Hindawi Publishing Corporation
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Volume 2013, Article ID 291903, 46 pages
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/291903
Review Article
The Globalization of Traditional Medicine in Northern Peru:
From Shamanism to Molecules
Rainer W. Bussmann
William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, P.O. Box 299, St. Louis, MO 63166-0299, USA
Correspondence should be addressed to Rainer W. Bussmann; rainer.bussmann@mobot.org
Received 30 August 2013; Accepted 22 October 2013
Academic Editor: Narel Paniagua
Copyright © 2013 Rainer W. Bussmann. his is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Northern Peru represents the center of the Andean “health axis,” with roots going back to traditional practices of Cupisnique culture
(1000 BC). For more than a decade of research, semistructured interviews were conducted with healers, collectors, and sellers of
medicinal plants. In addition, bioassays were carried out to evaluate the eicacy and toxicity of plants found. Most of the 510 species
encountered were native to Peru (83%). Fity percent of the plants used in colonial times have disappeared from the pharmacopoeia.
Market vendors specialized either on common and exotic plants, plants for common ailments, and plants only used by healers or
on plants with magical purposes. Over 974 preparations with up to 29 diferent ingredients were used to treat 164 health conditions.
Almost 65% of the medicinal plants were applied in these mixtures. Antibacterial activity was conirmed in most plants used for
infections. Twenty-four percent of the aqueous extracts and 76% of the ethanolic extracts showed toxicity. Traditional preparation
methods take this into account when choosing the appropriate solvent for the preparation of a remedy. he increasing demand for
medicinal species did not increase the cultivation of medicinal plants. Most species are wild collected, causing doubts about the
sustainability of trade.
1. Introduction
Traditional medicine is used globally and has a rapidly
growing economic importance. In developing countries, traditional medicine is oten the only accessible and afordable
treatment available. In Uganda, for instance, the ratio of traditional practitioners to the population is between 1 : 200 and
1 : 400, while the availability of Western doctors is typically
1 : 20,000 or less. Moreover, doctors are mostly located in
cities and other urban areas and are therefore inaccessible
to rural populations. In Africa, up to 80% of the population
uses Traditional Medicine as the primary healthcare system.
In Latin America, the WHO Regional Oice for the Americas
(AMRO/PAHO) reports that 71% of the population in Chile
and 40% of the population in Colombia have used Traditional
Medicine. In many Asian countries, Traditional Medicine is
widely used, even though Western medicine is oten readily
available. In Japan, 60–70% of allopathic doctors prescribe
traditional medicines for their patients. In China, Traditional
Medicine accounts for about 40% of all healthcare and is used
to treat roughly 200 million patients annually. he number
of visits to providers of complementary-alternative medicine
(CAM) now exceeds by far the number of visits to all primary
care physicians in the US [1–3].
Complementary-Alternative Medicine is becoming more
and more popular in many developed countries. Forty-eight
percent of the population in Australia, 70% in Canada, 42%
in the US, 38% in Belgium, and 75% in France have used
Complementary-Alternative Medicine at least once [4–6]. A
survey of 610 Swiss doctors showed that 46% had used some
form of CAM, mainly homeopathy and acupuncture [7]. In
the United Kingdom, almost 40% of all general allopathic
practitioners ofer some form of CAM referral or access [8].
In the US, a national survey reported the use of at least 1 of
16 alternative therapies increased from 34% in 1990 to 42% in
1997 [9, 10].
he expenses for the use of Traditional and Complementary-Alternative Medicine are exponentially growing in
many parts of the world. In Malaysia, an estimated US $500
million is spent annually on Traditional Medicine, compared
to about US $300 million on allopathic medicine. he 1997
2
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
out-of-pocket Complementary-Alternative Medicine expenditure was estimated at US $2,700 million in the USA.
In Australia, Canada, and the United Kingdom, annual
Complementary-Alternative Medicine expenditure is estimated at US $80 million, US $2,400 million, and US $2300
million, respectively. he world market for herbal medicines
based on traditional knowledge was estimated at US $60,000
million in the late 1990s [11]. A decade later, it was around
US $60 billion [12] with estimates for 2015 at US $90 billion
[13]. he sales of herbs and herbal nutritional supplements in
the US increased to 101% between May 1996 and May 1998.
he most popular herbal products included Ginseng (Ginkgo
biloba), Garlic (Allium sativum), Echinacea spp., and St. John’s
wort (Hypericum perforatum) [11].
Traditional and complementary-alternative medicine are
gaining more and more respect by national governments and
health providers. Peru’s National Program in Complementary Medicine and the Pan American Health Organization
recently compared Complementary Medicine to allopathic
Medicine in clinics and hospitals operating within the Peruvian Social Security System. A total of 339 patients—170 being
treated with Complementary-Alternative Medicine and 169
with allopathic medicine—were followed for one year. Treatments for osteoarthritis; back pain; neurosis; asthma; peptic
acid disease; tension and migraine headache; and obesity
were analyzed. he results, with 95% signiicance, showed
that the cost of using Complementary-Alternative Medicine
was less than the cost of using Western therapy. In addition,
for each of the criteria evaluated—clinical eicacy, user
satisfaction, and future risk reduction—ComplementaryAlternative Medicine’s eicacy was higher than that of conventional treatments, including fewer side efects, higher
perception of eicacy by both the patients and the clinics,
and a 53–63% higher cost eiciency of ComplementaryAlternative Medicine over that of conventional treatments for
the selected conditions [14].
According to WHO [3], the most important challenges for Traditional Medicine/Complementary-Alternative
Medicine for the next years are as follows.
(i) Research into safe and efective Traditional Medicine
and Complementary Alternative Medicine treatments for diseases that represent the greatest burden,
particularly among poorer populations.
(ii) Recognition of the role of Traditional Medicine
practitioners in providing healthcare in developing
countries.
(iii) Optimized and upgraded skills of Traditional
Medicine practitioners in developing countries.
(iv) Protection and preservation of the knowledge of
indigenous Traditional Medicine.
(v) Sustainable cultivation of medicinal plants.
(vi) Reliable information for consumers on the proper
use of Traditional Medicine and ComplementaryAlternative Medicine therapies and products.
Dr. Manuel Fernández, National Subdirector of Peru’s
Instituto Nacional de Medicina Tradicional (INMETRA), in
the 90s delineates problems related to the production of
phytopharmaceuticals in Peru.
(i) Lack of national policies.
(ii) Absence of state and local policies that include medicinal plants.
(iii) Lack of support by the state.
(iv) Lack of support from the medical establishment.
(v) Ignorance of the beneits of the phytopharmaceutical
industry.
(vi) Limited human and technical resources.
(vii) Lack of technical knowledge for the production of
herbal products.
(viii) Ignorance of methods and processes of quality control
and standardization.
(ix) Problems in obtaining quality materia prima in adequate quantities and predatory collecting.
(x) Absence of conservation policies implementing cultivation of herbals under best conditions.
(xi) Limited research in ethnobotany, agrotechnology,
pharmacy, and therapeutic validation.
(xii) Lack of legal parameters for sanitary controls and
commercialization of herbal products.
(xiii) Vested interests of the pharmaceutical industry minimizing the importance of herbs which are not the
product of their own research and development.
Dr. Fernández also discusses a decreasing trend in Latin
American consumption of medicinal products from 8% of
global consumption in 1980 to 5% in 1990. He attributes
this reduction to decreased government distribution of free
medicines to the poor, concentrated wealth in a few hands,
and increased poverty. Another factor is the fact that developed nations spend a much higher percentage of GDP on
medicines (6–8%) than developing nations (1-2%) where it
is estimated that 2/3s of medicines purchased are paid for
by the patients. And per capita spending is much higher
in developed nations compared with developing countries,
for example, Japan: US $276; Germany: US $148; USA: US
$128; Argentina: US $42; Uruguay US $40; Paraguay: US $18;
Brazil: US $10.5; and Bolivia US $4. here are no igures for
Peru, but it is estimated to be slightly above the amount for
Bolivia. Overall, it is estimated that 50% of the population of
Latin America has little or no access to medicines and that a
large portion of these people use medicinal plants.
An innovative response to the challenges listed above has
been developed by the Centro de Medicina Andina (CMA)
founded in Cuzco in 1984 as an autonomous branch of the
Instituto Pastoral Andina (IPA). Started by Catholic healthcare workers with extensive experience in Quechua communities, CMA’s pragmatic methodology involves “mutual training” between health care professionals, community health
promoters, curanderos, and midwives. For them, the rhetorical question is “Who knows all of the richness of Andean
medicine better than the peasant himself, the specialistpractitioner of this medicine?”
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Objectives of the Centro up to 1992 were “(1) Advance
a health system favoring the majority of the community
where Natural-Popular Medicine and modern medicine are
complementary. (2) By means of study and application of
Natural-Popular Medicine, create a scientiic basis for its
development.” Revised objectives since 1992 are “(1) Valorize and rescue Andean Medicine in order to contribute
to better utilization and recognition within a system of
alternative health available to a majority of the population.
(2) Investigate, experiment, and disseminate the experiences
and knowledge of Andean Medicine. (3) Encourage debate,
exchange, and coordination between people and institutions
working in the ield of Natural-Popular Medicine. (4) Rescue
Andean and “Andeanized” foods to improve food consumption.”
CMA’s programs include the following. (1) Education:
“Peasant to peasant” training of community health promoters
and women’s groups in cooperation with local universities
and the Ministry of Health. (2) Medicine and Medical Anthropology: epidemiological and regional health-status diagnoses,
evaluation of traditional therapies, and ethnography and
publication of aspects of Andean culture and “cosmovision.”
(3) Ethnobotany and Phytotherapy: collection and identiication of 3,740 plants and development of an Herbarium and
certiied laboratory leading to the production and commercialization of six natural medicines.
Northern Peru represents the “health axis” of the old
Central Andean cultural area stretching from Ecuador to
Bolivia. he traditional use of medicinal plants in this region,
which encompasses in particular the Departments of Piura,
Lambayeque, La Libertad, Cajamarca, Amazonas, and San
Martin, possibly dates back as far as to the irst millennium
B.C. (north coastal Cupisnique Culture) or at least to the
Moche period (A.D. 100–800), with healing scenes and
healers frequently depicted in ceramics.
Precedents for this study have been established by early
colonial period chroniclers [15–18]; the plant collections (293
plants in crates 11 and 12 of 24) of Bishop Baltasar Jaime
Martı́nez Compañón sent to the Palacio Real de Madrid along
with cultural materials in 1789 under the title Trujillo del
Perú in 9 illustrated volumes [19–21]; the travel journals of
H. Ruiz from 1777 to 1788 [22]; the work of Italian naturalist
Antonio Raimondi [23]; ethnoarchaeological analysis of the
psychedelic San Pedro cactus [24]; curandera depictions in
Moche ceramics [25], and research on the medicinal plants
of Southern Ecuador [26–29].
2. Antecedents: Medicinal Plant Research and
Traditional Medicine in Peru
Containing 78 of the 107 ecoregions of the world, in 1993, it
was estimated that Peru had 17,143 taxa of spermatophytes
in 2,485 genera and 224 families [30]. It is thought that only
60% of the Peruvian lora has been studied, with 1,400 species
described as medicinal [31].
he importance of biodiversity for the Peruvian economy
is enormous since 25% of all exports are living species, the
uses of which are essential to local populations in terms of
3
irewood, meat, lumber, medicinal plants, and many other
products. Of particular importance are vegetal species, with
5,000 plants applied in 49 diferent uses. Of the 5,000 plants
in use, some 4,400 are native; only 600 are introduced. he
majority of useful native species are not cultivated; only 222
can be considered to be domesticated or semidomesticated
[32].
Transculturation is resulting in an enormous loss of
traditional knowledge of great value to the science and
technology of Peru. he lora of the country represents 10%
of the world’s total, of which 30% is endemic. Peru is the ith
country in the world in number of plant species with known
properties utilized by the population (4,400 species); it is the
irst in domesticated native species (182) [31].
In all Peruvian ethnic groups, plant knowledge is invaluable because it reinforces national identity and values, which
are being lost in the complementary processes of modernization and globalization. In the current situation, the emerging
recognition and incipient application of these resources and
associated knowledge emphatically underscore the critical
need for ethnobotanical research in light of the following
facts.
(i) Absorption and devaluing of native culture due to
modernization and globalization.
(ii) At the same time, recuperation/revalorization of traditional knowledge of Peruvian lora.
(iii) Emerging “irst world” awareness of the therapeutic
potential of medicinal plants.
(iv) Recent ethnobotanical research by a growing number
of Peruvian scholars [33].
In Sinopsis histórica de la Etnobotánica en el Perú, La
Torre and Albán Castillo [34] outline the history of formal
loristic studies in Peru starting in 1778 with the work of
Hipólito Ruiz, José Pavón, and Joseph Dombey followed by
Alexander von Humboldt and Aime Bonpland. Other early
botanical explorers include Raimondi [23], Larco Herrera
[35], Valdizan and Maldonado [36], Soukop [37], López et al.
[38], Chavez (1977), de Ferreira [39, 40], and Duke and
Vásquez [41]. However, it was John Harshberger who used
the term ethnobotany for the irst time in Peru while Juana
Infantes actually established the discipline at the Universidad
Nacional Mayor de San Marcos in 1945 [34].
Considerable progress has been made in the overall taxonomic treatment of the lora of Peru over the last few decades
[36]. However, while the Amazon rainforests have received
a great deal of scientiic attention, the mountain forests and
remote highland areas are still relatively unexplored. Until the
late 1990s little work had been done on vegetation structure,
ecology, and ethnobotany in the mountain forests and coastal
areas of the north. In spite of the fact that this region is
the core of what Peruvian anthropologist Lupe Camino [42]
calls the “health axis” of Central Andean ethnomedicine,
little ethnobotanical and ethnomedical research has been
published on the rich lora found here.
Early ethnobotanically oriented studies focused mainly
on the famous “magical” and “mind altering” lora of Peru. A
irst study on “cimora”—another vernacular name for the San
4
Pedro cactus—dates back to the 1940’s [43]. he irst detailed
study of a hallucinogen in Peru focused on the San Pedro
cactus (Echinopsis pachanoi) [44, 45]. A variety of works
including some on the “Daturas” (Brugmansia spp.) followed
by [46–50] Coca (Erythroxylum coca) also attracted early
scientiic attention [51–56], as did the Amazonian Ayahuasca
(Banisteriopsis caapi) [56–59]. Chiappe et al. [60] were the
irst to attempt an overview on the use of hallucinogens in
shamanistic practices in Peru. More comprehensive accounts
followed [61, 62].
In his classical study of Uña de Gato, Peru’s leading
advocate for Traditional Medicine and Founding Director of
the Instituto Nacional de Medicina Tradicional del Ministerio
de Salud, Fernando Cabieses [63] pointed out that the work of
the Peruvian scholars Valdizán and Maldonado [36] was the
pioneering efort in studying Traditional Medicine, leading to
the emergence of medical anthropology nearly ive decades
later. In the interim, the botanical exploration of Peruvian
lora and medicinal plants in particular included studies
by Yacovlef and Larco-Herrera [64, 65]; Weberbauer [65];
Towle [66]; and Valdivia [67]. Most authors [35, 37, 40,
64–69] focused on Quechua herbalism of the Cuzco area.
Other comprehensive studies were centered on the border
region of Peru and Bolivia around Lake Titicaca [70–75] and
the Amazon [41, 76–78] while Cabieses [79] wrote a major
tract on Traditional Medicine. Detailed studies of Uña de
Gato [63], Maca [80], and Sangre de Drago [81] were also
carried out. Northern Peru, in contrast, was always in the
shadow of more touristically important regions, attracting
little scholarly attention until recently [82–87].
During the 1970s, the World Health Organization (WHO)
was very proactive in advocating the integration of Traditional Medicine into public health programs in third world
countries. his culminated in the Alma Ata Declaration of
1978, which proclaimed “health for all in the year 2000” [88].
Cabieses [63] described his struggles to implement the UN
tenets in Peru, together with Seguin [89, 90] who advocated
the incorporation of traditional folk psychotherapy into the
modern institutional framework. In 1979, they organized
the First World Congress of Traditional Medicine to build
on the Alma Ata Declaration. As a result of coming up
with such a “hair-brained” (descabellada) notion, they were
nearly expelled from the prestigious Colegio Médico del Perú.
In addition, Peru’s Minister of Public Health declined the
invitation to participate in the inaugural ceremonies. In spite
of these setbacks, the congress was a resounding success with
participants from 23 countries and sessions in Lima, Iquitos,
and Cuzco. Few medical doctors attended, however. Peru’s
negative response to WHO initiatives contrasts markedly
with that of Mexico where, in 1975, President Echeverrı́a
established the Mexican Institute for the Study of Medicinal
Plants (IMEPLAM), inaugurating an era of oicial recognition of Traditional Medicine. Abigail Aguilar, Director
of Mexico’s National Herbarium, underscores the positive
impact of WHO: “What happens is that no one studies
what they have. Everyone devalues what they have, especially
in countries like Mexico where we’ve been conquered and
have had another culture imposed on us. . . So in the case
of Mexico, there’s a historic complex in which everything
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
that smelled of plants was worth nothing. Academic medical
researchers weren’t very interested in that kind of resource. . .
until they heard what the WHO said in the 1970s. hat took
hold in many countries, it deinitely took hold here. . . because
IMEPLAM was already in place” [91].
Building on the success of the irst conference, in 1988, Dr.
Cabieses presided over the second congress. his time things
were diferent, with 4,000 participants from 41 countries. he
Minister of Public Health, the Dean of the Colegio Médico,
and the Mayor of Lima all participated in the inauguration
ceremony, along with a long list of university authorities. Published acts of the congress included important contributions
on the medicinal lora of Peru [92] and for the Southern
Andes [73]. Subsequent publications of note included the
southern highlands of Peru [69, 74] and the Peruvian Amazon
region [41, 93].
