/f], sfp;] l;dL, nf]sn v}/f] l;dL, /ftf] l3pl;dL, ;]tf] e6df;, s}nf] e6df;,
sfnf] ds} l;dL, v}/f] ds} l;dL -!&_
wfg
x]Nd'n], kf]v|]nL, hf]tL{ dl;gf], /ftf] cgbL, cgbL, sfnf] 3}of ,;]tf] 3}of, lemg'jf, df;L{,
b"wkf]v|]nL, nf]sn kx+]nL, nf]sn tfnf{u], rl/gªu|], -!@_
t/sf/L
csa/] v';f{gL, /fu] v';f{gL, lrlrG8f], tLt]s/]nf, sfnf] tf]l/of, ;]tf] tf]l/of, sfF8]
:s';, sfnf] :s';, ‰ofKn] :s';, em'q] Eofs'/, /ftf] t¿n, 6df6/, sfp;] l;dL, xl/
of] sfFqmf, rR'r] s/]nf, kmnfd] sfFqmf -!^_
cGo
tLt] kmfk/, ld7] kmfk/, hf}, em';] ltn, -$_
hDdf hft ^*
:yfgLo s[ifsx?sf] vfB ;'/Iff tyf cfodf j[l4
;fd'bflos aLp a}s
+ sf] sfo{If]qdf aLp–pTkfbgsf] sfd Ps e/kbf]{ gub] afnLsf ?kdf ljsl;t
eO/x]sf] 5 . lsgeg] s[ifsx?df pGgt aLp / k|ljlwsf] kx'rF tyf k|of]u a9]sf] 5 / To;af6 ;/b/
$) k|ltzt pTkfbg a9]sf] s'/f s[ifsx? atfpF5g\ . u|fdL0f ls;fgx?n] ;:tf] / ;'ne ?kdf, rfx]sf]
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115
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
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Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
116
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117
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
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Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
The National Genebank, the Multilateral System and
Community Seed Banks for the Conservation and Utilization
of Agricultural Genetic Resources in Nepal
MADAN R. BHATTA1, BAL K. JOSHI1 AND DEVENDRA GAUCHAN2
National Agriculture Genetic Resources Centre, Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Khumaltar, Lalitpur,
Corresponding email: madan_bhatta86@yahoo.com
2
Socioeconomic and Agriculture Research Policy Division, Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Khumaltar, Lalitpur
1
Introduction
Photos: NAGRC (left and top right),
Importance of crop diversity: Globally, over 84% of human diet and nutrition comes
from plants. In Asia and the Pacific, the Near East and Africa, plants provide around 90%
of the average human diet. In Latin America and the Caribbean the figure is about 80%
and in Europe and North America it tends towards 75% (FAO 2010). However, humanity
has become dangerously reliant on only a few different crops. Out of the 10,000 to 12,000
known edible plant species, only 150 to 200 are used by humans and three of them alone—
rice, wheat and maize—contribute nearly 60% of calories and proteins that humans obtain
from plants (FAO 1997).
Plant genetic resources are crucial in feeding the global population. They are the raw
materials for genetic improvement of food crop species by plant breeders and farmers and
are essential in maintaining the sustainability of the global food production system (FAO
2002). The plant breeding process calls for a broad range of intracrop as well as intercrop
genetic variability as essential inputs to develop a single successful new crop variety. To
develop a new commercial variety, breeders may have to screen thousands of samples in
search of a particular trait.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
120
About half of the average global production increase in cereals that was achieved under
the Green Revolution was attributable to plant breeding utilizing plant genetic resources
(Hayward et al., 1993). The other half came from altered agricultural practices such as the
use of fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation and expansion of cultivated areas. Since the natural
resource base, on which agriculture relies is finite and in some cases even declining, these
agricultural practices cannot be sustained over the long run. This suggests that the role of
crop diversity and plant breeding will become even more important in the near future for
achieving food security in a sustainable way. Indeed, over 70% of the required production
increases by 2050 will have to come from higher yield and less than 10% can be expected
from an expansion in arable land (Hegwood 2009).
Loss of crop diversity: During the Green Revolution, many traditional crop varieties
were replaced by modern improved varieties that significantly increased yields that
were urgently needed to feed the growing population at that time. However, according
to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), more than 75%
of global crop diversity has disappeared irrevocably over the 20th century (1900 to 2000).
One of the most important reasons for the loss of traditional seeds, and thereby the loss of
genetic diversity, is the replacement of genetically diverse farmers’ varieties with modern
varieties. In South Korea, for example, 74% of the most common crop varieties in 1985 had
been replaced by 1993, and of the 10 000 wheat varieties in use in China in 1949, only 1000
were still being used in the 1970s (FAO 2011).
A large number of wild relatives of important food crops are also likely to disappear over
the next decades due to climate change. At the same time, crops that have historically
been cultivated especially well in a given region may no longer be of use and will have
to be substituted by other crops. For example, in Sub-Saharan Africa, where maize is a
major stable food crop at present, the land may no longer be suitable for its cultivation
by 2050 (FAO 2009a). Similarly, in South Asia, climate change induced temperature rise
may reduce wheat and rice productivity by 30% by the year 2030 (Maize and Wheat CRP
Meeting 2012). From the above examples, it becomes clear that crop diversity, food security
and climate change are closely linked in diverse and complex ways.
Countries’ interdependence on agricultural crop varieties
It is a global fact that there is global interdependency on plant genetic resources for food
and agriculture since all countries largely depend on plant genetic resources for food and
agriculture (PGRFA) that originate elsewhere. No country in the world is self-sufficient in
PGRFA for their food security (IPGRI 1996, 2000). The degree of dependence on the major
food crops is over 50% for most world regions (FAO 2010).
Agricultural crops have been freely and widely exchanged across the world for centuries.
For example, potatoes originated in the Andes in Latin America and are now staple crops
in Europe and elsewhere in the world; barley and wheat were first domesticated in the
Near East; rice originated in Southeast Asia (FAO 2001). Similarly, eggplant has its centre
of significant diversity in the Indo-Myanmar region, while its major ex situ collections are
121
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
in AVRDC, Taiwan, and India; the major producing collections are in China, India, Egypt,
Turkey and Indonesia; major breeding work is concentrated in AVRDC and India; the
major consuming countries are African countries, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nepal,
Pakistan and Sri Lanka and major product importing countries are France, Germany, Iraq,
United Kingdom and USA (FAO 2010).
The multilateral system
Access to genetic resources and benefit sharing became an international issue during the
early 1980s, leading to the inclusion of conservation, management and equitable benefit
sharing of PGR in the agenda of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1992.
The CBD vests sovereignty over biological resources and traditional knowledge in nation
states. The ownership of biological resources is determined by the state through national
law. The future of agriculture depends on international cooperation and the free exchange
of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture. The adoption of the CBD in 1992 called
for a revision of the International Undertaking in order to ensure the mutual harmony
of the two instruments. After long negotiations, this revision took place within the FAO
Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture and the International Treaty
on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) was adopted by the
conference of FAO of the United Nations in 2001 and entered into force in 2004. Nepal
ratified the ITPGRFA on 2 January 2007 and became party to it on 19 October 2009.
ITPGRFA has a provision of a Multilateral System that includes all plant genetic resources
for food and agriculture listed in the Annex 1 to the ITPGRFA (FAO 2009b) that are under
the management and control of the contracting parties and in the public domain.
Benefits of the multilateral system
Monetary benefits:
yy Recipients pay an equitable share of financial benefits into the Treaty’s Benefitsharing Fund whenever a commercialized product resulting from material obtained
from the Multilateral System is not freely available for further research and breeding.
yy These funds are complemented with voluntary contributions from countries,
international foundations and the private sector.
yy The funds that accumulate in the Benefit-sharing Fund flow primarily to farmers in
developing countries who use and conserve crop diversity.
Non-monetary benefits:
Exchange of information: Making available information such as catalogues and inventories
of crop diversity and results of technical, scientific and socio-economic research, for example,
research related to characterization, evaluation and utilization of agricultural crops.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
122
Technology transfer: Facilitating access by developing countries to technologies for the
conservation, characterization, evaluation and use of crop diversity under the Multilateral
System. The Treaty encourages all types of partnerships in research and development
and in commercial joint ventures, especially relating to the material received, to human
resource development, and to effective access to research facilities.
Capacity building through:
yy Programs for scientific and technical education and training
yy Research facilities in developing countries
yy Scientific research in developing countries in cooperation with national institutions
National Agriculture Genetic Resources Centre, the National Genebank
Nepal is rich in biodiversity evolved and maintained mainly due to diverse agro-climatic
environments with complex and varied farming systems, a broad mixture of ethnicity and
races, varied socio-economic settings, large differences in altitude and complex topography.
The three physiographic zones of Nepal, the Terai, Hills and Mountains experience a wide
range of climate from tropical to temperate to arctic. The prevailing six seasons in Nepal
indicate its unique climatic variation. Due to these variations across the country, diverse
forms of genetic resources are being maintained by local farming communities.
Although the nation holds less than 0.1% of earth’s land mass, it supports 2.2% of
flowering plants, 1.4% of reptiles, 2.2% of fish, 8.5% of birds, 4.2% of butterflies and 4%
of all mammals. The Biodiversity Profiles Project (1995) ranked Nepal as having the tenth
richest flowering plant diversity in Asia. On a world scale Nepal is placed 31st. Diversity
in edible genetic resources indicates availability of more than 500 species, of which nearly
200 species are under cultivation.
A large number of wild relatives of important food crops are also likely to disappear over
the next decades due to climate change. At the same time crops that have historically been
cultivated especially well in a given region may no longer be of use and will have to be
substituted by other crops.
Realizing the significance of conservation and sustainable use of agrobiodiversity in
national development, and to meet the national obligation of implementing international
agreements (CBD and ITPGRFA), the Government of Nepal and Nepal Agricultural
Research Council have established the National Agriculture Genetic Resources Centre
(NAGRC) in 2010 with the mission of conservation and sustainable use of agricultural
genetic resources for sustained agricultural growth and livelihood.
123
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Objectives
yy To explore, collect and conserve agricultural genetic resources for promoting
sustainable use.
yy To manage and handle the agricultural genetic resources scientifically in the country
according to the rules and regulations of the genetic resources movement.
yy To identify the endangered, rare and unique genetic resources and give emphasis to
conserve them.
yy To locate the centre of diversity of all economical crop species in the country.
yy To characterize and evaluate genetic resources and make them available to
researchers, academicians, farmers, entrepreneurs and related stakeholders.
yy To screen genetic resources and identify markers associated with particular traits,
and to develop elite lines through pre-breeding.
yy To manage a database associated with each accession including passport,
characterization, evaluation and traditional knowledge.
Facilities available in the national genebank
yy Short-term storage: A cold store room is functional and is suitable for storing about
50 000 accessions for five to ten years.
yy Seed processing lab: Facilities are available for seed drying, cleaning, characterizing
and evaluating.
yy In-vitro culture room: Tissue culture room as well as in-vitro cold storage facilities
are available.
yy Molecular lab: Molecular based research can now be carried out independently.
yy Field genebank: A separate plot is allocated for a field genebank. It will be extended
along the road and around the office buildings and premises.
yy Experimental plot: The field is available for diversity blocks, rejuvenation,
multiplication, characterization and evaluation.
yy Database management: Documentation facilities are available for passport,
management, characterization, evaluation, and pre-breeding and utilization data.
Conservation strategies
Different conservation strategies should be considered in regards to the way they complement
each other and help to conserve maximum diversity. In situ conservation is useful to conserve
wild species and their relatives. On farm conservation, which is also called dynamic conservation,
complements ex situ conservation by continued cultivation of locally available crop varieties. Ex
situ conservation preserves the genetic resources that have orthodox seeds in static condition.
Genetic resources that are being considered for conservation are landraces, modern varieties,
obsolete varieties, breeding lines, recombinant inbred lines, genetic stocks, non-recombinant
inbred lines, differential lines, exotic genetic resources, wild and wild relatives and wild edible
plants. The national genebank has the following conservation strategies.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
124
•
•
•
Ex situ conservation
o Seed conservation
o In-vitro conservation
Cryopreservation
Cold storage
o Field genebank
On farm conservation
In situ conservation
Along with these strategies, the national genebank will focus on effective collaboration
and utilization of genetic resources. A multidisciplinary approach is an effective way to
manage agrobiodiversity. Therefore, collaboration with different stakeholders will be
established for exploration and collection, regeneration and multiplication, characterization
and evaluation, in situ conservation, field genebank management, on farm conservation
and safety duplication. For efficient utilization, an effective distribution system for genetic
resources will be developed as proposed in Figure 1.
Community
Seed Bank
Farming
Communities
Seed
Companies
NGOs
Farmers
NAGRC
NARC
System
DoA,
DADOs
Universities
Researchers
Figure 1: Proposed germplasm exchange system in country.
Passport, characterization, screening and evaluation data will be made available to
researchers, farmers and other interested persons, so that they can identify suitable
germplasm. Online database management will provide everyone with access to the
national genebank data. Pre-breeding works, e.g., screening, tagging of markers linked
to important traits, elite line development and collaborative marker assisted selection,
will strengthen the utilization aspect. Diversity blocks and participatory landrace
enhancement, particularly involving CSBs, contributes to dynamic conservation
through utilization.
125
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Plant genetic resource exchange mechanisms in Nepal
There was almost free exchange of plant genetic resources for breeding crop varieties
among countries before the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Nepal had a
SAARC germplasm exchange program during the 1980s. Nepal Agricultural Research
Council (NARC), in collaboration with International Maize and Wheat Research Center
(CIMMYT), had an Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGPs) collaborative wheat breeding program
with Bangladesh and India during the 1990s, but with the adoption of CBD and ITPGRFA,
it became non-functional.
NARC has been exchanging different plant genetic materials with the Consultative
Group of International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) centres e.g. International Rice
Research Institute (IRRI), CIMMYT, and International Center for Agricultural Research
in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-AridTropics (ICRISAT), International Potato Center (CIP), etc. since 1960s. There is free
exchange of germplasm and related knowledge for breeding crop varieties. As a public
institution, NARC has been involved in developing new crop varieties and making them
freely accessible to everyone within the country, as well as contributing to the Multilateral
System (Figure 2). Since there is no strong legislation for germplasm access in the country,
every organization (GOs, Universities, NGOs, CBOs and private seed companies) may
have germplasm access from multilateral system (MLS) through the Standard Material
Transfer Agreement (SMTA).
NGOs
Researchers &
Farmers
Multisectoral System
(PGRFA in CG Gene
Banks)
Crop Research
Programs (NARC)
+Gene Bank
Private Seed
Companies
Universities
Figure 2: Existing system of MLS access of plant genetic resources in Nepal.
In country flow of genetic resources: As shown in Figure 1, NAGRC will work as a national
depository centre for all PGRFA available in the country and a two way access mechanism
needs to be developed through effective and nationally acceptable norms.
Mechanism of Multilateral System: A one window system for the movement of genetic
resources will be established (Figure 3). All the genetic resources inside and outside the
country will go through the one window i.e., the national genebank. Rules and regulations
including a quarantine system will be developed. The national genebank will collaborate
with offices of NARC and DoA, NGOs, community seed banks located in different sites
across the country for quarantine.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
126
International Treaties
National Legislations
Multilateral
System (MLS)
SMTA
AT
PIC
Community
Seed Banks
National
Gene Bank
or M
Samples with databases
National Legislations
Farmers, Farming
Groups
NARC, DoA,
Universities
Researchers
Seed Companies
Figure 3: Proposed one window system of movement of genetic resources in the country.