While he was Director of the National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Cabieses was instrumental in coordinating
a network of 16 ethnobotanical gardens in Peru, which
included the cultivation of medicinal plants used by traditional herbalists [94]. He also facilitated scientiic research on
Traditional Medicine building a large database of herbs and
monographs on 200 species of medicinal plants. In 2001, a
new administration discontinued these innovative programs.
In his last years, from his position as Rector of the
Universidad Cientifı́ca del Sur, Cabieses (2007) published his
magnum opus on medicine in ancient Peru. He was also
a strong critic of Peru’s apathy regarding protection of its
biocultural resources. In his book Hoy y Ayer: Las Plantas
Medicinales [95], he reviewed the lamentable history of
medicinal plant legislation in Peru throughout the 1990s. He
pointed out that the nation followed the recommendations of
the US Food and Drug Administration (US FDA), which he
saw as totally inapplicable, a situation traceable to the “bicultural” nature of Peruvian society where the oicial scientiic
world view predominates over traditional “cosmovision.” his
was occurring in spite of the fact that, since the 1970s,
WHO has repeatedly formulated and reined guidelines
for appropriate protection and sustainable development of
medicinal plant resources and associated knowledge. Most of
these recommendations were systematically ignored by the
Peruvian Government. Bringing a personal perspective to
bear on this matter, Cabieses (page 118) quoted a Peruvian
Minister of Public Health who stated that medicinal plants
and Traditional Medicine “aren’t worth a thing” and that their
study was “a waste of money and efort.” He ended his book
(page 120) by contrasting the renewed European interest in
medicinal plants with the Peruvian attitude
“But here in Peru it’s diferent. he lack of
information and eicient research, education, and
medical practice regarding the use of medicinal
plants aggravate the fact that more than nine
million human beings, a third of our population,
in efect have as their only medical resource. . . the
vegetal resources that surround them. he great
unknown in our public health system is why so
many physicians go to such lengths to exclude
from their therapeutic activity the only resource
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
that can control the sufering—not to mention
the ailments—of such an important sector of our
population.”
In the irst decade of the 2000s—although little had
been done to protect and sustainably develop these valuable
natural resources and associated knowledge—increasingly
unfettered access was being granted to foreign pharmaceutical corporations. In 2004, a forum organized by the Peruvian
Congress and the Sociedad Peruana de Derecho Ambiental
(SPDA), an NGO dealing with environmental law, pointed
out that foreign patent applications were pending or granted
for 19 Peruvian plants and that the government was not
making resources available to determine if the patents or
claims met the requirements of patent law [96]. Adding insult
to injury, on 28 March 2009, Somos, the news magazine of the
prestigious daily El Comercio reported that, under the terms
of the Peruvian-North American Free Trade Agreement,
claims by American pharmaceutical companies were to be
granted “exclusive protection” for alleged “new products”
regardless of whether or not they qualiied or had prior
licenses or patents [97]. Seguin and Cabieses would turn in
their graves!
A classic example of one hand not knowing what the
other is doing was revealed on 16 July 2009 when Portillo
[98] reported that Peru had denied patents to companies
from France, Japan, South Korea, and the US on the grounds
that their products were developed using traditional knowledge. he denials emanated from the Peruvian National
Commission Against Biopiracy advocated in the Peruvian
Congressional Forum of 2004. However, the Portillo article
ended with a quote from Michel Pimbert of the International
Institute for Environment and Development: “It would be
naı̈ve to think that national governments would automatically
share beneits with local communities when biopiracy is
prevented or compensation obtained.” hat said, in 2009,
the public health section of Peru’s social security system
(EsSalud) inaugurated a pilot program to prescribe medicinal
plants in three of its centers for Complementary Medicine in
Lima, Arequipa, and Trujillo [99].
3. Issues in the Globalization of
Traditional Medicine
Moran et al. [100] trace the emergence of biodiversity
prospecting. On 5 June 1992, in order to alleviate the loss
of earth’s lora and fauna, the Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD) was inaugurated at the UN Earth Summit
in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. CBD objectives are (1) conservation
of biodiversity, (2) sustainable use of components of biodiversity, and (3) equitable sharing of beneits derived from
commercial use of genetic resources.
For biodiversity-rich developing countries, the most critical element in the CBD is sovereignty over bioresources
by nation states, since the treaty recognizes their right to
regulate and charge outsiders for access to their biodiversity.
he sovereignty component is meant to replace the “common
heritage” paradigm, which provides unrestricted access to
biological resources. Ideally this paradigm shit is supposed
5
to balance the way in which all involved interest groups
can gain from biodiversity use by recognizing the economic,
sociocultural, and environmental values of bioresources and
the cost of their preservation.
In the time since the CBD was initiated, few of the 178
signatory nations have introduced legislation requiring beneit sharing for outside commercial access to their national
bioresources, although some suggestions for implementation
of the CBD have been brought forward [101, 102]. Despite the
lukewarm response to the CBD by nation states, the global
shit in awareness concerning tropical deforestation provided
an opportunity for ethnobotanists to assert that everyone has
an interest in preserving rainforests because they might contain compounds that could cure cancer, HIV-AIDS, and other
diseases [103–107]. In addition, income derived from the
marketing of traditional medicinal knowledge was seen as an
instrument to alleviate poverty and to inance conservation
eforts [108–110]. Within a few years, however, for its critics,
ethnobotany—initially seen as instrument that could help to
salvage declining traditional knowledge and biodiversity—
had simply become an instrument of thet and “biopiracy.”
In his book Who Owns Native Culture? anthropologist
Brown [107] has a chapter entitled “he Ethnobotany Blues”
which documents high-proile projects launched in Africa
and Latin America in the early 1990s. hey were organized
under the U.S. initiative known as the International Cooperative Biodiversity Groups (ICBG), administered by the
Fogarty International Center for Advanced Study in Health
Sciences, part of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), with
additional funding from the National Science Foundation
(NSF) and the U.S. Agency for International Development
(USAID). Projects involved partnerships between American
and host-country scientists as well as major drug companies,
including Monsanto, Bristol-Myers Squibb, and American
Cyanamid. Brown describes ICBG-Peru’s troubled relationship between the Aguaruna of the Peruvian Amazon and
Washington University (St. Louis), criticizing “paternalistic
interventions that leave native peoples on the margins of
decision-making and proit-taking” (page 114). In Mexico, he
documents how ICBG-Maya was shut down by an indigenous
healers’ organization and their activist allies on the grounds
that it was an efort to steal native knowledge and resources.
And he traces the failure of Shaman Pharmaceuticals, a
California company which folded in 1999, in trying to
adapt ethnobotanical bioprospecting to the “magic-bullet”
paradigm of the pharmaceutical industry.
In the late 1990s, anthropologist Hayden [91] conducted
an ethnography of an ICBG bioprospecting agreement inaugurated in 1993 between the University of Arizona and
its pharmaceutical partners (whose contribution was a discount on the use of their equipment!) and a team of plant
researchers at Mexico’s National Autonomous University
(UNAM) headed by ethnobotanist Robert Bye. Under the
agreement, UNAM researchers sent extracts of Mexican
medicinal plants to the US in exchange for research funds
and promises of a percentage of royalties 10 to 20 years in
the future—should a drug result from the collaboration. he
project was also designed to collect ethnobotanical knowledge and to direct some royalties back to source communities.
6
It concluded in 2003 when UNAM opted out of a second
renewal.
Hayden elucidates the complex issues that emerged
during the project, in particular the paradoxical efects of
NIH’s advocacy of beneit-sharing according to the neoliberal paradigm of bioprospecting. For NIH, this meant that
ield researchers were supposed to sign contracts with each
individual supplier of plants. Suppliers—and, by implication,
their communities—were presumed to be “authors” and
“stewards” of resources as well as future beneit recipients.
For UNAM ethnobotanists, drawing on a well-established
research methodology, this meant collecting initial plant
species from urban marketplaces and rural roadsides, a major
disruption of a fundamental bioprospecting assumption that
plants and knowledge “come with” clearly identiied local
stewards, authors, and claimants.
In stark contrast with the ICBG approach, there is the
Mexican Institute for Social Security (IMSS) model put into
practice at its Southern Center for Biomedical Research
(CIBIS) in Cuernavaca and focused on the production of
herbal medicines. On 20 February 1997, Hayden [91] interviewed Miguel Antinori, a prominent CIBIS oicial who
denigrated bioprospecting agreements for using Mexico’s
chemists as “cheap labor” and for sending extracts abroad
for “more sophisticated” work. Further, he added, “It’s hard
to see an assertion of [Mexican] national identity in these
contexts—up north, they just see Mexico as a source of raw
material and certainly not as research partners or collaborators. Why do not they locate more of the development part
here? Because they do not trust Mexican science.”
Former Shaman Pharmaceuticals scientists Moran et al.
[100] discuss the irony in the situations described above, indicating that the majority of the biotech industry is not involved
in bioprospecting, since most companies favor the use of
cheaper and faster synthetic technologies over the complex
process involved in exploring for natural products. Nonetheless, biotechnology spawns ethical, social, and legal debates at
the margins of pharmaceutical bioprospecting, including the
collaboration between big business and big science, the ethics
of genetic engineering, and the patentability of life forms as
well as ideas about genetics and racism, culture, and ethnicity.
However, it is signiicant to note that, since the inauguration of the CBD, no pharmaceutical bioprospecting product
developed by using traditional knowledge has generated an
economic proit. (But this does not mean that pharmaceutical
companies do not try to impede or coopt eforts to get natural
plant products to market.) Also, only a small number of bioprospecting research expeditions begin by using ethnobotany
as a discovery methodology, with the work soon evolving into
economic botany as the laboratory focus shits to the plant’s
chemistry, biological activity, and pharmacology/toxicology.
During drug discovery, active chemical components are
isolated, oten modiied, and patented. Patented information
then becomes a commodity in itself.
Peruvian pharmaceutical researcher Angulo [111] discusses new approaches to research on medicinal plants contrasting Western and Eastern methodologies. For example,
while the West does not value popular wisdom and usage
developed over centuries by local cultures, the east uses this
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
knowledge as a paradigmatic base for its model of science.
While the West has exclusively followed the Cartesian model
of scientiic skepticism, Eastern pragmatism, building on
tradition, has formalized usage and then applied the methods
of modern science. While the West has ignored traditional
knowledge in designing artiicial studies that isolate chemical
components and evaluate their toxicity and bioactivity to
later take inished products into clinical settings, the East
has followed an inverse strategy, that is, valuing traditional
knowledge by applying original remedies and therapies in the
medical clinic and then subjecting those that work to biochemical research and development. While the West followed
a basic research paradigm of random screening, component
analysis, and synthesis, the East recognized the holistic
action of herbal medicines in seeking ways to industrialize
them. As a result of the foregoing factors, Western science
has developed economic botany, which uses a methodology
of chemical taxonomy based on the assumption that only
by knowing the chemistry of plants we can discover their
active principles and bioactivity. his has led to the current
emphasis on synthetic chemistry for the development of
modern medicines.
Angulo (page 363) points out that, by uncritically following the Western model for biochemical research promoted by
large European and American pharmaceutical corporations,
Peru has acquiesced to the notion that countries like Peru and
Mexico lack the technical and economic resources necessary
to compete with foreign consortiums. As a result, these countries, for the most part, have denigrated their own indigenous
knowledge and neglected the development of viable national
research programs in ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology.
Joining Elisabetsky and Castilhos [104], Angulo suggests that
“Traditional medicine should be the basis for the
development of drugs, given that it includes the
knowledge of the therapeutic value of local lora.
hus, knowledge of the practices of Traditional
Medicine plays a crucial role in the selection of
species to subsequently be considered as potential
sources of universally applicable drugs. Elisabetsky and Castilhos concludes that the interaction
between anthropology and ethnopharmacology is
the basis on which should be developed the holistic
investigation of medicinal plants in particular and
healthcare in general.”
We would only add that applied research on natural plant
remedies should also be on the national agendas of Peru and
neighboring republics.
Manek and Lettington [112] point out that by focusing
on indigenous knowledge as it relates to the environment,
the convention on biological diversity managed to sidestep
some of the more politically charged aspects of the intellectual
property rights (IPR) issue. he greatest impact on concerns
over indigenous and local community rights can be traced to
the mercurial rise of biotechnology on the international trade
front and the 1995 version of the World Trade Organization
(WTO) Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual
Property Rights (TRIPS). hese two factors have created a
large potential market for indigenous and local knowledge
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
and resources, while at the same time raising concerns about
the risk that these resources will be misappropriated. hus,
this knowledge is receiving increasing international attention
in terms of its relationship to human rights as well as its
relevance to modern science. he situation has created opposing pressures calling for the rights of local and indigenous
peoples on the one hand and further exploitation of their
knowledge on the other. Moran et al. [100], Manek and
Lettington [112], and Greaves [113] indicate that the biggest
problem with the orthodox intellectual property system is its
focus on material aspects of knowledge at the expense of the
cultural. hey advocate recognition of alternative worldviews
in the formulation of new indigenous knowledge rights that
are localized, relevant, pertinent, and efective.
In their article in Cultural Survival Quarterly, Bannister
and Barrett [114] contend that bioprospecting is a form of
economic botany that can run contrary to the ethnobotanical
objectives of protecting biological and cultural diversity. he
economic focus of this activity highlights issues concerning indigenous rights, cultural knowledge, and traditional
resources—areas in which current intellectual property protection regimes are inadequate and inappropriate. However,
indigenous communities are increasingly forced to employ
intellectual property rights to protect these resources. Protection issues ought to be addressed well before the point at
which employing intellectual property mechanisms seems to
be the only alternative. Signiicant control lies at the point of
decision about publication and dissemination of knowledge
to the wider community, which raises important questions
about facilitating the appropriation of cultural knowledge.
he authors (page 10) advocate a more “precautionary”
approach to ethnobotanical inquiry in assisting indigenous
communities in protecting their cultural heritage and intellectual property rights.
Probably the major concern in many traditional communities is that their spiritual legacies will be profaned by
a secularized and consumer-driven outside world. Oten,
however, legitimate economic considerations also play a role
in the defensive reactions of these societies to the wellintended but naı̈ve desire of the academic world to place
its indings in the public domain. Greaves et al. [113, 114]
have warned that the downside in this approach is that a
“colonializing archive” can become easily “mined” for clues
in the search for new drugs without the inconvenience of
ieldwork or inclusion of source communities in the beneits
derived from products resulting from research.
However, despite acknowledging genuine concerns about
neocolonialism and biopiracy, we would submit that each
situation has to be considered on its own merits, especially
with regard to its speciic cultural context. A irst step in
the evaluation process should involve the important distinction between “indigenous peoples” and “local communities”
[100]. he latter for the most part is farmers who speak
the national language, practice the majority religion, and
identify with the nation state, especially with regard to their
socioeconomic aspirations, whereas the former tends to be
tribal and/or ethnic minorities, who seek collective rights and
self-determination for their biological and cultural resources.
Although it is oten the case that in both communities
7
traditional knowledge and resources are undocumented and
in danger of disappearing, this danger tends to be more
pressing in local communities as their members continue
to adapt to privatization and globalization. In cases such
as this successful ethnobotanical intervention, is required
a methodology that combines “salvage ethnography” with
“rapid assessment”. his is the methodology that we initially
applied in Peru, motivated by our prior experience in Southern Ecuador where traditional knowledge of medicinal plants
similar to those found in Northern Peru is diminishing at an
alarming rate. However, with our database irmly established
as a research vehicle, we can now turn our attention to
facilitating proactive issues of education, conservation, and
sustainable development of natural plant products.
India provides a positive example of the proactive application of this approach. Taking advantage of the “novelty”
criterion in international patent law, with regard to the
documentation of Ayurvedic and other traditional medicine,
millennial Sanskrit texts as well as modern publications
are included in a traditional knowledge database, which is
subsequently provided to patent agencies. he expectation
is that, by placing the knowledge about long-term cultural
precedents for traditional uses in the public domain, this
research will prove that contemporary patent applications
derived from local medicinal knowledge lack originality that
is that they are not “novel” enough to qualify as inventions
warranting protection under international patent law and are
thus not patentable.
Fortunately, in 2002, with the support of the International Phyto-Genetic Resource Institute (Rome, Italy), Peru
promulgated Law 27811 for the protection of the collective knowledge of indigenous peoples related to biological
resources. Article 17 of the law establishes a National Public
Register to include collective knowledge that is in the public
domain. his register is administered by National Institute of
Competitive Defense and Intellectual Property (INDECOPI),
with the obligation to send the information recorded to
principal patent oices around the world, a protective defense
mechanism intended to prevent the granting of patents which
do not meet the criteria of novelty and degree of inventiveness
[96, 115].
As noted earlier, Peru has also activated the Peruvian
National Commission Against Biopiracy. In the Congressional Forum of 2004, which led to the formation of the
Commission, a number of important issues were addressed,
including intellectual property, the high protein cereal
Quinoa and biopiracy, passage of the law for the protection
of Peruvian biodiversity and the collective knowledge of
indigenous peoples, and eforts to annul the US patent for the
virility stimulant Maca as well as suggestions for combating
biopiracy [116]. Briely noted was the issue of genetically
modiied foods, anticipated as a concern that was likely to
emerge with approval of a free trade agreement with the US
[116]. When the Commission was legally mandated, later in
2004, 19 plant claims were slated for review. By 2010, claims
for 69 plants were being researched, 17 cases of biopiracy had
been identiied, and seven (from France, Japan, and South
Korea) had been successfully blocked. One hopes that in all
8
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
these deliberations the following remarks by forum panelist
Agurto [117] will be borne in mind:
“he problem underlying biopiracy is the open
recognition of the rights of the indigenous peoples
and communities. Many times they have been
excluded and marginalized from the politics of
Government. Even today we encounter members of Congress who are either unaware of the
existence of indigenous peoples or who do not
recognize their rights. It is impossible to speak
of biopiracy if we do not defend the holders of
many genetic resources, those who have achieved
the domestication, knowledge, and technology
to utilize biodiversity in a sustainable fashion.
hey are also the holders of the right to prior
informed consent, a fundamental right to know
the objectives of the exploration and exploitation
of their resources and traditional knowledge and
the consequences or potential beneits that can
come with industrial, commercial or scientiic
uses.”