Community seed banks
Plant genetic materials for food and agriculture are valuable resources for any country for
present and future food security. These need to be conserved at different levels including
national, international and local communities. Community seed banks are the collections
of seeds that are maintained and administered by the local communities themselves. Seeds
can be stored by a community either in a large quantity to ensure that planting materials
are available, or in small samples to ensure that genetic materials are available. Therefore,
community seed banks could be for local seed security as well as for the conservation of
locally available endangered crop species and/or for producing large quantity of seeds of
both improved crop varieties as well as farmers’ local varieties.
Programs for strengthening community seed banks (CSBs)
Farmers are the key players for sustaining agricultural diversity. NARC, in collaboration
with NGOs and farming communities, has been supporting on farm conservation since
1997 by involving farmers and their genetic resources in field studies. This resulted in
the establishment of CSBs in Kachorwa, Bara (2003) and Simariya, Sunsari (2011). A CSB
represents a system of conservation and utilization of local genetic resources, operated
at local levels and run by the community. The CSB ultimately helps to conserve genetic
resources in an evolutionary way, along with associated traditional knowledge. The
options of planting materials provided by CSB to the farmers are considered important to
increase total production at the household level. Diversity fairs and diversity blocks are the
major activities to collect and maintain varieties in a CSB. These are also the experimental
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Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
units where selection can take place to identify the better genotypes. CSB is considered an
economical way of conserving genetic resources; therefore, the national genebank has the
following programs to strengthen CSBs in Nepal.
Survey of existing CSBs in the country: A survey will be conducted to know the state
of art of the CSBs in the country. The survey results will be used to identify which CSBs
NAGRC is going to support. Priority will be given to CSBs that represent highly diverse
agroecological systems.
Accessing and safety duplication: All collections will be registered in the national genebank
and an accession number will be provided to CSBs, so that they can handle their samples
with this number. One set of their samples will be conserved in the national genebank as
a safety duplication. The concerned CSB will have access to these safety duplications at
any time.
Characterization and evaluation: The collections in the CSBs will be phenotypically
and genotypically characterized and evaluated. These data will be provided to the
community.
Further exploration and passport data: For further collection along with passport data,
diversity fairs as well as field visits will be conducted under the leadership of CSBs.
Genebank will support technical and financial aspects of the activities.
Documentation of traditional knowledge related to storage systems and upgrading
storage systems: The national genebank will facilitate the documentation of the associated
traditional knowledge of collections. Support will also be provided to display all kinds of
traditional storage systems. Traditional and modern storage systems will be compared
and local storage systems will be upgraded if required.
Capacity building on maintenance of seeds and crop breeding: The national genebank will
organize trainings and visits for the members of CSBs to empower them on management
of CSBs, maintenance and conservation of seeds and crop improvement.
Making access to PGRFA from MLS at all levels: The national genebank can work as
a facilitator for PGR access from MLS for institutions (GOs, NGOs, CSBs, Private seed
companies, farming communities and individual farmers) interested in research and
development.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
128
References
FAO. 1997. Executive Summary: How to Feed the World in 2050. The State of the World’s Plant
Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, Rome.
FAO. 2001. Crops Proposed for the Multilateral System: Centers of Diversity, Locations of
ex situ Collections, and Major Producing Countries. Background Study Paper No. 12 of
the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
FAO. 2002. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
FAO. 2009a. Executive Summary: How to Feed the World in 2050. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
FAO. 2009b. Crops Proposed for the Multilateral System: Centers of Diversity, Locations of
ex situ collections, and Major Producing Countries. Background Study Paper No. 12 of
the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
FAO. 2010. The second Report on the State of the World’s Plant Genetic Resources for Food and
Agriculture.
FAO. 2011. Introduction to the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and
Agriculture.
Fowler C. 2003. Implementing Access and Benefit-sharing Procedures under the Convention on
Biological Diversity: The Dilemma of Crop Genetic Resources and their origins, Strengthening
Partnership in Agricultural Research for Development in the context of Globalization,
Proceedings of the GFAR conference 21-23 May 2000 in Dresden, Germany, pp. 106-114.
Gauchan D, BK Baniya, MP Upadhyay and A Subedi. 2002. National Plant Genetic Resource Policy
for Food and Agriculture. A Case Study of Nepal. International Plant Genetic Resources
Institute (IPGRI), Asia-Pacific-Oceana (APO) Region, Kuala Lumpur.
Hayward M, N Bosemark and I Ramagosa. 1993. Plant Breeding: Principles and Prospects,
pp 21-23.
Hegwood, D. 2009. Food Security and the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food
and Agriculture. Background paper presented at the ‘Policy Seminar on the International
Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture: Global Challenges and
Future Direction’ in Bari, Italy. Available at: ftp://ftp.fao.org/ag/agp/planttreaty/gb4/bari/
Background_paper_day2.pdf.
IPGRI. 1996. The State of the World’s Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. In:
Background Documentation prepared for the International Technical Conference on Plant
Genetic Resources Leipzing, Germany.
IPGRI. 2000. The International Understanding on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and
Agriculture: Is it now or Never? International Plant Genetic Resource Institute (IPGRI)
Newsletter for Asia, The Pacific and Oceana, No. 31, January-April, Kuala Lumpur.
Joshi BK. 2012. A Brief Overview of Community Seed Bank Initiatives in Nepal. In Shrestha, P.,
R. Vernooy and P. Chaudhary eds. Community seed banking in Nepal: past, present and future.
Proceedings of a national workshop, 14-15 June 2012, Pokhara, Nepal. LI-BIRD, Pokhara, Nepal,
pp.41-46
Maize and Wheat CRP Meeting. 2012. Launch Meeting of the Wheat and Maize CGIAR Research
Programs, January 16 to 20, 2012. Mexico City, Mexico.
129
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Banking Seeds by Smallholders in Nepal: Workshop
Synthesis
PASHUPATI CHAUDHARY
Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research and Development (LI-BIRD), P.O. Box. 324. Gairapatan, Pokhara,
Corresponding email: pchaudhary@libird.org
Photos: Mahesh Shrestha
Introduction
Conserving plant genetic resources (PGRs), both wild relatives of crops and those maintained
on farm, is key to securing food and nutrition, enhancing incomes and building community
resilience to climate change (Frankel et al. 1995; Jarvis et al. 1998). PGRs form the basis for
developing new varieties that farmers, traders dealing with farm products, and consumers
or end users aspire to get for the benefit of their families and society, both for the current
generation and for posterity (FAO 2010). Conservation, management and sustainable use
of an array of PGRs, which is also the main goal of CBD (CBD 1992), in the past happened
through gene flow from one location to another and from one farmer to another (Hardon
1997; Subedi et al. 2003). Apart from the natural process of flows, the informal seed supply
system based on farmer-to-farmer exchange, has for many generations played a pivotal role
in seed exchange and the creation of the precious agrobiodiversity that exists in farmers’
fields today (Jarvis et al. 1998; Sthapit and Jarvis 1999). This is especially true for resourcepoor farmers cultivating marginal and unproductive agricultural lands and lacking access
to modern variety seeds and associated technologies.
Access to seeds and planting materials through the informal seed system is critical for
maintaining PGRs and improving food security worldwide. Although the informal seed
system accounts for about 80% of total seed supply globally, it is increasingly becoming
vulnerable due to the strong push of modern variety seeds of major staple crops by
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
130
government extension service providers, private companies and some development
NGOs. The introduction of modern varieties is not only replacing local variety seeds, but
also shutting down the opportunity for developing locally viable, economically beneficial
and ecologically resilient varieties. Such replacement has a disruptive impact on the
evolutionary process. This is a grave concern as the loss of varieties may lead to growing
food insecurity, which could have subsequent negative social and political consequences.