Spanish anthropologist Abad [118] concludes in her book
Ethnocide and Resistance in the Peruvian Amazon that foreign and domestic development policies contribute to the
marginalization of indigenous people:
“Underdeveloped, developing, hird World,
North-South. . ., perhaps the language has been
changing in these times and the terminology
has been adapting itself to partially new habits,
but the unequal, hierarchical reality remains
the same, given that those who exercise power
continue to be the same. International assistance
also keeps promoting unequal development
between peoples.”
4. Biodiversity Conservation and
Traditional Medicine
A policy report, Biodiversity, Traditional Knowledge and Community Health: Strengthening Linkages, published by the
United Nations University, Institute of Advanced Studies in
Yokohama, Japan, addresses many of the issues discussed
above [119]. Building on the WHO Alma Ata Declaration
of 1978 related to Traditional Medicine and primary health
care, the UN Convention on Biological Diversity of 1992,
and the UN’s Middle Development Goals (MDGs) of 2011,
this document shows that links between Traditional Medicine
and biodiversity are strengthened by three processes: (1) a
medical approach involving national eforts to integrate Traditional Medicine into institutional healthcare delivery which
includes challenges related to safety, quality, eicacy, access,
and regulation; (2) a market-oriented approach focused on
drug development or tourism promotion focused on biomedical products and services as marketable commodities; and
(3) a community-focused approach activated by civil society
organizations focused on conservation implemented through
a grassroots mobilization process involving health professionals, botanists, conservationists, and community activists.
he community-based approach shows allegiance to the
Alma Ata primary health care model. Examples include the
barefoot doctors strategy in China and the social health
activist programs in India. Given the centrality of biodiversity
in human lives, there is still a need to develop sustainable
strategies for health maintenance combined with conservation of biological resources linked to local knowledge
and practices. his is relevant even in developed countries
where there is an increasing demand for alternative and
complementary medicine.
At the beginning of the UNU report in a “Message from
the Director,” Govindan Parayil (page 6) assesses progress
towards the CBD agenda of a global development path that
is sustainable, equitable, environmentally just, and economically rewarding. He sees that the prognosis is not encouraging. Progress has been made, but we still are falling far short
in even sustaining current levels of well-being. “Negative
environmental trends continue to be exacerbated by human
interventions—primarily led by a model of unsustainable
and conspicuous consumption.” He adds: “he extraordinary
emphasis on developing produced capital appears to have
overwhelmed all other aspects of natural capital required for
our well-being.”
On the positive side, Parayil notes increased awareness
of the gap between planning and implementation. Welcome
signs of change include “increasing resolve to align production activities with environmental and equity considerations”
as well as “eforts aimed at reforming global institutional
structures to create more synergies and efective implementation of relevant policies.” He concludes
“Current accepted standards of practice and business norms must be re-oriented to include a more
consultative policy setting with all major actor
representatives. [his] would require designing
regulations that acknowledge the need for balance
among all forms of capital, and incentives that
provide equitable access to resources and services.”
he UNU policy report documents 30 successful community-based projects from around the world. Despite their
success in inding workable solutions to meet conservation
and primary health care needs, the scale of operation of these
programs has not been enhanced or expanded. his is due to a
number of factors listed in the report, some of which include
the following.
(i) here is a clear need to include ecological, conservation, and sociocultural factors in goal-setting related
to health and development programs.
(ii) High external dependency, especially in pharmaceuticals and medical technologies, disincentivizes local
innovations in Traditional Medicine and healthcare.
(iii) hrough a top-down health care approach, societies
have organized themselves to be more disease-centric
(with supporting institutions, research, industry, government departments, strategies, and programs) than
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
wellness-centric. A paradigm shit in the mind set as
well as in systems and structures to wellness (prevention/promotion) is a challenge, yet essential. For this
to occur, internalization (not mere awareness) and
implementation are essential.
(iv) Traditional health promotion and related conservation schemes focused chiely on medicinal plants have
been seen more as avenues for economic development
and hence expected to become self-supporting. . . To
realize self-suiciency, costs of delivery of various
related services from resource collection to distribution and infrastructure to identify and support healers
need to be thought out comprehensively. here is a
critical need for innovative approaches for funding
mechanisms in this area.
(v) At the policy level, there appears to be a tendency
towards nonrealistic target setting. Implementation
mechanisms for such targets still rely primarily on
formal mainstream processes such as modern infrastructure and trained doctors, while including and
appropriately training specialists outside the “modern” realm of training, especially at the community
health worker level, might have hastened the processes to achieve various goals. A relexive learning
approach to development is especially important in
this context where no single knowledge system has
suicient conceptual, theoretical, or practical authority in addressing health challenges.
(vi) While attempts to document and protect traditional
medical knowledge in searchable and other inventories are important in terms of defensively protecting
such knowledge from misappropriation, eforts to use
such knowledge to augment community health are
still insuicient. Attempts to open such inventories
for research purposes still play into mainstream drug
development processes—more than local healthcare.
his stymies eforts to use and expand such initiatives
to provide better community and public healthcare.
(vii) High erosion of traditional knowledge and lack of
perceived support for traditional health practitioners
have evidently led to a decrease in the receptivity to
and transfer of all aspects of such knowledge between
generations. It has been observed that in cases where
the knowledge system is perceived to bring in recognition and supplemental income, younger generations are more keen to learn, develop, and sustain
them.
(viii) We oten see that the dominant education and
research systems tend to enhance knowledge and
technologies using universal standards, without much
attention to the capacities and needs of speciic
regions or populations resulting in a dearth of comprehensive theoretical approaches to assessing traditional knowledge which is believed to be key to the
disregard of traditional cultures his then calls for the
design and implementation of culturally appropriate
pedagogical methods with an intercultural inclination
9
and transdisciplinary approach and their integration
into formal and informal learning processes.
(ix) here appears to be a clear need for designing a radical and innovative approach to integrate Traditional
Medicine into mainstream health systems. his would
further require full institutional backing from various
related governmental and nongovernmental agencies
that link supply chains of medicinal resources with
health practitioners and consumers with the highest
standards of quality, safety, and eicacy.
With regard to a plan of action, this policy paper advocates the use of integrated rapid assessment protocols similar
to those used in some of the case studies outlined in the
report—duly adapted to local cultural and environmental
circumstances. It provides an assessment framework and the
following “potential strategies.”
(i) Assessment methods to inventory resources and
knowledge used in healthcare.
(ii) Knowledge validation, generation, and use.
(iii) Capacity building for diferent stakeholders.
(iv) Cross-learning between diferent knowledge systems.
(v) Mechanisms to protect traditional resources and
knowledge.
(vi) Linking with economic development objectives.
(vii) Expansion of partnerships with diferent stakeholders.
(viii) Efective communication strategies.
(ix) Synergizing community initiatives with civil society
organizations and policy processes in identifying
critical areas of engagement.
Complementing the positive examples from the UN
University-Yokohama report is the lesson learned from a
failed project in Northern India which sought to develop
a medicinal plant value chain between local Himalayan
farmers and a Dutch company (Ayurveda Health) in a
project undertaken by he Royal Tropical Institute (KIT)
and the Center for Sustainable Development (CSD) of he
Netherlands in cooperation with local government agencies [120]. he authors point out that worldwide medicinal
plants are being depleted at a rapid pace due to large-scale,
unsustainable collection from natural habitats. Conservation
of these species is critical for four reasons: (1) they are a
source of natural ingredients used by the manufacturers of
modern pharmaceuticals resulting in a large and increasing
demand [121–123]; (2) medicinal plants form the basis of
homeopathy and traditional medicines, and, along with
traditional knowledge, are crucial for traditional healers, who
play a vital role in the lives of poor people and their animals
in developing countries [2]; (3) the collection and marketing
of medicinal plants are a valuable source of livelihood for
large numbers of poor people in developing countries; and
(4) medicinal plants are an essential component of biological
diversity and conservation.
10
Regarding lessons learned, three reasons are given for the
project’s lack of success: (1) poor quality planting material
supplied to farmers resulting in high mortality of plants; (2)
too many uncoordinated farmers planting uneconomic plots
on marginal land which resulted in low upkeep motivation
and unrealistic expectations that were not realized; and
(3) poor understanding of local farming dynamics and the
emergence of a successful alternative cash crop. hese are
factors that should be evaluated in any eforts to build a
successful supply chain for CMC-EsSalud-Trujillo.
5. Two Decades of Traditional Medicine
Research in Northern Peru
Work up to 2012—besides developing a database of 510
medicinal plants [124–126] and 974 remedies of mixtures
[127]—has demonstrated that herbal commerce in Peru is
a major economic resource [128], which, although used
alongside modern pharmaceutical products, is showing signs
of diminished popular knowledge of applications [129, 130].
Laboratory research on most of the database has ranged
from minimum inhibition concentrations [131] to toxicity
screening [132] as well as bioassays to determine antibacterial
activity [133–137] and phytochemical analysis [138, 139] with
more focused analyses of herbal treatments for acne [133]
and malaria [140]. Other studies have sought to identify
Ulluchu, a ceremonial plant of the pre-Hispanic Moche
culture [141] as well as surveying colonial sources of medicinal plants in Northern Peru and Southern Ecuador [126].
An ethnography of peasant herbalists which documented
aspects of the market supply chain showed that suppliers are
not adequately remunerated and revealed threats posed by
lack of conservation measures and overharvesting [142, 143]
criticized the scientiic reductionism of laboratory research
in attempting to appropriately verify traditional remedies.
Anthropological studies of traditional curanderos and their
curing altars (mesas) include articles by Sharon et al. [144];
Sharon and Gálvez [145]; Sharon et al. [146]; and Glass-Coin
et al. [25].
It is worth noting that, during the decade that we have
been working in the ield and the laboratory, there has been
a sea change in attitudes and perceptions of Traditional
Medicine [147–178]. In Trujillo, Lima, and Arequipa, a pilot
program prescribing medicinal plants, scientiically validated
by WHO/PAHO, has been initiated by EsSalud’s National
Program for Complementary Medicine, an initiative that
begun in 1999 with three centers which has grown to 26 to
date [149, 150]. In Trujillo, the Missouri Botanical Garden’s
Sacred Seeds program has started an herbal garden and
educational outreach program at the site museum of the
pre-Hispanic Chimú city of Chan Chan. In Huamachuco,
a program of ethnobotany and conservation manifest in
community gardens and seed banks of medicinal and food
plants is slowly emerging through collaboration between
three local peasant communities, the Beneicencia Publica
and regional hospital, MBG’s Sacred Seeds program, MHIRT,
and the Peace Corps. Future work will involve developing a
supply chain between Huamachuco and CCM-Trujillo with
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
scientiic validation by MBG, UB (SUNY), the Biotransformation and Natural Products Laboratory at UNT, and the
Interdisciplinary Research Group at UPAO as coordinated by
MHIRT and MBG.
5.1. Plant Nomenclature in Northern Peru. For the last decade,
the nomenclature of plant families, genera, and species
registered in Northern Peru followed the Catalogue of the
Flowering Plants and Gymnosperms of Peru [30]. Species were
identiied using the available volumes of the Flora of Peru [151]
as well as work on the lora of Ecuador and Bolivia [152–155]
and reference material in the herbaria HUT and HAO.
he naming of plant species follows three general patterns. Plant names already used by original indigenous
populations are oten maintained, although slightly modiied.
Plants similar to species already known, or with similar
habitus, oten receive the same name (transposition). In other
cases, completely new names are created (neology) [156].
he vernacular names of the plants used in Northern Peru
relect the historical development of plant use in the region.
Introduced species (e.g., Apium graveolens—Apio, Foeniculum vulgare—Hinojo) and native species similar to species
found in Spain (e.g., Adiantum concinnum—Culantrillo,
Matricaria frigidum—Manzanilla), as well as species growing
mostly in the coastal regions of the area (e.g., Alternanthera
porrigens—Sanguinaria) are oten addressed with names
derived from Spanish roots. Plants from the mountain forests
and especially the Andean highlands or the Amazon are oten
known by their Quechua names (e.g., Pellaea ternifolia—Cuti
Cuti, Amaranthus caudatus—Quihuicha, and Banisteriopsis
caapi—Ayahuasca), and a few plant names can be traced
back to Mochica (the original indigenous language spoken
at the coast of Northern Peru) roots (e.g., Nectandra spp.—
Espingo) [157]. Van den Eynden et al. [156] observed similar
patterns in Southern Ecuador, although her study focused
only on edible species. Nine hundred thirty-eight vernacular
names were recorded for 510 plant species. About one-third
of all names represented Quechua names or had Mochica
roots, while 66.5% of all names were of Spanish origin or
at least had Spanish components. In comparison, 41% of
the vernacular names of edible plants in Southern Ecuador
were found to be of Spanish origin. More than half of the
indigenous species carried only one vernacular name, with
the remaining species carrying a variety of indigenous names,
oten derived from the same root. In comparison, almost 75%
of the introductions were known by one name only. he slight
diferences in plant names indicate that the species have been
used in the region for a long time, and that their names relect
small variations in the local dialects.
5.2. Two Decades of Ethnobotany in Northern Peru and
Southern Ecuador. Ethnobotanical data were collected from
plant sellers while purchasing plant materials in local markets
(mostly Mercado Mayorista and Mercado Hermelinda in
Trujillo and Mercado Moshoqueque and Mercado Modelo
in Chiclayo); by accompanying local healers (curanderos) to
the markets when they purchased plants for curing sessions
and into the ield when they were harvesting. In addition,
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
plants were collected by the project members in the ield,
and—together with the material purchased in the markets—
were taken to the homes of curanderos to discuss the plants’
healing properties, applications, harvesting methodology,
and origins. At the curanderos’ homes, the authors also
observed the preparation of remedies and participated in
healing rituals. Plant uses were discussed in detail with
informants, ater seeking prior informed consent from each
respondent. Following a semistructured interview technique,
respondents were asked to provide detailed information
about the vernacular plant name in Spanish or Quechua;
plant properties (hot/cold); harvesting region; ailments for
which a plant was used; best harvesting time and season; plant
parts used as well as mode of preparation and application;
and speciic instructions for the preparation of remedies,
including the addition of other plant species. All interviews
were carried out in Spanish, with at least one of the authors
present. Both authors are luent in Spanish, and no interpreter
was needed to conduct the interviews. Data on plant species,
families, vernacular names, plant parts used, traditional uses,
and modalities of use were recorded.
Many of the species reported from Northern Peru are
widely known by curanderos and herb vendors as well as
the general population of the region and are employed
for a large number of medical conditions. One hundred
ity to two hundred plant species, including most of the
introductions, are commonly sold in the local markets
[126]. Rare indigenous species were either collected by the
healers themselves or are ordered from special collectors or
herb vendors. he same plants were frequently used by a
variety of healers for the same purposes, with only slight
variations in recipes. However, diferent healers might give
preference to diferent species for the treatment of the same
medical condition. All species found were well known to
the healers and herb vendors involved in the study, even if
they themselves did not use or sell the species in question.
Many species were oten easily recognized by their vernacular
names by other members of the population. his indicates
that these remedies have been in use for a long time by
many people. he use of some species, most prominently San
Pedro (Echinopsis pachanoi), Maichil (hevetia peruviana),
and Ishpingo (various species of Nectandra), can be traced
back to the Moche culture (AD 100–800). Representations of
these plants are frequently found on Moche ceramics, and the
remains of some were found in a variety of burials of highranking individuals of the Moche elite, for example, the tomb
of the Lord of Sipán [157].
5.3. Medicinal Uses. Five hundred and ten plants with medicinal properties were registered in Northern Peru. he same
species was oten used for various medical conditions and
applied in diferent ways for the same condition. For example,
nervous disorders might be treated using diferent parts of
a plant in diferent applications, for example, topical (as
a Poultice or Bath), oral (ingestion of plant extracts), and
by supplying the patient with a seguro, a bottle illed with
herbs and perfumes, which serves as a protective charm.
Two thousand four hundred ninety-nine diferent uses were
11
registered for the 510 species encountered. In the following,
the total number of uses/applications and the number of
species used are given, rather than only the number of plant
species used to treat a condition, in order to emphasize the
importance of the treatment of speciic conditions.
he highest number of species (207, 40.4%) is used for
the treatment of “magical” ailments, with 682 (27.3%) of all
conditions. Respiratory problems (95 species, 18.5%) were
mentioned as 233 (9.3%) of all uses; 98 species (19.1%) are used
to treat psychosomatic and nervous system problems, with
176 applications (7%). Kidney and Urinary tract disorders
are treated with 85 species (16.6%) for 111 conditions (4.4%).
Rheumatic and arthritic symptoms are mentioned in 103 uses
(4.1%) with 45 species (8.8%) used for treatment. Infections
of female organs are treated with 66 species (12.9%) and
comprised 100 (4.4%) of all conditions.