In response to this alarming trend, the concept and practice of the Community Seed Bank
(CSB) has evolved as an approach to protecting, maintaining and continuously making
available locally valuable PGRs to needy farmers. First established in the USA and Australia
in the mid-1980s, so-called seed savers networks inspired the establishment of CSBs. Since
the beginning, the concept and working approach have evolved differently in different
regions of the world (Vernooy in chapter 1), as a function of social, economic, institutional
and political dynamics of local communities, their countries, as well as interactions with
international agencies. Due to a lack of harmony among practitioners as well as clarity
about efficient modes of operation, the scaling out of the approach has not made much
progress, although in some countries, including Nepal, there are now hundreds of CSBs.
In Nepal, the first initiative to establish a community seed bank was taken by USC Canada in
Dalchoki, Lalitpur. However, practitioners could not give continuity to that seed bank due to
lack of a clear vision, funds to support the initiative, and close monitoring and supervision by
the support institution (Joshi in Chapter 3). A more robust, viable and sustainable CSB was
established by LI-BIRD in Bara in 2003 (Shrestha in Chapter 5), which is still in effective and
efficient operation. There are several other CSBs supported and operated by various institutions—
both GOs and NGOs (Joshi in Chapter 3). Annex 1 presents an overview of the current status
of CSBs. However, there is general inconsistency and poor common understanding in terms of
definition, goals, objectives, and working approaches among practitioners and CSB groups. The
approach is practiced differently in different countries and in different regions even within a
country, as the Nepal case demonstrates. The practices followed by different organizations also
vary significantly. As a result, developing national strategies, let alone international programs,
to support CSBs has been difficult. There is a need to bring consistency in the understanding of
all CSB groups, practitioners, policy makers and donors.
In light of the above mentioned challenge and opportunity, LI-BIRD, together with its
national and international partners, organized a two-day workshop in Pokhara, Nepal in
June 2012. The objective of the workshop was to seek answers to the following questions:
yy How do we define CSB?
yy What are the key components, main characteristics, principles, approaches and
working modalities of CSB?
yy What are emerging typologies used for CSB?
yy What policies are required to promote and sustain the role of farmers as custodians
of agrobiodiversity?
yy What are key challenges and opportunities?
yy How can we make CSB a sustainable approach to conservation?
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Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
While the main points of individual presenters are separately included as chapters in this
proceedings, this chapter intends to synthesize the presentations and discussions made
by the participants during the workshop. This chapter also offers a deeper analysis of the
CSB approach based on information shared by workshop participants and complemented
by some insights for future research on CSBs as well as on the development of principles
and practices to promote the approach in the long run for continuous conservation and
promotion of PGR for food, nutrition, income and resilience.
Convergence in definitions
Different institutions or individuals understand CSB in different ways and consequently
they follow different trajectories or pathways, often contradicting with one another. Based
on the workshop presentations, the following definitions emerged.
CSB is “a community mechanism/institution or seed repository with specialized functions
(to collect, store, multiply and distribute seeds). A CSB functions like a financial bank
as a transaction of seeds (deposition and lending) is made by farmers in the former and
transaction of money is done in financial banks.”
It is “a community-led seed management approach which involves production, collection,
processing, storage, distribution (exchange, loan, grant, selling) and marketing of local as
well as improved varieties.”
It is “a community-operated gene bank that provides farmers with access to seeds of local
crop varieties and performs the function of community level backup for genetic resources,
a repository of associated knowledge, and an institution to organize, mobilize and respond
to the farmers’ interests, and it promotes social learning and networks.”
From the above definitions, it is evident that CSBs have the following elements, among
others: (a) inclusion of local and improved varieties, (b) conservation, production and
distribution of seeds, (c) conservation of quality seeds based on agreed standards, (d)
community ownership on or control over PGR (local governance and management rights),
(e) recognition of legal and community rights, and (f) providing a platform for social
learning and other community actions.
Objectives of CSB targeted by practitioners
The definitions above clearly show that CSBs are meant for fostering conservation and the
sustainable use of local varieties of traditional crops. However, a CSB may also deal with
improved varieties depending on its major goal—conservation versus improving food
security and livelihoods of farmers. CSB increases access of farmers to quality seeds and
empowers communities to appropriately use their rights to save, share and sustainably use
important genetic resources. It creates an environment to multiply rare and endangered
varieties and improve local resilience to climate change; provides an opportunity for ex situ
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
132
and in situ linkages; and offers potential for linking with participatory breeding activities. It
also offers a platform for knowledge sharing and social learning and contributes to improved
social capital. Objectives of CSB as defined by different organizations participating in the
workshop are presented in Annex 2.
Typologies and modes of operation
From the presentations and discussions among the participants, it can be inferred that the
practitioners in Nepal are following one or the other of three modes of operation, which
are described below and summarized in table 1.
PGR-based: PGR-based CSBs include only local landraces of native crops in the seed
banks. This is possible in the villages where local germplasm is still abundant but under
potential threat and people are aware of and interested in conserving such important
PGRs. Germplasms may have remained extant in the villages due to poor access to
technology and unfavorable agroecological conditions for adoption of high yielding or
modern varieties. Hence, this type of CSB is feasible in low production potential areas
where access to market and improved technologies is poor. This approach is practiced by
LI-BIRD in some of its working villages, especially in hills and mountain regions, where
the reach of technological intervention is poor, and thus local landraces are ‘a compulsion,
not a choice’. This type of CSB can be established only in selected locations to represent/
cover local varieties of native crops of the region, to avoid duplication and redundancy
and to make conservation efforts cost effective. The seeds saved in the CSBs can be used
for grassroots breeding to improve the yield or productivity of landraces, making them
resilient to changing micro- and macro-climatic conditions. These CSBs can also serve as
‘mini national gene banks’ or ‘reservoirs’ and could benefit from support by the national
gene bank and the government.
PGR-focused: In this mode of operation, the main emphasis is given to the conservation of
PGR, but at the same time, CSBs include some modern variety seeds to fulfill demand of
members for high yielding varieties. However, the quantity of modern varieties is kept at
minimum scale to the extent possible so that the conservation goal is not obscured. This is
appropriate in regions where technological intervention is moderate, replacement rate of
local landraces is medium to high, and agroecological conditions are moderately befitting
for modern varieties. The CSBs could be appropriately linked with Participatory Plant
Breeding (PPB) work so that rare, endangered but locally desired genes can be preserved
by transferring them into new varieties through a PPB approach. Some varieties that were
already lost from the region can also be introduced from the national gene bank.
Modern variety-focused: The modern variety-focused approach is the one in which CSBs
deal with a high volume of modern varieties, but still keep local variety seeds in the seed
bank to contribute to conservation as a secondary goal. Here, the main focus is given to
high yielding varieties, but at the same time farmers are advised to plant local landraces
even if it is in a small fraction of land. This may be appropriate in high production potential
areas where farmers adopt high yielding varieties at the cost of local landraces, as modern
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Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
agricultural technologies are easily accessible and lands are suitable for adopting modern
varieties. Seeds of both extant and extinct landraces can be collected from around the
villages and the national gene bank and efforts could be made to revive them in the natural
production system. Varieties saved in CSBs can be used for PPB and Participatory Variety
Selection (PVS).
Table 1: Characteristic features of CSBs following different modes of operation
Criteria used
PGR-based
PGR-focused
MV-focused
Primary goal
Conservation
Conservation
Food security
Focus species
Native crops
Native and modern
Modern
Varieties included
Local landrace
Local landraces
Modern variety
Access to technology
Low
Low to medium
High
Production system
LPP
LMPP
HPP
Quantity of transaction
Low
Medium
High
Linkage with breeding
Grassroots breeding
PPB
PPB and PVS
Note:- LPP: Low Production Potential; LMPP: Low to Medium Production Potential; HPPS: High
Production Potential
In addition to this classification system, CSBs can be classified on the basis of type of seeds or
varieties included, their role in multiplication, processing methods, storage methods, modes
of seed exchange, gender roles, and scale of operation. Details are presented below in table
2. The classifications raise some important questions: Is conservation an option or a choice?
Is it a compulsion, compensation, compromise, or insurance? What incentives do CSBs give
to smallholder farmers? How can CSB integrate dual goals of conservation and livelihood
development? How can local landraces and modern varieties be effectively and efficiently
included in CSBs to avoid tradeoff between conservation and food security? Is there a need
for a CSB in every single village to make farmers self-sufficient? Do different production
systems require different types of operating mechanisms? How can CSBs be linked to
participatory breeding approaches and national gene banks? These are just some examples
that emerged from the analysis of the information gathered during the workshop.
Table 2: Classification of community seed banks using various factors
Comparison tools
Features/type/methods
Type of seeds
LR vs. MVs
Multiplication
Collective vs. individual
Processing
Farmers’ traditional vs. modern
Storage
Individual vs. collective; traditional vs. modern
Modes of seed exchange
Cash, barter, loan, exchange
Gender role
Men vs. women vs. both
Scale
Small vs. large
Coverage
Village vs. national
Coverage of crops
Selected vs. all available
Scope
Seed bank in a community vs. community as a seed bank
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
134
Steps followed in CSB implementation
Although major elements are common among the practitioners, steps followed by them
differ. The steps that most institutions follow is presented in annex III and a commonly
workable, a simplified step-by-step procedure of CSB is depicted in figure 1.
Public awarenss
Monitoring impacts
Income generation (scale,
CBM fund)
Steps of CSB
Implementation
Regeneration,
distribution and
multiplication
Collection and
storage
Formation of group
Training and capacity
building
Maintaining CBR
Figure 1: Steps followed in CSB formation and implementation
Challenges in implementing CSB
While CSBs are gaining ground in different geographic regions of the country, communities
maintaining them face a multitude of problems. The problems observed and documented
by the institutions supporting CSBs, as presented and discussed during the workshop,
can be grouped into: (a) lack of clarity on concepts, objectives, goals; (b) lack of awareness,
recognition and policy support; (c) poor integration of goals, themes and disciplines;
(d) poor knowledge of CSB groups on hardcore science, especially in plant breeding; (e)
difficulties in managing seeds and funds; (f) leadership, management and coordination;
and (g) inadequate facilities and infrastructure.
There is a lack of clarity on the concept and objectives of CSB as well as a poor level of
awareness on its approach among CSB groups, practitioners, policy makers, conservationists
and development workers. As a result, CSBs receive poor policy support, and consequently
integration of this approach into government systems is not happening at the desired pace.
CSB groups and practitioners do not have adequate knowledge on advanced breeding science
(e.g. genetics, molecular techniques) and thus there is poor technical integrity in management,
handling, and maintenance of CSBs, which results in a high level of dependency on GOs and
a handful of NGOs. For certain crops, especially those that are cross-pollinated, farmers face
difficulty in maintaining pure seeds due to inadequate breeding knowledge. Due to lack of
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Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
proper training, CSB groups have poor knowledge for efficiently managing seeds and the
fund and ensuring equity in burden and benefit sharing. Youth are losing interest in farming
in general and local varieties in particular, resulting in their poor involvement, which is
not well addressed by many CSBs. In many of the CSBs, there is a need to train dynamic
leaders who have a long-term vision, proper management capacities and leadership skills.
The linkage of CSBs with research and extension services offered by the government and
NGOs has also not been receiving due attention.
Road to sustainability
One time investment and commitment of farmers or CSB groups is not enough to conserve
their traditional varieties for a longer time. It is important to ensure they continuously
engage in collection, regeneration and multiplication of seeds, especially of rare, endemic,
and endangered crop varieties that are more vulnerable than common and widespread
ones. The participants discussed a variety of tools, techniques, methods, strategies and
policy issues related to sustainability.
To foster sustainability, it is important to combine conservation and livelihood goals and
to set clear goals, objectives and pathways, taking into account local production systems,
access to technologies and markets, and policy leverage. While local varieties are given
priority, the adoption of modern varieties in regions where food security cannot be
achieved only by maintaining local varieties should not be excluded beforehand. Even
in high production systems, seeds of some rare, endangered and lost varieties could be
preserved by collecting them from nearby the villages and borrowing from the national
gene bank.
A CSB cannot sustain itself without the support of strong and well-governed local
institutions that are vigilant to day-to-day activities and avoid unnecessary mishandling
and conflict among members and with non-members. Collective effort is a must.
Transparency, accountability and equitable burden and benefit sharing are all important
factors to efficiently manage CSBs. A CBM fund can give impetus to a CSB group to become
united and receive incentives while they maintain or promote local varieties.
It is important that the government and its line agencies working in the districts internalize
integrate and institutionalize the CSB approach in their minds, programs, and practices.
This requires appropriate policy and legal support from the central level. Proper incentive
mechanisms should also be developed to promote CSBs and encourage practitioners and
CSB groups to continue operating. There should be a clear policy on recognizing CSBs and
farmers managing rich agrobiodiversity on farm and linking them with ex situ or the national
gene bank. Current efforts are not linked to participatory breeding approaches despite
the potential for conserving local biodiversity and developing locally viable, economically
beneficial and ecologically resilient varieties. CSBs can be strengthened through linkages
and coordination of farmers with national and international like-minded institutions,
including private agencies, working in the field of agrobiodiversity conservation and food
security.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
136
References
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). 1992. United Nations,
http://www.cbd.int/doc/legal/cbd-en.pdf
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) .2012. State of food and agriculture 2012: Investing in
agriculture for a better future. FAO, Rome. http://www.fao.org/docrep/017/i3028e/i3028e.pdf
Frankel, O.H., A.H.D. Brown and J.J. Burdon .1995. The conservation of plant biodiversity.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Hardon, J.J. .1997. Ethical issues in plant breeding, biotechnology and conservation. In, Ethics and
equity in conservation and use of genetic resources for sustainable food security. Proceedings
of a workshop to develop guidelines for the CGIAR, 21-25 April 1997, Foz do Iguacu, Brazil, IPGRI,
Pp. 43-50.
Jarvis D, Hodgkin T, Eyzaguirre P, Ayad G, Sthapit B.R, & Guarino L. .1998. Farmer selection,
natural selection and crop genetic diversity: the need for a basic dataset, in Jarvis D &
Hodgkin T (eds). Strengthening the scientific basis of in situ conservation of agricultural
biodiversity on farm. Options for data collecting and analysis. Proceedings of a workshop
to develop tools and procedures for in situ conservation on farm, 25-29 August 1997, Rome,
Italy, pp.1-8.
Shrestha, P., S. Sthapit, R. Devkota and R. Vernooy.2012. Workshop summary report. National
workshop on community seed banks, 14-15 June 2012, Pokhara, Nepal. LI-BIRD/USC Canada
Asia/OXFAM Nepal/Bioversity International. LI-BIRD, Pokhara. Available: http://libird.org/
downloads/CommunitySeedBankNationaWorkshopSummaryReport.pdf
Sthapit, B.R. and D.I. Jarvis .1999. Participatory Plant Breeding for on-farm conservation. LEISA
15:40-41
Subedi, A.; Chaudhary, P.; Baniya, B.K.; Rana, R.B.; Tiwari, R.K.; Rijal, D.K.; Jarvis, D.I.; Sthapit,
B.R. 2003. Who Maintains Crop Genetic Diversity and How: Implications for On-farm
Conservation and Utilization. Culture & Agriculture 25(2):41-50.