Treatments are most oten performed in the homes of the
individual healers, who normally have their mesas (healing
altars) set up in their backyards. Healers also treat patients
at altars and consultation chambers (consultorios) in their
homes, at sacred sites in the countryside, or at sacred lagoons
high in the mountains. Healing altars (mesas) bearing a
large number of power objects are oten employed. A curing
ceremony normally involves puriication of the patient by
orally spraying blessed and enchanted herbal extracts on the
whole body to fend of evil spirits and by nasal ingestion of
tobacco juice and perfumes.
Two hundred seventy-eight diferent medical conditions
were recorded. Most plants were used for the treatment of
multiple ailments. he large variety of conditions is grouped
into 72 main categories.
5.3.1. Magical Uses. Mental, neurological, and psychosomatic
disorders are highly prevalent on a global scale. he burden of
mental health problems has been seriously underestimated.
Although neurological problems are only responsible for
about 1% of global deaths, they contribute to over 11% of the
global disease burden. It is estimated that this share will rise
to 15% by 2020 [158]. Western medicine oten ofers little help
for patients alicted by these disorders.
Healing altars (mesas) in Northern Peru oten follow
the old tradition by including a large variety of “power
objects,” frequently with a “pagan” background. Objects such
as seashells, pre-Columbian ceramics, stafs, and stones. are
very common on Peruvian mesas and are blended with
Christian symbols such as crosses and images of saints.
Treatments are most oten performed in the homes of
the individual healers, who normally have their mesas set
up in their backyards. Healers also treat patients at altars
and consultation chambers (consultorios) in their homes, at
sacred sites in the countryside, or at sacred lagoons high
up in the mountains. A curing ceremony normally involves
puriication of the patient by orally spraying blessed and
enchanted herbal extracts on the whole body to fend of evil
spirits and by “Spiritual Flowerings” (baños de lorecimiento).
In most cases, the cleansing of the patients involves drinking
boiled San Pedro juice and the nasal ingestion of tobacco
juice and perfumes. Sometimes extracts of Jimson weed
12
(Datura ferox), Brugmansia spp., and tobacco are also used
to purify the patients. While the incantations used by healers
during their curing sessions include Christian components
(e.g., the invocation of Christ, the Virgin Mary, and any
number of saints), references to Andean cosmology (e.g., to
the apus or the spirits of the mountains) are very common.
he use of guinea pigs as diagnostic instruments is standard
in Northern Peru [24, 159–162].
Traditional Medicine is also gaining more attention by
national governments and health providers. Peru’s National
Program in Complementary Medicine and the Pan American Health Organization recently compared Complementary
Medicine to allopathic medicine in clinics and hospitals
operating within the Peruvian Social Security System [14].
Mal Aire (Bad Air), Mal Viento (Bad Wnd), Susto or
Espanto (Fright), Mal Ojo (Evil Eye), and Daño or Brujerı́a
(Sorcery) are seen as very common illnesses in Andean
society. Causes include sudden changes in body temperature
(Mal Aire, Mal Viento), any kind of shock (Susto, Espanto),
“humors” or spells cast by other people (Mal Ojo), poisoned
food, and curses. (Daño, Brujeria). Medical problems caused
by outside inluences were reported in a wide variety of
studies [70, 163]. he Western concept of “psychosomatic
disorders” comes closest to characterizing these illnesses.
hese illness categories are deeply rooted in Andean
society, and Western medicine does not ofer eicient alternatives to traditional treatment. his might explain why this
category has still such an outstanding importance. Treatment
in many cases involved the participation of the patient in
a cleansing ceremony or limpia. his could either be a
relatively simple spraying with perfumes and holy water or an
allnight ceremony involving the healer’s curing altar (mesa).
In the days ater an all-night ceremony, patients are normally
treated with a baño de lorecimiento (lowering bath) in order
to relieve them of any remaining adversary symptoms or
spirits. In addition, patients frequently receive seguros (herbal
amulets) for protection against further evil inluences and for
good luck. Seguros are lasks illed with powerful herbs, as well
as perfumes, pictures of saints, and the hair and ingernails of
the patient.
he enormous number of plant species used for the
treatment of psychosomatic disorders indicates that the
curanderos of Northern Peru are valued specialists who
are consulted mainly for these conditions. his is all the
more interesting since Western medicine has still not found
eicient treatments for psychosomatic disorders. he plant
species used for “magical or ritual” disorders come mostly
from the high Andes, especially from the vicinity of sacred
lakes, since plants from those regions are regarded as especially powerful. his links the present day curing practices
directly to ancient Andean cosmology. he use of purgatives
and laxatives, and to literally “expel” evil spirits is also very
common.
A total of 222 plant species belonging to 172 genera
and 78 families were documented and identiied as herbal
remedies used to treat nervous system problems in Northern Peru. Most species used were Asteraceae (36 species,
16.21%), followed by Solanaceae (15 species, 6.76%) and
Lamiaceae (14 species, 6.31%). he most important nervous
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
system families are somewhat overrepresented in comparison
to the overall medicinal lora, while some other medicinally important families (e.g., Poaceae, Cucurbitaceae, and
Euphorbiaceae) are completely missing or underrepresented
from the nervous disorder portfolio [126].
he majority of herbal preparations were prepared from
the whole plant (31.56%), while the leaves (24.48%), stems
(21.24%), and lowers (8.55%) were used less frequently.
Whole plants and stems were more oten used than characteristic for the overall medicinal preparations found in the
region [126]. his indicates that the local healers count on
a very well developed knowledge about the properties of
diferent plant parts. In over 60% of the cases, fresh plant
material was used to prepare remedies, which difers slightly
from the average herbal preparation mode in Northern Peru.
Interestingly, only about 36% of the remedies were applied
orally, while the majority was applied topically (46.65%),
oten as bath, and the remaining ones were used as spiritual
safeguard (seguro). his is diferent from the regional average
of application and underlines the importance of spiritually
oriented treatments. Over 79% of all remedies were prepared
as mixtures with multiple ingredients by boiling plant material either in water or in sugarcane spirit.
Little scientiic evidence exists to date to prove the eicacy
of the species employed as nervous system remedies in
Northern Peru. Only 24% of the plants found or related
species in the same genus have been studied at all. Apiaceae,
however are particularly well documented. López et al. [38]
documented that neurophysiological activity in Ammi majus
seeds. Celery (Apium graveolens) is wisely used traditionally
and has been found to be neuroactive [164–167]. Activity
against anxiety and stress was found in Coriandrum sativum
[168], Centella asiatica, a species closely related to Hydrocotyle
spp. [169–177], and Petroselinum sp. [178]. hevetia peruviana,
frequently employed in Peruvian traditional medicine, was
found to be neurotoxic [179, 180]. Many members of the
sunlower family are known to contain large amounts of
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids and are also rich in other interesting
compounds. Not surprisingly, Asteraceae are of high medicinal importance. Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) showed neurological activity [181]. Artemisia spp. are the prime source
of Artemisinin, now employed as antimalarial. However,
various species were found to be neuroactive and to act
as neurotoxicity inhibitors [182–195]. Baccharis SERRATIFOLIA showed neuroactivity [196]. he neurological efects
of Chamomile (Matricaria sp.), in particular its activity as
sedative are well studied [174, 197–200]. Senecio sp. [201, 202],
Gynoxys sp. [203], and Tagetes sp. [204–206] have also shown
antidepressant efects.
One of the most widely used and studied neuroactive
plant genera is Hypericum sp. (St. Johns Wort). Species of this
genus are widely used in Peru, and in vitro as well as in vivo
studies have long shown its eicacy [207–210]. Similarly
important species of Lamiaceae include Melissa oicinalis
[211–214], Lavandula sp. [209, 214, 215], and Origanum
majorana [192]. Ocimum sanctum has been used in Ayurvedic
preparations for millennia, and other species of the genus
have shown neurophysiological eicacy as well [216–220].
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Salvia sp. has been closely studied since SALVATORIN A was
found efective in therapy [213, 221–224].
Chinese Skullcap (Scutellaria baicalensis) and other
species of the genus Scutellaria are employed to treat memory
loss and psychological disorders [171, 225–227]. Okuyama
et al. [228] and D. Singh and A. Singh [180] reported on
the neurotoxicity of Jatropha sp. and [229] found neuroactive
compounds in Cyperus sp., Sida sp., Myristica fragrans [230,
231], Alchemilla sp. [232], Rubus sp. [233], Gardenia sp. [234],
Ruta graveolens [235], Passilora sp. [212, 236, 237], Tilia sp.
[212, 237–241], Iresine sp. [242, 243], Ascophyllum sp. [244],
and Aloysia sp. [245, 246] all show anxiolytic properties.
Many species of clubmoss (Huperzia spp.) are used for cleansing baths and as admixtures to hallucinogenic preparations.
he bioactivity of their compounds, for example, Huperzine
A, has been widely demonstrated [247]. Members of the citrus
family (Citrus spp) are well-known calmatives [248–253].
Valeriana spp. are well known and proven antidepressants
and are widely used as mild sedative [174, 243, 244, 254–274].
he genus is used for the same purpose in Northern Peru.
[275] reported on the use of Mikania sp. Lastly, a multitude
of species is used in Northern Peru for their psychoactive
properties. Traditionally, coastal as well as Amazonian cultures employed hallucinogenic snufs, oten derived from
Anadenanthera sp. or Virola sp. [276–281]. However, the use
of hallucinogenic snufs has all but disappeared from the
region [126, 157].
Many Solanaceae have been used in traditional medicine
for millennia and maintain still high ritual importance.
However, in many cases, these plants are only used as “plants
of last resort,” because the local healers are well aware of
their toxicity. Brugmansia spp. and Datura spp. are sometimes
added to mixtures of San Pedro cactus and Tobacco juice and
inhaled through the nostrils or are added to cleansing baths.
he bioactivity of the alkaloids contained in this species is
well documented [46, 282–298]. Plowman [299] reported on
the use of Brunfelsia sp. as hallucinogens. Nicotiana tabacum
and N. rustica still have wide ceremonial importance in the
Native American as well as Andean communities, and both
species can have profound psychoactive efects in high dosage
[300–305].
he most widely known neuroactive species in South
America is probably the San Pedro cactus (Echinocereus
pachanoi), an ingredient of almost every healing ceremony
along the coast between Ecuador and Bolivia, and also
widely employed in the highlands. Mescaline, the main active
compound, has previously been used in western psychotherapy but was subsequently banned. he efect of San Pedro
concoctions or isolated compounds is widely reported [47,
306–315]. Ayahuasca (Banisteriopsis caapi) however is more
widely used for spiritual experiences, and its central nervous
system activity is well documented [316–323].
5.3.2. Respiratory System. he WHO reports that respiratory
illnesses are of high importance as a cause of death and
morbidity at a global scale. WHO elaborated a Strategy for
Prevention and Control of Chronic Respiratory Diseases
13
(CRDs), [324], and respiratory problems are a major cause
for infant deaths in Peru [325].
A total of 91 plant species belonging to 82 genera and
48 families were documented and identiied as respiratory
system herbal remedies in Northern Peru. Most species used
were Asteraceae (15 species, 16.67%), followed by Lamiaceae
and Fabaceae (8.89% and 5.56%). Most other families contributed only one species each to the pharmacopoeia. he
most important families are clearly similarly well represented
in comparison to the overall medicinal lora, although some
other medicinally important families (e.g., Euphorbiaceae,
Lycopodiaceae, and Cucurbitaceae) are completely missing
from the respiratory portfolio [125].
he majority of respiratory disorder herbal preparations
were prepared from the leaves of plants (27.69%), while the
whole plant (18.46%), lowers (13.85%), and stems (17.69%)
were used less frequently [125]. his indicates that the local
healers count on a very well developed knowledge about the
properties of diferent plant parts. In almost 55% of the cases,
fresh plant material was used to prepare remedies, which
difers little from the average herbal preparation mode in
Northern Peru. About 86% of the remedies were applied
orally, while the remaining ones were applied topically. Over
half of all remedies were prepared as mixtures of multiple
ingredients by boiling plant material either in water or in
sugarcane spirit.
Respiratory disorders are so common globally, and overthe counter remedies, both allopathic and complementary,
so frequently sold, that much efort has been put into the
veriication of traditional remedies. Almost 50% of the plants
found in the respiratory pharmacopoeia of Northern Peru or
their congeners have been studied for their medicinal properties. he original hypothesis that many species employed for
respiratory illnesses would be nonnative, introduced to treat
diseases that were originally also introduced by colonialists,
did not hold; however, Quite contrarily, many remedies for
respiratory ailments are native to the study area [125]. From
this perspective, it is surprising to see how many species
have actually been studied at least preliminarily. Biella et al.
[326] report on the activity in an extract of Alternanthera.
Braga et al. [327] worked on Schinus molle. Other examples
include Apium graveolens [328], Acmella [329], Clibadium
[330], Eupatorium [331], Flaveria [332], Perezia [333], Senecio
[334], Tagetes [335], Alnus and Sambucus [336], Jacaranda
[337], Raphanus [338], Cordia [339], Scabiosa [340] Bursera [341], Erythroxylum [342], Myroxylon [343], Prosopis
[344], Lavandula [334, 345], Cinchona [288], Juglans [346],
Uncaria [347, 348], Cymbopogon and Cinnamomum [349,
350], Plantago and Eucalyptus [351, 352], Malva and Alcea
[353] Dracaena [354], Allium [355–357], Rubus [358, 359],
Stachys [360], Satureja [335, 361], Salvia p. [362], and hymus
[351].
5.3.3. Urinary System (Kidneys, Bladder). he recent WHO
report on urinary tract infections (UTI) indicates that UTI
are one of the most common bacterial infections seen, in
particular in children. It has been estimated that UTI are
diagnosed in 1% of boys and 3–8% of girls. In the irst year
14
of life, UTI is more prevalent in boys with rates of 2.7%
compared with 0.7% in girls. he reported rate of recurrent
UTI is around 12–30% with risk greater in infants <6 months,
severe vesicoureteric relux, and abnormal nuclear renal scans
at time of irst infection [363].
Studies have shown a higher UTI prevalence of 8–35% in
malnourished children, with the risk of bacteriuria increasing
signiicantly with the severity of malnutrition [363].
A total of 69 plant species belonging to 61 genera and 43
families were documented and identiied as herbal remedies
for kidney and urinary tract problems in Northern Peru. Most
species used were Asteraceae (8 species, 11.43%), followed
by Fabaceae and Poaceae (both 5 species, 7.14%). All other
families mostly contributed only one species each to the
pharmacopoeia. he most important families are represented
similarly as in the overall medicinal lora, while some other
medicinally important families (e.g., Lycopodiaceae, Cucurbitaceae) are completely missing from the kidney portfolio
[126].
he majority of kidney herbal preparations were prepared
from the whole plant (27.78%), while the leaves of plants
(25.56%), lowers (12.22%) and stems (16.67%) were used less
frequently [126]. his indicates that the local healers count
on a very well developed knowledge about the properties
of diferent plant parts. In almost 64% of the cases fresh,
plant material was used to prepare remedies, which difers
little from the average herbal preparation mode in Northern
Peru. About 88% of the remedies were applied orally, while
the remaining ones were applied topically. Over half of all
remedies were prepared as mixtures of multiple ingredients
by boiling plant material either in water or in sugarcane spirit.
Kidney and urinary system problems are very common
globally, but allopathic treatments, in particular with regard
to renal calculi, are mostly focused on dilation of the ureter,
and pain management. Although a large number of plants
are used in traditional medicine to treat this problem, less
than 35% of the plants found in Peru or their congeners
have been studied for their medicinal properties. Kim et al.
[194] report on the kidney-protective efects of Brassica root
extract. Eicacy in Smallanthus sonchifolius and Lepidium
meyenii, both neglected Andean crops, and the latter very
frequently sold in the herbal supplement industry [126].
Other medicinals with positive efects on the urinary system
that were at least exposed to some preliminary research were
Aloe [364], Annona and Citrus [365], Dioscorea and Hydrocotyle [366, 367], and Plantago [368]. Lans [369] published
a long list of remedies for kidney problems from research in
Trinidad and Tobago. Arctium lappa [370], Zea mays [371],
many species of Equisetum [371, 372], and especially species
of Phyllanthus and Tribulus [373, 374] have shown eicacy
in urolithiasis. he main problem from a patient perspective
lies however in the fact that many species, for example, of
Phyllanthus, are highly similar, while only a few display the
desired efect.
Kidney and urinary tract diseases are a major health
challenge worldwide. Many plant species are traditionally
used for kidney disease treatment, and some have been
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
investigated for their eicacy with positive results. An otenlimiting factor to these investigations is lack of comprehensive ethnobotanical data to help choose plant candidates
for potency/eicacy tests. Since the plant parts utilized in
preparation of kidney remedies are reported in this survey,
it serves as an indication of species that may need further
ecological assessment on their regeneration status.
5.3.4. Rheumatic Problems. he National Institutes of Health
(NIH) reports that an estimated 23.5 million Americans
sufer from autoimmune diseases and that this number is
expected to grow. Medical research has currently identiied
80–100 autoimmune diseases, and 40 additional diseases
are suspected to have an autoimmune basis. Autoimmune
diseases collectively rank in the top ten leading causes of
death for women aged from adolescents up to age 64.
In Western medicine, the most common treatments are
immunosuppressants, which are known to have devastating
long-term side efects [375].
he housing conditions already described, as well as
diicult working conditions, lead to a wide spectrum of
muscular-skeletal disorders, including rheumatism, arthritis,
and bone and muscle pain. A total of 55 plant species
belonging to 53 genera and 43 families were documented
and identiied as autoimmune herbal remedies in Northern
Peru. Most species used were Fabaceae (4 species, 7.27%),
followed by Rosaceae and Myrtaceae (both 3 species, 5.45%).