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Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Annex 1: Status of CSB supported by different organizations
Organization
Year started
# of CSB
# of districts
Crop species
LI-BIRD
2003
15
12
Many
Oxfam
2009
90
2 (14 VDCs)
Parivartan Nepal
2006
1
1
DoA
2009
5
5+2
Variety
More than 1200 accesion collected
and conserved
43
Annex 2: Objectives or functions of CSB
DoA
LI-BIRD
Oxfam
PARIVARTAN
Bioversity
Easy access of
Conserve local varieties
Easy access of
Conserve
Preserve, collect,
quality seeds
Improve farmers access to local
quality seeds
local seeds
characterize local seed
and associated
crop diversity
and associated
(emphasis on
Multiply rare seed in
technologies
Deposit and share rare and
technologies
threatened)
situ
Conservation
threatened local varieties
Conservation of
Provide quality
Improve access of seed
Platform to share knowledge
LRs
seeds (mainly
and knowledge
and materials
Develop as
of vegetables)
resource center
in all seasons
Place for social
Provide strategic seed reserve
for adversity
Empower
Entry point for community
community and
learning
Increase income Multiply seed of PPB
Promote
products
increase social
organic
cohesiveness
agriculture
& utilization of
local landraces
Develop as
resource center
Empower
community and
increase social
cohesiveness
based on farm management
Platform for social learning
Ex situ - in situ
linkages
Create a link between the
Platform for CBM
communities and National Gene
to realize on farm
conservation
Bank
Note: Texts underlined and bolded are major objectives reported at least by one institute
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
138
Annex 3: Steps followed in CSB
LI-BIRD
DoA
Oxfam
PARIVARTAN
Community
Sharing of CSB
Orientation and Community sensitization
Seed related
sensitization
operational guidelines
Development of community seed
training
Establish and
with the stakeholders
farmers
Quality control
strengthen local
Orientation Training
Establish Seed management committee
Local crop
institutions
for the DADOs on
and variety
the procedures of
Capacity building of the SMC members
Development of local
establishing CSB
Registration to DADO and formulation of
identification
rules and regulations
operating guidelines
CBR (828 sps)
Construction of CSB
Selection of VDCs and
Community for CSB
Formulation of Quality assurance sub-
Sharing in
structure
committee
workshop
Collection of local
Formation of Community
Seed Producer Groups
Construction of community seed bank
Brainstorming
seeds
(CSPGs) and Community
structure
Infrastructure and
Seed distribution,
Equipping the structure
support
Collection of quality seeds
Capacity building
Documentation of deposits and
Technical support
regeneration and
Seed Bank Committee
multiplication
(CSB-C)
Develop options
Supports and subsidy
for livelihoods
Capacity building training
enhancement and
to CSPG and CSB-C
income generation
withdrawals
Linkages and collaboration
Affiliation with existing or newly formed
cooperative
Monitoring impacts
Note: Texts underlined and bolded are key steps reported by at least one institute
139
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Appendix
National Workshop on Community Seed Banks:
Workshop Summary Report
Pitambar Shrestha1, Sajal Sthapit1, Rachana Devkota1 and Ronnie Vernooy2
1
2
Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research and Development (LI-BIRD), PO Box 324, Pokhara, Nepal
Bioversity International, Via dei Tre Denari 472/a, 00057 Maccarese, Rome, Italy
Introduction
A community seed bank is an example of a local institution dedicated to the management
of plant genetic resources of importance to farming communities. The first community seed
bank (labeled as such) emerged in the middle of the 1980s in a number of countries around
the world. Different forms of community seed banking practices are being promoted
by different actors both within and between different countries. Some community seed
banks are highly specialized in terms of the collection, regeneration, distribution and
maintenance of local crop diversity and documentation of associated information and
traditional knowledge, while others are engaged in production and marketing of seeds of
improved varieties. In Nepal, since 1996, different organizations have been implementing
and supporting community seed banks in a variety of ways and in different regions of
the country. Currently, there are more than 100 self-proclaimed community seed banks in
Nepal. This is most likely the highest number of any country in the world.
A first national workshop on community seed banks was organized by Local Initiatives for
Biodiversity, Research and Development (LI-BIRD) from 14 to 15 June 2012, with the aim
to bring community seed bank practitioners together to develop a common understanding
on the concept (and practices), elaborate a typology in the Nepalese context, and identify
future activities. Other specific objectives were: to review the working modalities of
community seed banks in Nepal, to explore ex situ and in situ links and related policy
issues, to identify challenges and opportunities of community seed banks, and to promote
future collaboration and networking among relevant organizations in Nepal.
The workshop brought together around 40 participants from farming community, NGO/
INGO, high level government officials and scientists from the national genebank, LI-BIRD,
USC Canada Asia, Oxfam and Bioversity International. In the workshop, community seed
bank practitioners shared their experiences and lessons learned. This report summarizes
the main issues discussed. Workshop organizers are planning a workshop proceeding
publication that will include several of the detailed presentations made during the
workshop.
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Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Partners and participants1
Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research and Development (LI-BIRD) organized the
workshop with financial support from Bioversity International, USC Canada Asia and
Oxfam Nepal. LI-BIRD also contributed financially from Community-based Bioversity
Management South Asia programme and Neglected and Underutilized Species Phase III
projects supported by The Development Fund, Norway and IFAD respectively.
About forty people working on community seed banks, with experiences ranging from
over one and half decades to a few years, representing farming communities, government
agencies, NGO/INGOs, the Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC) and Bioversity
International participated in the workshop. Among them were farmers, researchers,
community seed bank practitioners, extension workers and national policy makers. In
addition, there were scientists and policy experts from Bioversity International, LI-BIRD
and USC Canada Asia. From the Government of Nepal, the Chief of National Agriculture
Genetic Resources, the Chief of the Outreach Research Division, NARC the Director of the
Crop Development Directorate from the Department of Agriculture and the Chief of the
District Agriculture Development Offices of Kaski and Dadeldhura were present.
Organization of the workshop programme
The two-day workshop was divided into five sessions. The first session offered a global
overview and conceptual understanding of community seed banks. The objective of this
session was to share the historical processes, key concepts and typologies of community
seed banks at the global level. There were three presentations in this session. The first
by Ronnie Vernooy from Bioversity International was a global review of community
seed banks. The other two papers were presented by Bhuwon Sthapit from Bioversity
International and Pratap Shrestha from USC Canada Asia. These two conceptual papers
were focused on community seed banks in the Nepalese context.
In the second session, national experiences on community seed banks were shared by
LI-BIRD, Oxfam, Crop Development Directorate, and Parivartan Nepal, representing the
main organizations that put community seed banks in motion in the country.
The final session of day one was on linking community seed banks with the national
genebank. The presenter was the chief of the national genebank, Madan Bhatta.
The first session of the second day was allocated to representatives from farming
communities who are operating community seed banks to share their experiences. There
were three presentations from community seed banks of Bara, Lalitpur and Sindhupalchok
districts followed by personal stories and reflections of three farmers from Dang, Sindhuli
and Dadeldhura.
1
See the list of participants in Appendix.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
142
The rest of the workshop was dedicated to group work on four themes and specific tasks
were given to each group separately. Group work themes were; i) development of a
common definition of community seed banks, identifying and defining typologies and
terminologies, ii) identification of emerging issues and challenges and suggesting possible
ways to address those issues and challenges, iii) identification of policy gaps and a
mechanism to develop linkages between community seed banks and the national genebank,
and iv) identification of technical and management related problems and possible options
to address those problems, including a mechanism for sustaining community seed banks
when there is no support from external agencies. The outputs of the group discussion have
been presented in the group work and recommendations section of this report.