All other families contributed only one or two species
each. he most important families are clearly overrepresented in comparison to the overall medicinal lora, while
some other medicinally important families (e.g., Asteraceae,
Lamiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Apiaceae, Lycopodiaceae, and
Cucurbitaceae) are less commonly used for the treatment of
autoimmune disorders and pain or are completely missing
from the portfolio [126].
he majority of the herbal preparations were prepared
from the leaves of plants (35%), while the whole plant
(21.25%) and stems (17.5%) were used less frequently [126].
his indicates that the local healers count on a very welldeveloped knowledge about the properties of diferent plant
parts. In 60% of the cases fresh plant material was used
to prepare remedies, which difers little from the average
herbal preparation mode in Northern Peru. Only about 55%
of the remedies were applied orally, while the remaining
ones were applied topically. his is little diferent from the
regional average of application. Over half of all remedies were
prepared as mixtures of multiple ingredients by boiling plant
material either in water or in sugarcane spirit.
Very little western scientiic evidence exists to prove the
eicacy of the species employed as remedies in Northern
Peru to treat autoimmune problems. Less than a pitiful 22%
of the plants found or their congeners have been studied at
all for their medicinal properties. Garlic (Allium sativum)
is probably the most widely studied immunomodulating
plants, and scientiic evidence for its eicacy is quite common [353, 376–381]. Likewise, the widely marketed cat’s
claw (Uncaria guianensis), widely overharvested, and oten
falsiied [126] has been studied intensively [382–385], and
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
the simple stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) long used as antiinlammatory in many traditional medicine systems has been
proven to show eicacy [384, 386–392]. In the Middle East,
Ratheesh et al. [393, 394] successfully showed activity in (Ruta
graveolens). However, these studies are rare examples of indepth assessments of a few well-known species. Few other
plants have seen much research on their immunoregulating
activity. Alternanthera tenella [326, 395], Baccharis spp. [396],
Spartium junceum [397], Pinus sp. [398, 399], and Plantago
sp. [351, 400] are some few exceptions. his is the more
surprising as arthroid diseases are very common, and hardly
any study has been attempted to cover the properties of
a wider range of species as alternative to allopathic for
treatment [401–404].
5.3.5. Internal Organs (Liver, Gallbladder). Disorders of internal organs fall far behind the most commonly treated medical
conditions [126]. his is an indication that curanderos in
Northern Peru are to a large extent specializing in the treatment of psychosomatic disorders and that “bodily” illnesses
are treated more as a sideline. However, a large number of
plant species were used by local healers to treat liver and
gallbladder ailments.
A total of 51 plant species belonging to 43 genera
and 31 families were documented and identiied as liver
and gallbladder herbal remedies in Northern Peru. Most
species used were Asteraceae (9 species, 17.66%), followed
by Euphorbiaceae (4 species, 7.85%) and Gentianaceae
(3 species, 5.89%). All other families contributed only one or
two species each to the pharmacopoeia. Asteraceae are clearly
over-represented in comparison to the overall medicinal
lora, while some other medicinally important families (e.g.,
Solanaceae, Lycopodiaceae, Cucurbitaceae, and Rosaceae)
are completely missing from the liver ailment portfolio [126].
he majority of herbal preparations employed for liver
ailments were prepared from the whole plants (35.38%), while
the leaves (24.61%), lowers (9.23%), and stems (12.32%) were
used less frequently. Whole plants were more oten used than
characteristic for the overall medicinal preparations found in
the region, while stems of plants were employed much less
frequently [126]. his indicates that the local healers have
a less well-developed knowledge about the constituents of
individual plant parts in the case of liver and gallbladder
treatments than for other applications [126]. In almost 65% of
the cases, fresh plant material was used to prepare remedies,
which difers little from the average herbal preparation
mode in Northern Peru. Most of the remedies were applied
orally (over 90%), while the remaining ones were applied
topically. his is highly diferent from the regional average
of application. Over 71% of all remedies were prepared as
mixtures with multiple ingredients by boiling plant material
either in water or in sugarcane spirit. his indicates that
the local healers have a very profound knowledge about the
synergistic efects of plants in multi-ingredient preparations.
Almost no scientiic evidence exists to date to prove
the eicacy of the species employed as liver and gallbladder
remedies in Northern Peru. Only 8% of the plants found or
related species in the same genus have been studied at all.
15
Spartium junceum, Malva spp., and Plantago spp. are used in
liver ailments [405], but no other species found in Northern
Peru have been shown to be efective against these conditions.
5.3.6. Diarrhea, Stomach Problems, and Other Intestinal
Ailments. Foodborne diseases are a serious public health
problem worldwide. Some foodborne diseases are well recognized but have recently become more common. Outbreaks
of salmonellosis have been reported for decades, but, within
the past 25 years, the disease has increased in incidence on
many continents. While cholera has devastated much of Asia
and Africa for years, its introduction for the irst time in
almost a century on the South American continent in 1991
makes it another example of an infectious disease that is
both well recognized and emerging. While cholera is oten
waterborne, many foods also transmit infection. Infection
with Escherichia coli serotype O157:H7 (E. coli) was irst
described in 1982. Subsequently, it has emerged rapidly as
a major cause of bloody diarrhea and acute renal failure.
Outbreaks of infection, generally associated with beef, have
been reported in Australia, Canada, Japan, United States, in
various European countries, and in southern Africa [406].
A total of 75 plant species belonging to 62 genera
and 39 families were documented and identiied as herbal
remedies for intestinal ailments in Northern Peru. Most
species used were Lamiaceae (13.33%), followed by Asteraceae
and Rutaceae (both 5 species, 6.67%). Most other families
contributed only one species each to the pharmacopoeia.
he most important anti-infectious families are clearly overrepresented in comparison to the overall medicinal lora,
while some other medicinally important families (e.g., Asteraceae) are much less important [126].
he majority of anti-infectious herbal preparations were
prepared from the leaves of plants (29.25%), the whole plant
(22.64%), and stems (16.04%). his indicates that the local
healers count on a very well developed knowledge about the
properties of diferent plant parts. In almost 60% of the cases
fresh plant material was used to prepare remedies, which
difers little from the average herbal preparation mode in
Northern Peru. Interestingly, only about 83% of the remedies
were applied orally, while the remaining ones were applied
topically. Over half of all remedies were prepared as mixtures
of multiple ingredients by boiling plant material either in
water or in sugarcane spirit.
Large parts of the species used for intestinal disorders
in Northern Peru are introductions from other parts of the
world, especially Europe. Many of these are well known, and
almost 50% of the plants found in this study have shown
eicacy in scientiic studies.
A large number of Apiaceae are used for their stomach
calming and antibacterial efects (e.g., Apium graveolens
[407, 408]; Foeniculum vulgare [409]; and Pimpinella anisum
[410–412]. Coconut (Cocos nucifera) showed antiulcerogenic
activity [413], as did Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) [414, 415],
as well as Arctium lappa [416–418]. Schütz et al. [419], H.G. Grigoleit and P. Grigoleit [420], and You et al. [421]
reported that Taraxacum oicinale (Dandelion) relieved
oxidative stress and has gastroprotective efects and Capsella
16
bursa-pastoris is well known for its antiinlammatory and
hepatoprotective function [422–424]. Well-known medicinal
plants, for example, Hypericum sp. [425], Croton lechleri [426,
427], and Desmodium gangeticum [428], also have antiulcer
activity. Hyptis pectinata showed hepatoprotective activity
[429].
Lamiaceae were particularly efective against gastrointestinal problems. Mentha piperita showed antibacterial and
calmative efects [430], while Origanum vulgare and Origanum majorana had pronounced antihyperlipidemic and
antioxidant efects [431]. Rosemary (Rosmarinus oicinalis)
has potential to relieve oxidative stress and is strongly
antibacterial [432–435]. Kawagishi et al. [436] found strong
liver-protective activity in Avocado (Persea americana), and
Khasina et al. [437] reported gastro-protective efects of
Duckweed (Lemna minor). A variety of Lythraceae is also well
known for their antioxidant and antibacterial properties, as
studies in the Americas [433, 438], and the Near- and Middle
East [438–440] indicate.
Maity et al. [441], Yadav and Bhatnagar [442], and
Chaturvedi et al. [443] demonstrated the eicacy of Indian
spices as gastroprotective agents. Passilora sp. as well as
Piper sp. and rice (Oryza sativa) were found to demonstrate
strong anti-bacterial and antioxidant properties [411, 444–
448]. Only recently antiinlammatory activity of Citrus sp.,
and Ruta graveolens [449] was demonstrated and even plants
that have long been used in codiied traditional medicine
for their gastro-protective function has only been studied in
detail during the last few years, for example, pomegranate
(Punica granatum) [450–454] and green tea (Camellia sinensis) [455, 456].
5.3.7. Reproductive Problems and Female Health. According
to 1999 WHO estimates reproductive problems, including,
340 million new cases of curable sexually transmitted diseases
(STIs; syphilis, gonorrhoea, chlamydia and trichomoniasis)
occur annually throughout the world in adults aged 15–49
years. In developing countries, STIs and their complications
rank in the top ive disease categories for which adults seek
health care. Infection with STIs can lead to acute symptoms,
chronic infection and serious delayed consequences such
as infertility, ectopic pregnancy, cervical cancer, and the
untimely death of infants and adults [457].
A total of 105 plant species belonging to 91 genera
and 62 families were documented and identiied as herbal
remedies for reproductive problems in Northern Peru. Most
species used were Asteraceae (9.52%), followed by Lamiaceae
and Fabaceae (8.57% and 6.67%). Other families were less
important, and 44 contributed only one species each to
the pharmacopoeia. he most important families are clearly
represented very similarly to their overall importance in the
local pharmacopoeia [126].
he majority of herbal preparations for reproductive
issues were prepared from the leaves of plants (22.72%), the
whole plant (21.97%), and stems (21.21%), while other plant
parts were used much less frequently. his indicates that the
local healers count on a very well developed knowledge about
the properties of diferent plant parts. In almost 62% of the
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
cases, fresh plant material was used to prepare remedies,
which difers little from the average herbal preparation mode
in Northern Peru. Over 70% of the remedies were applied
orally, while the remaining ones were applied topically. Many
remedies were prepared as mixtures of multiple ingredients
by boiling plant material either in water or in sugarcane spirit.
Little scientiic evidence exists to prove the eicacy of
the species employed as reproductive disorder remedies in
Northern Peru. Only 34% of the plants found or their
congeners have been studied at all for their medicinal
properties. Aloe spp. are known to have oestrogenic activity
[369, 458]. Adams and Garcia [459] reported that Artemisia
spp. had efects on female health amongst the Chumash.
A variety of other Asteraceae have been shown to be used
against menopausal symptoms (Clibadium [75]; Matricaria
[362, 460, 461]; Taraxacum [462, 463]). Lans [369] found
hormonal efects in Cordia sp., while [463–467] reported on
anti-fertility efects of Dioscorea sp. Cupressus sp. are well
known abortifacients [468], while pumpkin seed oil showed
testosterone-inhibitory efects [369, 469–471]. Chamaesyce
sp. showed promise in the treatment of male infertility, while
Mimosa sp. on the contrary are used to reduce spermal
fertility [369, 472].
A wide range of Lamiaceae have been shown to exhibit
contraceptive eicacy, and the same species are used in Peru
for similar purposes (Mentha spp. [473–476]; Ocimum spp.
[477–480]; Origanum majorana [476, 481, 482]; Rosmarinus
oicinalis [472]). Similar eicacy has been shown for Sanguisorba oicinalis [483], and Ruta graveolens [369, 484–487].
Various species of Passilora have aphrodisiac activity
[488–491], and Myristica fragrans as well as Syzygium aromaticum [492], and extracts of Lantana camara [493, 494]
and Pilea spp. [369] fulil the same purpose, while Portulaca oleracea showed eicacy in relieving uterine bleeding
[495, 496].
5.3.8. Heart and Circulatory System. Cardiovascular diseases
are collectively the number one cause of death on the globe,
accounting for over 30% of all deaths worldwide, 80% of
which occur in lower income countries with oten little
western healthcare available. Lower income groups have
generally a higher prevalence of risk factors [158]. Traditional
Medicine is used globally and has rapidly growing economic
importance. In developing countries.
Traditional healers are frequently consulted to treat heart
problems and disorders of the circulatory system. he healers
encountered used a wide variety of terms relating to heart
problems, that in part generalized the condition (e.g., “heart
disease”), included references to conditions as underlying
cause of heart problems (e.g., “cholesterol”), or simply used
terms to indicated treatment options (e.g., “blood irrigation”
as term referring to “thin” a patients blood, “blood puriication,” or “refreshing the heart” as terms indicating a process
cleansing the blood from suspected toxins, or “blood circulation,” indicating a treatment that would improve circulation).
he use of western style biomedicinal terms is not surprising,
given that all informants were of Mestizo origin and lived in
an urban environment.
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Most treatments of the circulatory system involved the
puriication of the blood in order to improve the general
condition of the patient. In addition, the fashionable concept
of “weight management” and conditions related to obesity
has entered into the domain of Peruvian healers. All healers
readily acknowledge the negative inluence of high cholesterol levels, and plant remedies were used speciically to lower
cholesterol as well as weight loss therapies, while plants used
for weight gain were insigniicant.
A total of 60 plant species belonging to 52 genera and
33 families were documented and identiied as heart herbal
remedies in Northern Peru. Most species used were Asteraceae (7 species, 11.67%), followed by Lamiaceae (6 species,
10%), and Solanaceae (4 species, 6.67%). Fabaceae, Amaranthaceae, and Cucurbitaceae each contributed 3 species
(5%) to the heart pharmacopoeia. All other twenty-seven
families contributed only one or two species each to the
pharmacopoeia. Asteraceae are in general under-represented
as heart remedies in comparison to the medicinal lora used
in Northern Peru; Lamiaceae and Euphorbiaceae are clearly
over-represented in comparison to the overall medicinal
lora, while some other medicinally important families (e.g.,
Poaceae, Lycopodiaceae, and Rosaceae) are completely missing from the heart portfolio [126].
he majority of heart remedies were prepared from whole
plants (37.18%), while the leaves (24.36%), stems (15.38%), and
lowers (7.69%) were used less frequently. Whole plants were
more oten used than characteristic for the overall medicinal
preparations found in the region [126]. In almost 70% of
the cases, fresh plant material was used to prepare remedies,
which difers little from the main herbal preparation mode
in Northern Peru. Over 90% of the remedies were applied
orally, while the remaining ones were applied topically. his is
very diferent from the regional average of application. Over
65% of all remedies were prepared as mixtures with multiple
ingredients by boiling plant material either in water or in
sugarcane spirit. his indicates that the local healers have
a very profound knowledge about the synergistic efects of
plants in multi-ingredient preparations.
Little scientiic evidence exists to date to prove the eicacy
of the species employed as heart remedies in Northern Peru.
Only 33% of the plants found or related species in the
same genus have been studied at all. Ambrosia sp. shows
some promise in the treatment of myocardial infarction
[497]. Citrullus spp., Sanguisorba sp., Viola sp., Lavandula sp.,
and Smilax spp. are used in the Middle East to treat heart
problems [209] the latter species are with good indications
for clinical eicacy [498]. Cucurbita spp. and Cuphea spp.
were found that to be efective in Brazil [499, 500]. he use
and eicacy of Lathyrus sp., is widely documented [501–505].
Lev [506] found Tamarindus sp., Ocimum spp., Viola sp. and
Rosmarinus oicinalis are used for heart conditions in Israel.
Plantain (Plantago spp.) has well documented cardiac efects
[507, 508], as do various species of Citrus spp. [398, 509, 510],
while Peperomia spp. and Passilora spp. are oten employed
as folk remedies in the Caribbean [369].
17
5.3.9. Inlammation and Bacterial Infections. Bacterial infections and inlammation are among the ailments responsible
for a large number of deaths worldwide and are oten treated
by traditional healers [125, 511].
A total of 96 plant species belonging to 84 genera
and 46 families were documented and identiied as antiinfective herbal remedies in Northern Peru. Twenty percent
of the species were introductions, while 80% belonged to
the native lora of Peru. Most species used belong to Asteraceae (18.95%), followed by Fabaceae and Euphorbiaceae
(7.37% and 5.26%). Most other families contributed only one
species each to the pharmacopoeia. he most important antiinfectious families were over-represented in comparison to
the overall medicinal lora, while some other medicinally
important families (e.g., Lycopodiaceae, Cucurbitaceae) are
completely missing from the anti-infective portfolio.
he majority of herbal preparations were prepared from
the leaves of plants (31.34%), while the whole plant (18.66%),
lowers (12.69%), and stems (17.16%) were used less frequently.
In almost 67% of the cases, fresh plant material was used
to prepare remedies. Only about 55% of the remedies were
applied orally, while the remaining ones were applied topically. Over half of all remedies were prepared as mixtures of
multiple ingredients by boiling plant material either in water
or in sugarcane spirit.