Presentation highlights
yy The concept of the community seed bank evolved in the 1980s and now more than 40
countries from around the world have implemented different forms of community
seed banks.
yy Despite its significant contribution to food and agriculture, until now, in most
cases, this approach is being supported and promoted by aid agencies and civil
society organizations. Formal recognition of community seed banks at national and
international levels is largely missing. It is striking that the FAO’s 2nd State of the
Wolrd Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (2010) makes no mention of
community seed banks.
yy Community seed banks fulfill several functions but the major focus has been on
the conservation of local varieties, restoration of ‘lost’ varieties, crop and variety
management in response to crisis/disaster, improvement of availability and accessibility,
offering seeds at low costs or according to traditional system, sharing knowledge and
expertise, helping poor/marginalized/women farmers and seed multiplication of
participatory plant breeding varieties.
yy In Nepal, the concept was first introduced in the late 1990s by USC Canada Asia in the
central hills. In 2003, with some new innovations, LI-BIRD started community seed
banks in the central terai area and from there has promoted community seed banks in
15 localities from the terai to the high hill areas. The Government of Nepal developed
guidelines and piloted its ‘own’ community seed banks in 5 cases and planning to scale
up in other 12 districts. Oxfam Nepal has supported the establishment of more than
90 community seed banks in 2 western hill districts namely Dailekh and Dadeldhura
in the last few years. The main goal of the community seed banks, supported by LIBIRD and USC Canada Asia, is to promote plant genetic resources conservation whilst
the goal of government and Oxfam promoted community seed banks are to increase
production through increased seed replacement rates and increase availability of
farmer preferrred varieties. In practice, many of the community seed banks combine
two or more objectives in a diversity of operations.
yy The importance of linkages between comunity seed banks and the national genebank
has been realized, but a clear mechanism for cooperation has yet to be developed.
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Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
yy Despite many challenges, farming communities are managing community seed banks
with minimal external support. On the other hand, farmers have realized the urgent
need for policy and legislations to create a more enabling enviornment and for deploying
efforts to strengthen community seed banks and guarantee their sustainability.
Group work and recommendations
Definition/conceptual clarity
Group 1 came up with basic elements for a working definition of community seed banks;
conservation of plant genetic resources, community ownership/control of plant genetic
resources, community governed and managed, recognition (legal and/or communitybased), quality seeds based on agreed standard, seed production and distribution,
providing platform for other community actions, are the basic elements for a definition.
Community seed banks aim to promote the conservation and sustainable use of both local
and improved varieties for food security and to improve the livelihoods of farmers. The
group also agreed that the term ‘community seed bank’ should not be used if there is no
plant genetic resources conservation activity.
Practical challenges
Group 2 identified gaps and challenges of community seed banks and suggested ways to
address them. They are lack of policy, lack of common understanding of community seed
banks, low coverage, more resources demanding, a need for greater capacity building effort,
purity maintenance of seed, replacement of local varieties by hybrids and modern varieties,
declining interest from farmers, limited scientific knowledge, focus may get diluted when
combining plant genetic resources conservation and seed production of modern varieties.
This group suggested to address the gaps by strengthening local institutions, improving
information systems, mainstreaming community seed banks into the national system,
formation of policy and legal mechanisms, establishing a seed revolving fund, linking
with market and private agencies, developing a mechanism for providing subsidies and
registration of community seed banks in the government system.
Linking community seed banks with the national genebank
The task of group 3 was to identify policy gaps and develop a possible mechanism to link
community seed banks with the national genebank. Major policy gaps are limited focus
on plant genetic resources conservation in general, a gap in linking existing community
seed banks with the government seed production programme, no national level database
on community seed banks, lack of information and material sharing among different
agencies, community seed banks are not recognized by national policies (draft access to
and benefit sharing bill, agrobiodiversity policy 2007, draft plant variety protection and
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
144
farmers rights act, agriculture development policies, seed policy and seed acts), no policy
on linking community seed banks with the national genebank, lack of policies in defining
and regulating community seed banks. The team suggested a revision of existing national
policies and legislations to include community seed banks in draft bills, development of a
comprehensive policy guidelines for community seed banks operations, a survey (review)
of community seed banks and their modality across the country to develop an inventory
of community seed banks in the country, and defined roles and responsibilities of the
national genebank and other stakeholders for linking the various actors.
Group 3 also identified some activities for immediate action. It was proposed that
the national genebank should develop a simple but concise plant genetic resource
characterization form to be used by community seed banks, as well as a standard material
transfer agreement (SMTA), prior informed consent (PIC), mutually agreed terms (MAT)
system for safety duplication of community seed banks materials; prepare a certificate
for community seed banks to recognize farmer’s contributions to the national genebank
collection; develop and make available technical/procedural guidelines for seed acquisition;
develop a format and guidelines for seed delivery on request for community seed banks
within the country; and provide technical support and training to community seed banks
by 2012. For community seed banks, it was proposed that they collect seeds from local
areas with standard information (passport data); update passport data of community
seed banks collections; and support joint explorations for germplasm collection. The tasks
suggested for facilitating organizations that provide support to establish community
seed banks include providing financial and technical support to community seed banks,
working jointly with the national genebank and community seed banks in developing the
guidelines and regulations proposed, supporting to develop an inventory and passport
data generation, facilitation of seed acquisition and delivery to the national seed repository
for safety back-up, and involvement in joint explorations for germplasm collection.
Management of community seed banks
The fourth group was represented by farmers and they discussed problems and
challenges faced by farmer groups, as well as suggestions to improve the management of
community seed banks. They emphasized the existence of a policy challenge in the sense
of lack of support and clear rules and regulations. Other problems identified, were: the
lack of enough financial resources, less interest of farmers in local varieties, problems in
marketing seeds, lack of physical infrastructure, lack of technical knowledge in managing
seeds and regeneration of collected seeds. Their suggestions to overcome the issues
were a supportive policy and if necessary, legal act on community seed banks; that the
District Agriculture Development Office, Village Development Committee and District
Development Committee should include community seed banks in their regular annual
plans: that subsidies being provided by government programme should not be limited only
to government supported community seed banks; development of rules to register the best
local varieties; subsidies related to seed equipment; provision of incentives to custodian
farmers and inclusion of the topic of agro- biodiversity in the school curriculum.
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Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Lessons learned
Learning from cases
Workshop participants learned from each others’ presentations and the discussions aboout
the concept, typologies, status and implementation modalities of community seed banks,
in Nepal to a large extent and around the globe to some extent. There is no single type of
community seed bank, but a number of core elements can be identified.
Conceptual clarity among workshop participants
Different organizations have different understandings of community seed banks and are
using the term in their own way. The workshop developed a generic defintion of community
seed banks and concluded that plant genetic resources conservation is a central function of
community seed banks. Farmers groups that deal in essence mostly with the production of
seeds of improved varieties could best be labeled as a seed enterprise.
Identification of gaps both in policies and practices
Based on more than 15 years of experience in the country, several gaps and challenges
were identified covering organizational, technical, and policy/legal aspects. This kind of
analysis gives clear direction to community seed banks actors about where their efforts
are needed. In particular, policy gaps and linkages between community seed banks and
the national genebank were well discussed. A suggestion was made to start working on
a ‘national genebanking system’ that would combine in-situ and ex-situ conservation and
serve local and national needs and interests. This suggestion was well received by the
participants.
Short term action plan developed for linking community seed banks with the national
genebank
Community seed banks and the national gene bank can play complementary roles in
managing plant genetic resources, but until now very little interaction has taken place.
This workshop has done something concrete to work on this issue. The chief of the
national genebank readily agreed to take some cencrete steps, such as the development
of contractual arrangements (SMTA/PIC/MAT) and a guide for collecting passport data in
community seed banks by 2012.
Initiation of a platform for collective action
Different NGOs and the government are working on community seed banks but they had never
met to exchange experiences and develop a common agenda. This workshop brought many of
the key actors together to discuss issues of common interest. The Crop Development Directorate
of the Department of Agriculture wishes to work together with NGOs and, vice versa, NGOs
aim to collaborate with the government and the national genebank. It is the beginning
of a shared undertaking towards the strengthening of community seed banks in Nepal.