Infections, in particular by strains of Staphylococcus
aureus, are very common, and increasingly diicult to treat,
due to widespread formation of drug resistance. Fungal
infections, due to the structure of the organisms involved,
have always been a hard task to treat. Given the high importance of infections, it is not surprising that anti-infective
agents are high on the list for drug development, and a
large number of species used traditionally have undergone
screening. Almost 43% of the plants used in Northern Peru
to treat infections or their congeners have been studied for
their medicinal properties, and the respective references are
given in the following section. Biella et al. [326] reported
on the antibacterial eicacy of Alternanthera tenella. Mango
(Mangifera indica) has shown antibacterial eicacy in a wide
variety of studies [512–515]. Compounds of Schinus molle
showed anti-inlammatory activity [516]. Oleandrin, isolated
from Nerium oleander, was found to be active in inhibiting
the kappa-B inlammation cascade [517]. Rinaldi et al. [518]
showed anti-inlammatory activity in Cocos nucifera. Chinese
traditional preparations like Guizhi-Fuling, containing Cinnamomum vulgare, have shown anti-inlammatory activity
also [519–522]. A wide range of Asteraceae have strong antibacterial and anti-inlammatory properties. Benedek and
Kopp [523] and Nemeth and Bernath [524] found antiinfective potential in Yarrow (Achillea millefolium). Many
species of Baccharis proved efective [525, 526], as did
Bidens pilosa [527–529]. Other eicacious members of the
sunlower family include Eupatorium [530–534], Matricaria
recutita [535], Tagetes patula [536], and Taraxacum oicinale
[430, 537]. Capsella bursa-pastoris was found to act as antiinlammatory [422], while Dioscorea was found to have
immunostimulating properties [538, 539]. Zhang et al. [540]
reported pain-relieving properties in Gaultheria yunnanensis.
Jones [427] found antibacterial activity in Croton lechleri
18
(Sangre de drago). Other examples for plants with antibacterial potential found in Peru include Manihot esculenta
[541], Solanum nigrum and Ricinus communis [542, 543],
Solanum sp. [544], Caesalpinia spp. [455, 545], Mezoneuron
benthamianum [546], Desmodium trilorum [547], Leucaena
leucocephala [548], and Red clover (Trifolium pratense) [549].
Salvinorin A, extracted from Salvia spp. [550–552] showed
immunomodulatory properties. Other Lamiaceae with antiinfective compounds include Satureja hortensis [553]. Buddleja spp. were found to be mainly antiinlammatory and
antioxidant [554, 555]. Plantago sp. [556], Cynodon dactylon
[557], Polypodium sp. [558, 559] and Uncaria sp. [560], all
commonly used in Peru, show cox-2 inhibition, and thus antiinlammatory properties. Cat’s claw (Uncaria tomentosa) has
long been marketed as traditional anticancer remedy, leading
to serious over-harvesting and looding of the market with
adulterated material [126]. Sandoval-Chacón et al. [560], Mur
et al. [383], and Hardin [385] could conirm antiinlammatory
properties of the species. Calvo [561] and Speroni et al.
[562] conirmed analgesic activity in Verbena sp. A few
plant groups have been studied more in depth. Rutaceae
(Citrus spp.) have proven antiinlammatory efect [563–567],
as did Gardenia sp. [568, 569], while many species of Smilax
exhibit immunomodulatory efects [402, 570–572]. Vargas
et al. [573] found antiinlammatory properties in Passilora
alata and Passilora edulis.
5.3.10. Malaria and Fever. Malaria is still a major global
public health problem in most tropical countries. It is thought
that malaria is by far the most serious tropical disease causing
one to two million deaths per year, and it plays a major role
in the high mortality seen in infants and children [574, 575].
It is also responsible for miscarriages, premature deliveries,
growth retardation, low birth weight, and anemia [576–579].
he World Health Organization (WHO) has estimated
that about 2 billion people in over 100 countries are exposed
to malaria, with 247 million cases in 2006 alone, and half of
the world’s population is potentially exposed to the disease
[511]. he worsening global economic situation makes it
diicult to expand modern health services; hence, efective
low-cost delivery medical system is urgently needed [574].
his is even more pressing because the use and misuse
of over the counter antimalaria remedies like chloroquine to
prevent and treat falciparum malaria have led to widespread
appearance of resistant parasites [575]. his is complicated by
the fact that global warming may lead to expansion of areas
in which the ambient temperature and climatic conditions
are suitable for Plasmodium transmission. Climatic variability
has been associated with some of the recent epidemics [578].
A total of 17 plant species belonging to 17 genera
and 13 families were documented and identiied as antimalarial herbal remedies in Northern Peru. Most species used
were Asteraceae (3 species, 17.66%), followed by Fabaceae
and Solanaceae (both 2 species, 11.77%). All other families
contributed only one species each to the pharmacopoeia.
he most important antimalarial families are clearly overrepresented in comparison to the overall medicinal lora,
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
while some other medicinally important families (e.g., Lamiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Poaceae, and Apiaceae) are completely
missing from the antimalarial portfolio [126]. In the context
of the questionnaires, healers and venders oten referred to
“Fever” when talking about malaria. Fever however included
a variety of conditions, from fevers accompanying lu to fever
as a result of malaria. Malaria was recognized as a parasitic
infection, and treated accordingly, while other plant species
were used to treat fever as a symptom, mainly focusing on
lowering body temperature.
he majority of anti-malarial herbal preparations were
prepared from the leaves of plants (38.46%), while the whole
plant (26.92%), lowers (15.38%), and stems (11.54%) were
used less frequently. Leaves and stems were used more oten
for malaria treatments than would have been expected in
comparison to the overall medicinal preparations found
in the region, while seeds of plants were employed much
less frequently and other plant parts not at all [126]. his
indicates that the local healers count on a very well developed
knowledge about the properties of diferent plant parts. In
almost 70% of the cases, fresh plant material was used to
prepare remedies, which difers little from the average herbal
preparation mode in Northern Peru. Interestingly, only about
55% of the remedies were applied orally, while the remaining
ones were applied topically. his is little diferent from the
regional average of application. Over half of all remedies were
prepared as mixtures of multiple ingredients by boiling plant
material either in water or in sugarcane spirit.
he very limited number of plants employed at the
Peruvian coast to treat malaria and fevers might on a irst
glance surprise, if compared to studies from other regions
of the country [580, 581]. However, malaria has always been
of relatively minor importance in the coastal desert areas,
and thus it is not surprising that few remedies are employed.
here are indications that health practices are in the process
of changing, and traditional healers start to treat a patient
with prepared western remedies (e.g., Aspirin, Primaquine,
Malaraquin, or Lariam), although plant preparations are still
important [125, 129, 130].
Little scientiic evidence exists to prove the eicacy of the
species employed as malaria remedies in Northern Peru. Only
41% of the plants found or their congeners have been studied
at all for their medicinal properties. Sambucus spp. are known
to be used against malaria in Trinidad [582], and Stowers
et al. [583] showed antiplasmodial activity in an extract
of a species of the genus. Hypericum spp. are traditionally
used in Southern Peru to treat malaria [584], while various
species of Ipomoea are used in Africa [585–588] and the
Philippines [589]. he genus Salix is well known as a source of
Acetylsalicylic acid, widely used as analgesic and antipyretic.
A wide variety of Solanaceae, including species of the genera
Cestrum and Solanum, are widely used as mosquito repellents
or as larvicidels [473, 590], or are traditionally used as malaria
treatment [582, 586, 587, 591–595], while Verbena sp. is
known as anti-malarial from Ethiopia [594].
5.3.11. Cancer and Tumors. Forty-seven plant species belonging to 42 genera and 30 families were used by curanderos
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
in Northern Peru to treat cancerous conditions and diabetes
symptoms. Most species used were Asteraceae (9 species,
19.15%), followed by Gentianaceae (3 species, 6.37%), and
7 families with 2 species each (4.25%). All other families
contributed only one species each to the pharmacopoeia.
Asteraceae as the most important anticancer and antidiabetic
family is clearly over-represented in comparison to the overall
medicinal lora, while most other medicinally important
families are either under-represented or completely missing
from the portfolio [126].
he majority of anti-cancer and anti-diabetic herbal preparations were prepared from the leaves of plants (30.77%),
while the whole plant (20%), stems (20%), and lowers
(6.15%) were used less frequently. Leaves and stems were
more oten used than characteristic for the overall medicinal
preparations found in the region, while whole plants were
employed less frequently [126]. his indicates that the local
healers count on a very well developed knowledge about
the properties of diferent plant parts. In almost 60% of the
cases fresh plant material was used to prepare remedies,
which difers little from the average herbal preparation mode
in Northern Peru. Over 90% of the remedies were applied
orally, while the remaining ones were applied topically.
his is signiicantly diferent from the regional average of
application. More than 50% of the remedies included multiple
plants.
Little scientiic evidence exists to date to prove the eicacy
of the species employed as anti-cancer and anti-diabetic
remedies in Northern Peru. Only 38.71% of the plants found
as diabetes treatments and 17.65% employed as anti-cancer
remedies or related species in the same genus have been
studied at all. Schinus molle is well known for the treatment of
diabetes in Bolivia [596] and showed promise against cancer
in Brazil [597]. hevetia peruviana and Arctium lappa [598]
both showed promise in in vitro cancer studies.
A wider variety of plants are used as diabetes treatments.
Musa sp. and Bidens spp. are used for this purpose in
the Caribbean and Peru [584] and banana is also used in
the Middle East [209]. Mulberries (Morus sp.) have been
found as diabetes remedy both in the Mediterranean [209].
Mimosa sp. is a traditional diabetes remedy in India [593],
and the same author also reported on Annona sp. and Aloe
barbadensis used for this purpose. Aloe has indeed shown
some eicacy for diabetes treatment [599, 600]. Johnson [601]
found that the Giksan used Achillea sp. against diabetes.
Bletter [584] reported Cat’s claw (Uncaria tomentosa) as
diabetes plant for the Ashaninka in Peru. Rubus sp. is used as
anti-diabetic in Nepal [602], and Ficus spp., Smilax spp., and
Olea europaea have long been known as diabetes remedies
in the Mediterranean and India [209, 603]. Olive has indeed
shown to regulate glucose levels [604]. Other studies refer
to Artichokes (Cynara cardunculus,) [605], Chickpeas (Cicer
arietinum) [606], Ocimum sp. [607, 608], Citrus spp. [609],
Phyllanthus spp. [610], Ficus spp. [611], Ginger and Banana
(Zingiber oicinale and Musa x paradisiaca) [612, 613], Walnut
(Juglans regia) [209, 604], and Cestrum sp. [614].
19
5.4. Parts of Medicinal Plants Used and Mode of Application.
Northern Peruvian curanderos prefer to use either the leaves
(in 25% of all uses) or the whole plant (24%) for the
preparation of their remedies. In 19% of the cases, the stems
of the plants were used, most commonly together with the
leaves. Flowers (10%), seeds (7%), fruits and roots (4% each),
bark (3%), fruit peel (2%), and latex and wood (1% each) were
only used for a small number of preparations.
Almost two-thirds (64%) of the remedies employed in
Northern Peru are prepared using fresh plant material. Many
of the introduced species are cultivated in ields and gardens,
but the majority of the indigenous species are collected wild.
his indicates that a widespread system of plant collectors
is needed to supply the fresh plant material needed in
Traditional Medicine. Most healers agreed, however, that in
most cases dried material could be used if fresh plants were
not available. In 36% of all cases, the remedies were prepared
using speciically dried plant material. Fresh material was not
used in these situations.
Healers in Northern Peru oten employ very sophisticated
mixtures of a variety of plants in their treatments. he use of
single species for treatments was rare. Most commonly, plant
material was boiled in water, or in some cases in sugarcane
alcohol (aguardiente) to extract the active compounds. In
some cases, plant material was macerated in cane alcohol or
wine for longer periods of time before use.
he curanderos all had strikingly exact recipes for treatment, with very speciic quantities of plant material used
to prepare remedies. hese quantities did not difer greatly
from one healer to another. Also, the amount of a speciic
remedy that was given to a patient was very similar among
the diferent curanderos.
he most frequent way to administer remedies was to
prepare a decoction and ingest it orally (52% of all uses)
followed by application as a poultice (38%, plant crushed
and/or boiled, and applied). Seven percent of all plant uses
entailed the preparation of a seguro, a bottle or small lask
illed with plant material along with various perfumes. his
amulet has to be carried by the patient at all times, or it is
placed in the house and used for periodic blessings. Seguros
contained anything from a handful to more than threedozen diferent ingredients. In two percent of the plant uses,
the material was employed to fabricate charms, and, in one
percent of all applications, the plant material was burned as
incense, with the smoke inhaled for treatment.
Many traditional healers rely on herbal preparations,
oten consisting of complex ingredients and with very speciic
preparations, to treat their patients’ illnesses, rather than just
employing single plant extracts. However, studies documenting these preparations and analyzing the composition of the
mixtures are almost nonexistent. Most ethnobotanical studies
to date document the “use” of single species, without asking
the important question if the plants in question are really
employed alone, or if they are in fact part of a more complex
preparation. Cano and Volpato [615] and Mur et al. [383] were
amongst the irst authors to respond to this challenge, and
reported on plant mixtures employed in Cuba and the Middle
East, and Vandebroek et al. [616] demonstrated the great
complexity of plant preparations in the Dominican Republic.
20
No information however was available for the very species
rich Andean pharmacopoeia.
he present publication attempts to give a detailed
overview on the herbal mixtures employed by traditional
practitioners in Northern Peru and the speciic applications
they are used for, in order to provide a baseline for more indepth studies on eicacy and safety of these preparations, as
well as the possible applications in the public health system.
he investigation of plant mixtures used in traditional
medicine in Northern Peru yielded a total of 974 herbal
preparations used to treat 164 diferent alictions [127]. he
classiication of diseases followed the curandero’s terminology. To allow a better overview, the diferent disease concepts
were grouped in more inclusive disease categories, according
to their similarity. Psychosomatic disorders were the most
outstanding alictions treated with traditional herbal mixtures, with almost 30% of all recipes applied, followed by
respiratory illnesses, female issues, kidney problems, and
heart problems. Susto (fright), problems of the nervous system, general systemic inlammation, and bronchitis together
accounted for almost 25% of all remedies used. In many cases,
healers used only one or two common mixtures to treat an
illness. his degree of consensus between diferent healers
shows great sophistication in the diagnosis and treatment
of speciic disorders. On the contrary, when it came to the
treatment of unspeciic disease categories like “inlammation”
or “bronchitis,” every healer seemed to use her/his own
speciic mixture to treat the problem. his was particularly
obvious in the treatment of neurological and psychosomatic
problems, for which the majority of plants and mixtures
were employed. Up to 49 diferent preparations were used
to treat the same disease. his seems to indicate a high
degree of experimentation that is still ongoing in order
to ind a working cure for unspeciic symptoms, and that
there is very little consent amongst the individual healers
as which cure to employ. his low consensus, especially
where spiritual and nervous system/psychosomatic aspects
are involved, might also indicate that the individual healers
are reluctant to exchange knowledge about their dedicated,
speciic, and guarded treatment methodology in these areas,
while the knowledge about “simple” treatments is much more
widespread.
Altogether, 330 plant species, representing almost 65% of
the medicinal lora used in the region [127], were applied in
mixtures. Of these, 64 species (19.39%) were introductions,
which falls within the range of introduced species as percentage of the whole medicinally used lora. Amongst the
plants employed, Asteraceae expectedly stood out, and the
number of species of this family used was comparable to the
percentage of Asteraceae in the medicinal lora of the region
[126]. he overwhelming number of plant mixtures contained
2–7 diferent plant species, although, in the most extreme
case, 27 distinct species were included. A large number of
species appeared in various mixtures. he plant species for
each mixture are listed in the order given by the curanderos
in order to express the importance of the individual species,
rather than providing an alphabetical listing. For a detailed
overview on quantities and parts of each plant use, see [126].
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
he cluster analysis conirmed that mixtures used for
applications like inlammations, infections, and blood puriication, as well as cough, cold, bronchitis or other respiratory
disorders, or urinary infection and kidney problems had
similar loristic compositions. However, a few interesting
clusters stood out Mixtures used for nervous system disorders, anxiety, and heart problems oten had a similar composition, for example, as did mixtures for prostate and bladder
problems; kidney problems, gallbladder disorders, diabetes,
and cholesterol were treated with the same preparations as
were rheumatic illnesses and asthma. Our research suggests
that this indicates that the local healers have a very detailed
understanding of disease concepts and are choosing their
remedies very carefully based on what underlying cause they
diagnose; that is, heart problems get treated diferently if
they are caused by stress, versus a physical agent. Kidney
infections are treated diferently from kidney problems linked
to diabetes and/or obesity.
he loristic composition as well as the complex phytochemistry of traditional herbal mixtures remains woefully
understudied. his is the more surprising as traditional oneplant one single-compound based drug discovery eforts have
yielded very little results in the last decades and might in fact
be an explanation as to why so many plant species that have
been documented for a certain use are “ineicient” or “toxic”
when introduced to clinical trials.
Our research indicates that a large number of plants
used in traditional healing in Northern Peru are employed
in oten-sophisticated mixtures, rather than as individual
plants. Peruvian curanderos appear to employ very speciic
guidelines in the preparation of these cocktails and seem to
have a clear understanding of disease concepts when they
diagnose a patient, which in turn leads them to oten apply
speciic mixtures for speciic conditions. here seems to be
a widespread exchange of knowledge about mixtures for
treatment of bodily diseases, while mixtures for spiritual,
nervous system, and psychosomatic disorders appear to be
more closely guarded by the individual healers.
Traditional herbal mixtures, with their wealth of compound fragments and new compounds originating in the
preparation process, could well yield new clues to the treatment of a wide variety of disease. he present paper provides
detailed baseline information on composition and use of
traditional mixtures in Northern Peru, and further studies
to compare the compound composition of these preparations
versus single plant extracts, as well as investigations comparing eicacy and toxicity of herbal preparations versus their
single plant ingredients, are in progress.
5.5. Does Traditional Medicine Work? A Look at Antibacterials
Used in Northern Peru. Plants with potential medicinal activity have recently come to the attention of Western scientists,
and studies have reported that some are bioactive [617].
Potentially active compounds have been isolated from a few
of the plants tested [618–622].
In order to evaluate the antibacterial activity of species
used in TM in Northern Peru, 525 plant samples of at least
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
405 species were tested in simple agar-bioassays for antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli,
Salmonella enterica typhi, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. A
much larger number of ethanolic plant extracts showed
any antibacterial activity compared to water extracts for all
antibacterial activity. One-hundred ninety-three ethanolic
extracts and 31 water extracts were active against S. aureus. In
twenty-one cases, only the water extract showed activity (for
all bacterial species) compared to ethanol only. None of the
aqueous extracts were active against the other three bacteria,
with the activity of the ethanolic extracts also much reduced,
as only 36 showed any activity against E. coli and 3 each
against S. enterica typhi and P. aeruginosa. Eighteen ethanol
extracts were efective against both E. coli and S. aureus, while
in two cases, the ethanol extract showed activity against E.
coli and the water extract showed activity against S. aureus.
he ethanol extract of Dioscorea triida was efective against
E. coli, S. aureus, and P. aeruginosa. Caesalpinia spinosa was
the only species that showed high activity against all bacteria, including Salmonella enterica Ttyphi and Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, when extracted in ethanol.
Two hundred twenty-ive extracts came from plant
species that are traditionally employed against bacterial
infections. One hundred sixty-six (73.8%) of these were
active against at least one bacterium. Of the three hundred extracts from plants without traditional antibacterial
use, only 96 (32%) showed any activity. his shows clearly
that plants traditionally used as antibacterial had a much
higher likelihood to be antibacterially active than plants
without traditional anti-bacterial use. However, the eicacy of
plants used traditionally for antibacterial related applications
did vary, which underlines the need for studies aiming to
clearly understand traditional disease concepts. Plants used
for respiratory disorders, inlammation/infection, wounds,
and diarrhea, and to prevent postpartum infections, were
eicacious in 70–88% of the tests. Plants used for “kidney
inlammation” had a much lower eicacy against bacteria
and fell within the range of species that are traditionally
used to treat other bodily disorders. Only species used for
spiritual/ritual treatments scored worse. Of these, only 22%
showed some antibacterial activity. However, amongst the
“spiritual” plants, 38% of the species used for cleansing
baths did in fact show activity, while only 15% of the plants
oten used in protective amulets (mostly species with the
families of Lycopodiaceae and Valerianaceae) showed limited
antibacterial activity.
A variety of species showed higher eicacy than the
control antibiotics employed, for example, Ambrosia peruviana, Iresine herbstii, Niphogeton dissecta, Opuntia icusindica, Smilax kunthii were particular efective against
Escherichia coli. Berberis buceronis, Caesalpinia paipai, Caesalpinia spinosa, Cestrum strigilatum, Cydista aequinoctialis,
Dioscorea triida, Escallonia pendula, Escobedia grandilora,
Eucalyptus citriodora, Eucalyptus globulus, Eugenia obtusifolia, Eustephia coccinea, Gallesia integrifolia, Geranium sessililorum, Hedyosmum racemosum, Iresine herbstii, Lycopersicon hirsutum, Mauria heterophylla, Phyllanthus niruiri,
Porophyllum ruderale, Salvia cuspidata, Senecio chionogeton,
and Smilax kunthii, Tagetes erecta, and Taraxacum oicinale
21
showed high activity against Staphylococcus aureus. he same
holds true for Ephedra americana, Gentianella bicolor, and
Mandevilla cf. trianae. However, extracts of these three
species were highly inconsistent in their eicacy.
he comparison of closely related species traditionally
employed for diferent purposes (e.g., diferent Alternanthera
spp., Passilora spp., Senecio spp., and Salvia spp. for spiritual
purposes and against bacterial infections) showed that the
“spiritual” species normally were not efective against bacteria, while the species used as antibacterials had increased
efectiveness. he example of Plantago sericea var. sericea
(used in seguros, no eicacy) and Plantago sericea var.
lanuginosa (used for vaginal infections, high eicacy against
S. aureus) is a particularly compelling case that indicates the
sophistication of traditional knowledge. However, we did ind
examples like Chuquiragua spp., where closely related species
were used as antibacterials, but only one of them did in fact
show eicacy, clearly indicating that, in this case, traditional
knowledge did not produce reliable results.
On the other hand, extracts of the same species traditionally used to treat infections oten produced vastly diverging
results when collected from diferent localities. Good examples are Iresine herbstii, Schinus molle, Eustephia coccinea,
Oreopanax eriocephalus, Myroxylon balsamum, Spartium
junceum, or Gentianella dianthoides. Most of these species
did not produce particularly high inhibition rates in any case
and were not the irst choice of healers when trying to ind
remedies for bacterial infections. Many traditional remedies
for concepts like “kidney inlammation” did not produce
any antibacterial results, which underlines that research into
eicacy does need to closely take traditional disease concepts
into account.
Many remedies used for spiritual healing and other
noninfection purposes did show antibacterial eicacy in vitro
but were not listed as such by the local healers. his might
be explained by the fact that they either are very inconsistent
in their activity (e.g., Mandevilla trianae, Loricaria spp.,
Lonicera japonica, Hypericum laricifolium, Hyptis sidifolia,
Mentha piperita, Brachyotum naudinii, and Cydonia oblonga)
or are so closely related that identiication, especially when
dried, can be a problem, for example, in the case of Baccharis
spp., Gentianella spp., and Valeriana spp., or are prone to toxic
side efects like Ephedra americana and Brugmansia spp.
Almost all remedies are traditionally prepared as water
extracts, although ethanol (in the form of sugarcane spirit) is
readily available. his might at a irst glance seem astonishing,
given the low eicacy of water extraction found in this study.
However, initial results from Brine-Shrimp toxicity assays
indicate that the ethanolic extracts are by far more toxic than
water extracts of many species, and thus ethanolic extraction
might in many cases not be suitable for application in
patients. his again indicates the considerable sophistication
and care with which traditional healers in northern Peru
chose their remedies for a speciic purpose.
If the botanical documentation of Peruvian medicinal
plants has been neglected, investigations of the phytochemical composition of useful plants are lagging even further
behind. Most studies on the phytochemistry of Peruvian
plants concentrate on a few “fashionable” species that have
22
been marketed heavily on a global scale, especially Maca
(Lepidium meyenii), Sangre del Drago or del Grado (Croton
lechleri), and Uña de Gato (Uncaria tomentosa and Uncaria
guianensis). he number of other Peruvian plants for which
at least some phytochemical studies exist is still miniscule,
and most eforts are fuelled by the fads and fashions of the
international herbal supplement market. Studies involving
multiple species were initiated as late as the 1990s [163].
Minimum inhibitory concentrations found for Peruvian
plant extracts ranged from 0.008 to 256 mg/mL. he very
high values in many species indicate only a very limited antibacterial eicacy. he ethanolic extracts exhibited
stronger activity and a much broader spectrum of action
than the water extracts. he most interesting activity on
E. coli was obtained from ethanolic extracts of Baccaris sp.,
Ochroma pyramidale, Croton lechleri, Banisteriopsis caapi,
Miconia salicifolia, and Eugenia obtusifolia. Only the latter
species also showed strong activity in the aqueous extract. A
much wider range of species, including most species active
against E. coli showed inhibition of S. aureus. Porophyllum
ruderale, Senecio sp., Corynaeae crassa, Dioscorea triida,
Senna monilifera, Spartium junceum, Pelargonium odoratissimum, Satureja pulchella, Cuphea sp., Malva parvilora, Brosimum rufescens, Syzygium aromaticum, Sanguisorba minor,
Citrus limetta, Verbesina sp., and 2 unidentiied species all
showed MIC values between 1 and 4 mg/mL. Most of them
however did not portray any eicacy in aqueous extract.
Hypericum laricifolium, Hura crepitans, Caesalpinia paipai,
Cassia istula, Hyptis sidifolia, Salvia sp., Banisteriopsis caapi,
Miconia salicifolia and Polygonum hydropiperoides showed
the lowest MIC values and would be interesting candidates
for future research. Most MIC values reported in this work
were largely higher than those obtained for South American
species [623–626] and African studies [627]. However, they
were in range or lower than concentrations reported by
[628, 629].
Most species efective against S. aureus are traditionally
used to treat wound infection, throat infections, serious
inlammations, or are postpartum infections. Interestingly
many species used in cleansing baths also showed high
activity against this bacterium. Many of these species are
either employed topically, or in synergistic mixtures, so that
possible toxicity seems not to be an issue. he species efective
against E. coli were mostly employed in indications that
traditional healers identiied as “inlammation.”
Most of the plants used by the healers have antibacterial
activity, but only 8 of the 141 plants (5.6%) examined in this
study show any MIC values of 200 or less mg/mL of extract.
Of these 8 plants, 5 are used to treat diseases believed to be
in bacterial origin by TM, one is a disease not believed to be
caused by bacteria and one is used for undeined treatment
purposes.
Nine out of 141 plants (6.3%) tested that were not used for
diseases believed to be bacterial in origin by TM, 5 showed
high antibacterial activity with MIC values below 16 mg/mL.
Four of these were among the most potent plants tested with
MIC values of 2 or less mg/mL including the hallucinogen
and extracts used to treat diabetes and epilepsy. Diseases such
as diabetes oten compromise the health of the individual
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
and antibacterial treatments can be warranted for secondary
complications of the disease. In addition, TM does determine
sometimes that diseases not originally believed to be bacterial
in origin, such as ulcers, are actually caused by bacteria.
Currently, TM is seriously looking the role of inlammation
(which can certainly be bacterial in origin) in heart disease.
5.6. Toxicity in Traditional Medicine. Crude medicinal activities have been investigated for a wide variety of plants [86, 131,
132, 136–138, 630–632]. But while toxicity assays are available
for many countries (e.g., Argentina [365, 633], Bahrain [634],
Bangladesh [635], Brazil [329, 418, 636, 637], Canada [638],
Chile [639], China [640], Cuba [641, 642], Ecuador [643],
Guatemala [644–646], Honduras [647], India [648], Kenya
[627, 649], Mexico [650], Nicaragua [651], Nigeria [652],
Panama [653], Papua New Guinea [654], Philippines [655],
Uruguay [656], and USA [657–659], no data exists on the
potential toxicity of Peruvian medicinal species.
Brine shrimp (Artemia) is frequently used as agent in
laboratory assays to determine toxicity values by estimating
LC50 values (median lethal concentration) [651, 660–662].
he Brine shrimp lethality activity of 501 aqueous and
ethanolic extracts of 341 plant species belonging to 218 genera
of 91 families used in Peruvian traditional medicine was
tested [132]. he aqueous extracts of 55 species showed high
toxicity values (LC50 below 249 �g/mL), 18 species showed
median toxicity (LC50 250–499 �g/mL), and 18 low toxicity
(LC50 500–1000 �g/mL). he alcoholic extracts proved to be
much more toxic: 220 species showed high toxicity values
(LC50 below 249 �g/mL, with 37 species having toxicity
levels of >1 �g/mL), 43 species showed median toxicity (LC50
250–499 �g/mL), and 23 species low toxicity (LC50 500–
1000 �g/mL). Over 24% of the aqueous extracts and 76%
of the alcoholic extracts showed elevated toxicity levels to
brine shrimp. Traditional preparation methods are taking
this into account; most remedies are prepared as simple
water extracts, thus avoiding potential toxic efects. Excellent
examples where the water extracts are nontoxic, while the
ethanolic extracts show high toxicity are Ocimum basilicum
L., Salvia sp., or Laccopetalum giganteum (Wedd.) Ulbrich. In
contrast, Cinchona oicinalis L. ethanolic extracts were nontoxic, and are traditionally used, while the highly toxic water
extract has no traditional use.
Species which showed higher levels of toxicity were
Bejaria aestuans L., Erodium cicutarium (L.) L’Her., Brachyotum naudinii Triana, Miconia salicifolia (Bonp. ex Naud.)
Naud., Cuscuta foetida Kunth, Caesalpinia spinosa (Molina)
Kuntze, and Phyllactis rigida (Humb. and Bonpl.) Pers. Achillea millefolium L., Artemisia absinthium L., and Eucalyptus
globulus Labill all frequently used as medicinal teas also fall
in this group, as do Lupinus mutabilis Sweet, and Illicium
verum Hook. f. Solanaceae (e.g., Nicotiana tabacum L. and
Solanum americanum Mill.) were proved to be highly toxic,
while other species, known to be highly toxic when ingested
(e.g., Datura sp. and Brugmansia spp.) did not show toxicity
in Brine Shrimp.
Multiple extracts from diferent collections of the same
species showed in most cases very similar toxicity values.
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
However, in some cases, the toxicity of extracts from diferent
collections of the same species varied from non-toxic to
highly toxic. Examples for such variation in toxicity were
found for Chersodoma deltoidea M.O. Dillon and Sagast.,
Satureja sericea (C. Presl. and Benth.) Briq., Eugenia obtusifolia Cambess., Epidendrum sp., Capparis crotonoides Kunth,
Sambucus peruviana Kunth, and Malva sp. In case of these
frequently used species, harvest time, collection locality, or
use of speciic plant parts might be important for a reduction
of toxicity.
Toxicity values with LC50 values below 1000 �g/mL are
considered to be bioactive and might provide leads for further
screening [660]. Over 75% of the species in the present
study might have some cytotoxic potential. he toxicity values
reported fall in the range reported by other authors [651].
5.7. Markets and Sustainability
5.7.1. he Pharmacopoiaa of Southern Ecuador and Northern
Peru: Colonial Regimes and heir Inluence on Plant Use. he
diferences in medicinal plant use between Southern Ecuador
and Northern Peru are striking. Both regions share the same
cultural background and have a very similar lora, with a
comparable number of plant species that to a large extent
overlap. However, the medicinal lora of Southern Ecuador
includes only 40% of the species used in Northern Peru.
he diferences in traditional medicinal use can be explained
by comparing the development of the pharmacopoeia of
both areas from the start of the colonial period until today.
Colonial chroniclers oten included detailed descriptions of
useful plants in their reports. he most comprehensive early
accounts of the economically interesting lora of Northern
Peru and Southern Ecuador were provided by Monardes
[15], Acosta [16], and Cobo [17, 18]. Later treatments were
included in Alcedo [663]. Martı́nez Compañon, Archbishop
of Trujillo, had a complete inventory of his dioceses prepared
[19]. Finally, Ruiz provided the irst real botanical inventory
of the region [22]. he account of Martı́nez Compañon [19]
provides the best baseline for a comparison of the colonial
and modern medicinal lora of the region. he work includes
detailed paintings for every species, which allows a close
comparison with the modern medicinal lora, indicating that
the vernacular names of useful plants have not changed
signiicantly since colonial times. It contains 526 useful plant
species. A preliminary review of this work seems to indicate
that the number of plants used has not changed signiicantly
since the late 1700’s, with over 500 plant species still found
in modern Peruvian markets. A closer comparison shows,
however, that only 41% of the species mentioned by Breevort
[11] are still sold nowadays in Peru. An additional 32% are
still used in the Amazon basin but do not reach the coastal
markets anymore. Twenty-seven percent have completely
disappeared from modern day use. his means that 58% of
the species sold in Peruvian markets and 41% of the species
used in Ecuador were added to the pharmacopoeia within the
last 200 years.
A cluster analysis of the colonial and modern plant inventories showed a striking explanation for the use diferences
23
between Ecuador and Peru and helps to explain why the plant
inventories changed so signiicantly in the 18th century. he
current pharmacopoeia of useful lora in Ecuador was most
similar to the early colonial lora mentioned in Tilbert and
Kaptchuk [12], Domenighetti [7], Eisenberg et al. [9, 10], and
Zollman and Vickers [8]. his indicates that the Ecuadorian
medicinal lora did not develop much between early and late
colonial times. In contrast, the modern Peruvian healing lora
was much more similar to later collections. An explanation
for this lies in the diferent treatment of traditional practices
in Ecuador and Peru. In Ecuador, traditional medicinal
practitioners were immediately persecuted once the colonial
administration took hold, while the Peruvian administration
was much more tolerant. his also relects in the establishment of a National Institute for Traditional Medicine in
Peru in the 1980s, while traditional medicine was illegal in
Ecuador, until a constitutional change in 1998. his meant
that Ecuadorian healers had no opportunity to experiment
with new species to cure diseases introduced by Europeans,
while Peruvian healers were able to explore the rich lora of
the region in order to ind new remedies. his experimentation also extended to “magical” disease concepts like Mal
Aire, Mal Ojo, Susto, and Envidia that were introduced from
Spain during the colonial regime. Peruvian healers developed
a vast array of medicinals to treat these conditions, which,
to a large extent, explains the shit in the medicinal lora
between the late 1700s and modern times. Experimentation
in Ecuador remained restricted to the treatment of common
diseases, while spiritual treatments were outlawed until a
constitutional revision in 1998 recognized the right of the
population to use traditional medicinal practices [157].
5.7.2. Changing Markets. Exotics played an important role
amongst all pants sold in Northern Peruvian markets. Fitynine species (15%) found in all markets were exotics. However, amongst the species most commonly encountered in
the inventories, 40–50% were exotics. Matricaria recutita
(chamomile) was found in the inventory of approximately
70% of vendors. he next most popular species sold in
these markets included Equisetum giganteum, Phyllanthus
urinaria, Phyllanthus stipulatus, Phyllanthus niruri (Chanca
piedra—stone breaker), Eucalyptus globulus (eucalyptus),
Piper aduncum, Uncaria tomentosa (cat’s claw), Rosmarinus
oicinalis (rosemary), Peumus boldus, Bixa orellana (achiote)
and Buddleja utilis. However, when taking sales volume into
account, Croton lechleri (dragon’s blood), Uncaria tomentosa,
and Eucalyptus globulus were clearly the most important
species [664].