The road ahead
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
146
Proceeding publication
Given the richness of experiences and lessons learned that have global relevance, it has
been proposed to work on a workshop proceeding publication (in English). The proceeding
would be structured according to the workshop programme and presentations. LI-BIRD
will take the lead in the workshop proceeding publication.
Global proposal
Several important issues have emerged from the workshop on which different partners
can work together. Bioversity International and LI-BIRD will work together to develop a
global proposal and other partners will be invited at an appropriate stage.
National and international links
The workshop generated some concrete ideas to start linking community seed banks to the
national genebank, and, potentially, through the national genebank to the international
genebank system.The organizers of the workshop agreed to work together to move the
policy/legal agenda in support of community seed banks forward. A concrete first step is
the collaboration between the community seed banks and the national genebank towards
the development of a national genebanking system for Nepal.
Evaluation of the workshop
At the end of the workshop, participants were asked to provide feedback in two ways; the
positive aspects of the workshop and suggestions for the organizer. Most of the workshop
participants clearly expressed that the workshop was well organized with good structure
and time management and conducive environment was created for learning, sharing and
discussions. Many of them also mentioned that the workshop was inclusive and represented
multi-sectoral stakeholders and the forum given to farmers was well appreciated, while
the Academia was conspicuous in their absence. They found the content very relevant and
the workshop created a platform for a common understanding of community seed banks
and further action plans.
In terms of suggestions, they pointed out that more participation of farmers especially
women and representation from local government, Ministry of Agriculture Development
and other practitioners of community seed banks would have made it better. Similarly,
they have suggested to organize such workshop on a regular basis to bring experiences
together. As most of the power point presentations were in English, farmers have
suggested to address language barrier by having bi-lingual presentations and distribution
of handouts. They also have suggested to do prompt follow up of the actions identified at
the workshop.
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Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Acknowledgements
Bioversity International, USC Canada Asia, Oxfam Nepal are gratefully acknowledged for
providing support to organize this workshop. Partial funding for this workshop was provided
by the Community-based Biodiversity Management South Asia programme of LI-BIRD,
supported by The Development Fund of Norway, and by the NUS project supported by
the International Fund for Agriculture Development through Bioversity International.
We are thankful to all the presenters and participants from government organizations,
non-governmental organizations and farming communities. We wish to thank all the
collaborating farmers and groups who are managing community seed banks in Nepal and
around the world.
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
148
Workshop participants
Organizing committee
Pitambar Shrestha, Coordinator
Rachana Devkota, Member
Sajal Sthapit, Member
Pashupati Chaudhary, PhD, Member
Ram Bahadur Rana, PhD, Member
Participants from LI-BIRD
Shreeram Prasad Neopane, PhD
Executive Director
LI-BIRD, Pokhara
Email: sneopane@libird.org
Ram Bahadur Rana, PhD
Technical Advisor
LI-BIRD, Pokhara
Email: rbrana@libird.org
Pashupati Chaudhary, PhD
Programme Director
LI-BIRD, Pokhara
Email: pashupatic@hotmail.com
Rachana Devkota
Programme Coordinator
LI-BIRD, Pokhara
Email: rdevkota@libird.org
Suman Sekhar Manandhar
Programme Coordinator
LI-BIRD, Pokhara
Email: smanandhar@libird.org
Sajal Sthapit
Programme Coordinator
LI-BIRD, Pokhara
Email: ssthapit@libird.org
Uttam Khanal
Programme Officer
LI-BIRD, Pokhara
Email: ukhana@libird.org
149
Pitambar Shrestha
Project Officer
LI-BIRD, Pokhara
Email: pitambar@libird.org
Sandesh Neupane
Project Officer
LI-BIRD, Pokhara
Email: sandesh@libird.org
Shanti Ale
Project Officer
LI-BIRD, Pokhara
Email: sale@libird.org
Sachesh Silwal
Project Officer
LI-BIRD, Pokhara
Email: ssilwal@libird.org
Parshuram B.K
Data and System Manager
LI-BIRD, Pokhara
Email: parshu@libird.org
Pratima Rana
Programme Assistant
LI-BIRD, Pokhara
Email: prana@libird.org
Indra Prasad Paudel
Technical Officer
LI-BIRD, Pokhara
Email: ipaudel@libird.org
Participants from USC Canada Asia and its
partners
Pratap Shrestha, PhD
Regional Representative and Scientific
Advisor
USC Canada Asia
Bastolathar, Pokhara,
Email: pshrestha@usc-asia.org
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Bharat Bhandari
Programme Officer
USC Canada Asia,
Bastolathar, Pokhara
Email: bbhandari@usc-asia.org
Dinesh Shrestha
Executive Director
Parivartan Nepal, Hetauda
Email: parivartan@ntc.net.np
Guna Kumar Shrestha
MDO, Kaski
Email: gunak.shrestha@yahoo.com
Dr. Sulav Shrestha
Project Officer
SAHAS-Nepal, Lalitpur
Email: sulav@sahasnepal.org.np
Participants from Oxfam Nepal and its
partners
Mahendra Narayan Mahato
Program Officer,
OXFAM GB, Kathmandu
Email: mmahato@oxfam.org.uk
Safal Subba
Project Officer
OXFAM GB, Kathmandu
Email: ssubba@oxfam.org.uk
Baburam Shrestha
Programme Coordinator
IDeS, Dadeldhura
Email: shrestha177@gmail.com
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
Participants from Bioversity International
Devra Jarvis, PhD
Senior Scientist, Genetic Diversity
Agrobiodiversity and Ecosystem Services
Bioversity International, Rome, Italy
Email: d.jarvis@cgiar.org
Ronnie Vernooy, PhD
Genetic Resource Policy Specialist
Bioversity International, Rome, Italy
Email: r.vernooy@cgiar.org
Bhuwon Sthapit, PhD
In situ Conservation Specialist and
Regional Coordinator
Bioversity International, New Delhi
Email: b.sthapit@cgiar.org
Participants from NARC
Madan Raj Bhatta
Chief
National Agriculture Genetic Resources
(Gene Bank),
Khumaltar, Lalitpur
Email: madan_bhatta@yahoo.com
Devendra Gauchan, PhD
Chief
Socioeconomic and Agriculture Research
Policy Division, NARC, Khumaltar,
Lalitpur
Email: dgauchan11@gmail.com
150
Participants from DoA, RADO and DADO
Participants from community seed banks
Suroj Pokharel, PhD
Programme Director
CDD, DOA
Email: surojpokharel@yahoo.com
Ramekwal Prasad Yadav
Chair person
ADCS, Kachorwa, Bara
Beni Bahadur Basnet
Senior Agriculture Development Officer
DADO, Kaski
Email: benibdr12@hotmail.com
Priyambada Joshi
Crop Development Officer
Crop Development Director, DoA
Email: priyam45@yahoo.com
Rajendra Mishra
Senior Agriculture Development Officer
DADO, Dadeldhura
Email: rajendra_mishra2004@yahoo.com
Rammaya Kadariya
Jounior Technician
Regional Agriculture Directorate, Pokhara
Email: rammaya.kadariya@gmail.com
151
Tek Bahadur Magar
Chair person
CSB, Dadeldhura
Bhagwan Pokharel
Member
Ranibas ARC, Sindhuli
D.B. Bhandari
Chair Person
Sindhu CSB, Sindhupalchok
Email: hariyaliseed@yahoo.com
Krishna Sanjel
Secretary
DCDC, Lalitpur
Email: sanjelkrish@yahoo.com
Krishna Kant Paudel
Member
BCDC, Rampur, Dang
Community Seed Banks in Nepal: Past, Present, Future
ISBN : 978-9937-8145-4-6
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