While it was very easy for all vendors to name their
most important and frequently sold species, it proofed
impossible to get detailed information about species that
vendors observed as “rare” or “disappearing”. In most cases,
vendors mentioned species as rare because they themselves
did not sell them; in many cases, these plants were very
common outside the market (e.g., Plantago major or common
plantain) or because demand was so low, that it would not
have made sense to carry them in their inventories. Very small
vendors had inventories that represented the most common
24
medicinal plants available and excluded most species in
the large “witchcrat” segment of the pharmacopoeia. On
the other hand, well-established large stands specialized in
supplies for healers (including “magical” plants).
All four markets had inventories containing more than
50% of all inventoried plant species but lacked many of the
“generalist” plants sold by other vendors. he portfolio of
these stands focused almost entirely on “magical” species that
are needed to cure illnesses like “susto” (fright), “mal aire”
(evil wind), “daño” (damage), “envidia” (envy), and other
“magical” or psychosomatic ailments. At the same time, all
four vendors catered also to the esoteric tourism crowd that
tends to frequent the large markets and carried a variety of
plants that were not used by curanderos but instead were sold
to meet tourist demand.
5.7.3. A Look on Sustainability—How Much Plant and for
Which Price? More than two-thirds of all species sold in
Northern Peruvian were claimed to originate from the highlands (sierra), above the timberline, which represents areas
oten heavily used for agriculture and livestock grazing. he
overall value of medicinal plants in these markets reaches a
staggering 1.2 million US $/year. his igure only represents
the share of market vendors and does not include the
amount local healers charge for their cure. hus, medicinal
plants contribute signiicantly to the local economy. Such an
immense market raises questions of the sustainability of this
trade, especially because the market analysis does not take
into account any informal sales.
Most striking was the fact that 7 indigenous and 3 exotic
species, that is, 2.5% of all species traded, accounted for more
than 40% of the total sales volume (with 30 and 12% resp.).
Moreover, 31 native species accounted for 50% of all sales,
while only 16 introduced plants contributed to more than a
quarter of all material sold. his means that little over 11%
of all plants in the market accounted for about three-fourths
of all sales. About one-third of this sales volume includes all
exotic species traded. None of these are rare or endangered.
However, the rising market demand might lead to increased
production of these exotics, which in turn could have negative
efects on the local lora [127].
A look at the indigenous species traded highlights important conservation threats. Croton lechleri (dragon’s blood),
and Uncaria tomentosa (cat’s claw) are immensely popular
at a local level and each contributes to about 7% to the
overall market value. Both species are also widely traded
internationally. he latex of Croton is harvested by cutting or
debarking the whole tree. Uncaria is mostly traded as bark,
and again the whole plant is normally debarked. Croton is a
pioneer species, and, apart from C. lechleri, a few other species
of the genus have found their way in the market. Sustainable
production of this genus seems possible, but the process has
to be closely monitored, and the current practice does not
appear sustainable because most Croton is wild harvested. he
cat’s claw trade is so immense, that in fact years ago collectors
of this primary forest liana started complaining about a lack
of resources [63] and, during the years of this study, other
Uncaria species, or even Acacia species, have appeared in
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
the market as “cat’s claw” (own observation). As such, the
Uncaria trade is clearly not sustainable.
Some of the other “most important” species are either
common weeds (e.g., Desmodium molliculum) or have large
populations (e.g., Equisetum giganteum). However, a number
of species are very vulnerable. Tillandsia cacticola grows in
small areas of the coast as epiphyte [665]. he habitat, coastal
dry forest, and shrub are heavily impacted by urbanization
and mechanized agriculture the impact of the latter worsened
by the current bio-fuel boom.
Gentianella alborosea, G. bicolor, G. graminea, Geranium
ayavacense, and Laccopetalum giganteum are all high altitude species with very limited distribution. heir largescale collection is clearly unsustainable, and, in case of
Laccopetalum, collectors indicate that supply is harder and
harder to ind. he fate of a number of species with similar
habitat requirements raises comparable concern. he only
species under cultivation at this point are exotics and a few
common indigenous species.
When looking at the reasons why people chose medicinal
plants or pharmaceuticals for greater consumption, it seemed
as though the major reasons were fairly obvious. Many
people preferred using plants more oten because they are
natural and safe. Pharmaceutical products have too many
synthetic chemicals and foreign substances that can afect
the body. Using plants that have been in use for centuries
seems to be a safer and healthier alternative. Many people
said that pharmaceuticals were used for particular illnesses,
but oten had side efects that result in negative impacts
elsewhere in the body. Respondents agreed, however, that
pharmaceuticals products were more efective than medicinal
plants. Even though they still used plants, they would not
completely depend on them, knowing that there is a limit
to their use. A lot of agreement was registered for use of
doctor’s prescriptions. Many people have faith in their doctor,
and if he recommends using a certain medicine, they will.
his faith is based on the conidence people have in science
and medicine with a great deal of research available, which
has gained the public’s trust. Because of this, people feel
safer relying on modern medicine. Along with the research,
people know that medicine has noticeable efects that can be
more easily obtained than those from plants. Plant remedies
take longer and are more subtle in their efects. hese are
reasons why pharmaceuticals are used more oten. Although
the number was minimal, there were respondents who did
say that they used the two kinds of medicine in the same
amounts. What was interesting was that people said that they
used both together. For example, oten people said that they
would drink a cup of herbal tea while taking pills. Although
people felt that each type of medicine has a role, most agreed
that pharmaceuticals provide the best route taken for ighting
certain sicknesses.
6. Final Comments
Current research indicates that the composition of the local
pharmacopoeia in Northern Peru and Southern Ecuador
has changed since colonial times [19, 21, 157]. However,
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
in Northern Peru, the overall number of medicinal plants
employed seems to have remained at a comparable level,
while plant use in Southern Ecuador has decreased. his
indicates that the Northern Peruvian health tradition is still
going strong and that the healers and public are constantly
experimenting with new remedies. One example of this is
the sudden appearance of Noni (Morinda citrifolia) fruits and
products in large quantities in plant pharmacies and markets
in the region since 2005. his plant was not available before,
but it is heavily marketed worldwide. Peruvian sellers are
clearly reacting to a global market trend and are trying to
introduce this new species to their customers. his indicates
that local herbalists and herb merchants are carefully watching international health trends to include promising species
in their own repertoire. In Southern Ecuador, healers were
not able to experiment with new remedies due to persecution
and legal restrictions. As a result, the pharmacopoeia in
this region remained on an early colonial level, with loss of
signiicant knowledge.
he use of hallucinogens, in particular the San Pedro
cactus (Echinopsis pachanoi), is still a vital component of
Andean healing practices and has been around for millennia
[125]. San Pedro can oten be found in Cupisnique and Moche
iconography. Five hundred years of suppression of traditional
healing practices by Western medicine have not managed
to destroy this tradition in Peru. he use of San Pedro,
together with additives like Angel’s Trumpet (Brugmansia
spp.), Jimsonweed (Datura ferox), and tobacco, is still a
central part of curing ceremonies in Northern Peru. Healers
are in fact experimenting with new hallucinogens, and some
northern curanderos have started to include decoctions of
Ayahuasca (Banisteriopsis caapi) in their rituals.
Although not formally acknowledged, Southern Ecuador
falls into the Northern Peruvian cultural area. It appears to
represent a region where traditional plant knowledge, though
important, has declined considerably. Southern Ecuadorian
curanderos and parteras (midwives) have almost entirely
abandoned indigenous rituals. In fact, San Pedro usage was
not mentioned as a mind-altering plant by any healer or
midwife interviewed and was not used in curing ceremonies.
Centuries of prohibition have led to a pronounced abandonment of traditional knowledge. his is also relected in the
current study. Many plants used for “magical” purposes in
Peru [125] have disappeared from traditional use in Ecuador.
he fear of prosecution is still very deeply rooted in the healer
community, and most healers interviewed stated that they
did not wish to be cited by name. Most healing altars or
mesas in Southern Ecuador are almost entirely devoid of any
“pagan” objects such as seashells pre-Columbian ceramics.
Patients are cleansed, by spraying them with holy water
and perfumes. In rare cases tobacco juice and extracts of
Jimson weed (Datura ferox) are used to purify the patients.
Southern Ecuadorian mesas are also much less elaborated
than the mesas of Peruvian curanderos. he incantations used
by healers during their curing session center on Christian
symbolism. References to Andean cosmology are almost
entirely absent, and the use of guinea pigs as diagnostic
instruments has all but disappeared from the tool kit of these
healers.
25
Interestingly, Peruvian curanderos have started to ill
this spiritual void in Southern Ecuador. Healers from the
Northern Peruvian mountains and coastal plains frequently
cross over to Ecuador to ofer their services to patients—
including increasing numbers of foreigners with a “New Age”
orientation—who are not satisied with the more Westernized
approach of Ecuadorian healers. hese Peruvian colleagues
have much more elaborate plant knowledge, and their mesas
as well as their incantations follow a more traditional pattern.
he knowledge of medicinal plants is still taught by
word of mouth, with no written record [126]. Illustrated
identiication guides for the medicinal plants of Northern
Peru and Southern Ecuador and their uses [24, 124] will
hopefully help to keep the extensive traditional knowledge of
this area alive. However, Traditional Medicine is experiencing
increasing demand, especially from a Peruvian perspective,
as indicated by the fact that the number of herb vendors,
in particular in the markets of Trujillo, has increased in
recent years. Also, a wide variety of medicinal plants from
Northern Peru can be found in the global market. While
this trend might help to maintain traditional practices and to
give traditional knowledge the respect it deserves, it poses a
serious threat, as signs of overharvesting of important species
are becoming increasingly apparent.
Today the most serious threat to this millennial tradition
is the destruction of medicinal plant habitats. Urban sprawl
and the sugar industry have already greatly altered the coastal
plains around Trujillo and Chiclayo. Climatic change and
deforestation are threatening the mountain forest systems
that are the source of many medicinal species. Most importantly, the high Andean ecosystems and sacred lagoons where
many medicinally active species are found are in danger of
being destroyed by large-scale mining activities [63, 666].
It is apparent that the respondents used medicinal herbs
more oten than pharmaceutical medicines, but only to a
small degree. Bussmann et al. [129, 130] showed in their
studies that patients both at western and herbalist clinics
oten had a preference for pharmaceutical medicines only
to a small degree. People generally assumed that plants are
healthier and better to use because they are natural and
are thought to not have any side-efects. It is diicult to
determine if the knowledge of the use of medicinal plants is
growing or decreasing, but the indications are that the last
generation knows more than the present. However, most of
the present generation does teach their children about the
use of medicinal plants. he present study also showed what
medicinal plants the respondents used for which purposes. It
would be interesting to evaluate the properties of the species
used in bioassays. Similarly, the plant knowledge of patients
at both facilities was largely identical, with an essentially overlapping selection of common, mostly introduced, species, and
basically the same number of medicinal plants mentioned
overall. his indicates that traditional medicinal knowledge
is a major part of a people’s culture that is being maintained
while patients are also embracing the beneits of western
medicine.
his attitude does however lead to profound challenges
when it comes to the safety of the plants employed,
in particular for applications that require long-term use.
26
Bussmann et al. [667] found that various species were
oten sold under the same common names. Some of the
diferent fresh species were readily identiiable botanically,
but neither the collectors nor the vendors do made a direct
distinction between species. However, oten material was sold
in inely powdered form, which makes the morphological
identiication of the species in the market impossible and
greatly increases the risk for the buyer. he best way to
ensure correct identiication would be DNA bar-coding. he
necessary technical infrastructure is however not available
locally. he use of DNA bar-coding as quality control tool to
verify species composition of samples on a large scale would
require to carefully sample every batch of plant material
sold in the market. he volatility of the markets make this
is an impossible logistical task. Oten the same or closely
related species mentioned in literature sell under wide variety
of common names. Worse, one species might be sold; for
example, “Hercampuri,” in one location or market stand,
while selling under a diferent name at a neighboring stand.
As expected there is no consistency in the dosage of plants
used nor do vendors agree on possible side efects.
Studies indicate that the plant use in Northern Peru,
although footing on a millennial tradition, has changed
considerably even during the last decades. Even in case of
plant species used for very clearly circumscribed applications,
patients run a considerable risk when purchasing their
remedies in the local markets, and the possible side efects can
be serious. Much more control and a much more stringent
identiication of the material sold in public markets and
entering the global supply chain via Internet sales would be
needed.
Conflict of Interests
he author declares that he has no conlict of interests.
References
[1] World Health Organization, Consultation Meeting on TM and
Modern Medicine, Harmonizing the Two Approaches, (WP)TM/
ICP/TM/001/RB/98–RS/99/GE/32(CHN), World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 1999.
[2] World Health Organization, Traditional, Complementary and
Alternative Medicines and herapies, Working group OPS/OMS,
WHO Regional Oice for the Americas/Pan American Health
Organization, Washington, DC, USA, 1999.
[3] World Health Organization, “WHO Traditional Medicine Strategy 2002–2005,” World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 2002.
[4] World Health Organization, “Technical brieing on traditional
medicine,” in Proceedings of the 49th Regional Committee
Meeting, WHO Regional Oice for the Western Paciic, Manila,
Philippines, 1998.
[5] P. Fisher and A. Ward, “Medicine in Europe, complementary
medicine in Europe,” British Medical Journal, vol. 309, no. 6947,
pp. 107–111, 1994.
[6] Health Canada, Perspectives on Complementary and Alternative
Health Care. A Collection of Papers Prepared For Health Canada,
Health Canada, Ottawa, Canada, 2001.
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
[7] G. Domenighetti, R. Grilli, O. Guillod, F. Gutzwiller, and J.
Quaglia, “Usage personnel de pratiques relevant des médecines
douces ou alternatives parmi les médecins suisses,” Medecine et
Hygiene, vol. 58, no. 2291, pp. 570–572, 2000.
[8] C. Zollman and A. J. Vickers, ABC of Complementary Medicine,
BMJ Books, London, UK, 2000.
[9] D. M. Eisenberg, R. B. Davis, S. L. Ettner et al., “Trends in
alternative medicine use in the United States, 1990–1997: results
of a follow-up national survey,” Journal of the American Medical
Association, vol. 280, no. 18, pp. 1569–1575, 1998.
[10] United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, Systems and National Experiences For Protecting Traditional Knowledge, Innovations and Practices, TD/B/COM.1/EM.13/2, Background Note by the UNCTAD Secretariat Geneva, United
Nations Conference on Trade and Development, Geneva, Switzerland, 2000.
[11] P. Breevort, he Booming U.S. Botanical Market, a New
Overview, vol. 44, HerbalGram.
[12] J. C. Tilbert and T. J. Kaptchuk, “Herbal medicine research and
global health, an ethical analysis,” Bulletin of the World Health
Organization, vol. 86, pp. 594–599, 2008.
[13] Global Industry Analysts Inc, “Herbal Supplements and Remedies, A Global Strategic Business Report,” Global Industry
Analysts, San Jose, Calif, USA, 2012.
[14] EsSalud/Organización Panamericana de Salud, Study of Cost
Efectiveness, National Program in Complementary Medicine.
Social Security of EsSalud, EsSalud/Organización Panamericana
de Salud, Lima, Peru, 2000.
[15] N. Monardes, Primera y segunda y tercera partes de la história
medicinal de las cosasque se traen de nuestras Indias Occidentales, que sirven en medicina; Tratado de la piedra bezaar, y de la
yerva escuerçonera; Diálogo de las grandezas del hierro, y de sus
virtudes medicinales; Tratado de la nieve, y del beuer frio, Alonso
Escrivano, Seville, Spain, 1574.
[16] J. de Acosta, Historia Natural y Moral de las Indias, Sevilla,
Spain, 1590.
[17] B. Cobo, Historia Del Nuevo Mundo, 2 Tomos, Sevilla, Spain,
1653.
[18] B. Cobo, Historia del Nuevo Mundo, edited by F. de Mateos,
Ediciones Atlas, Madrid, spain, 1956.
[19] D. B. Marı́nez Compañon, Razón de las Especies de la Naturaleza
y del arte del Obispado de Trujillo del Perú. Tomos III-V, Sevilla,
Spain, 1789.
[20] I. Schjellerup, “Razon de las especies de la naturaleza y del arte
del obispado de trujillo del Peru del obispo D. balazar martinez
compagñon,” in Medicina Tradicional, Conocimento Milenario,
E. Vergara and R. Vásquez, Eds., vol. 1 of Serie Antropologı́a, pp.
128–152, 2009.
[21] D. Sharon and R. W. Bussmann, in Plantas Medicinales en la
Obra del Obispo Don Baltasar Jaime Martı́nez Compagñon (Siglo
XVIII), L. Millones and T. Kato, Eds., Desde el exterior, El Perú
y sus estudios. Tercer Congreso Internacional de Peruanistas,
Nagoya, pp. 147–165, UNMSM, Lima, Peru, 2006.
[22] H. Ruiz, Relación del viaje hecho a los reynos del Perú y Chile.
1777–1788, Translated by R. E. Schultes, and M. J. Nemry von
henen de Jaramillo-Arango as ‘he Journals of Hipólito Ruiz’,
Timber Press, Portland, Ore, USA, 1998.
[23] A. Raimondi, Elementos de Botánica Aplicada a la Medicina y la
Industria, Lima, Peru, 1857.
[24] D. Sharon, Shamanismo y el Cacto Sagrado—Shamanism and
the Sacred Cactus, vol. 37, San Diego Museum Papers, 2000.
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
[25] B. Glass-Coin, D. Sharon, and S. Uceda, “Curanderos a la
sombra de la Huaca de la luna,” Bulletin Instute Francais d’Etudes
Andines, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 81–95, 2004.
[26] E. Béjar, R. W. Bussmann, C. Roa, and D. Sharon, “Pharmacological search for active ingredients in medicinal plants of
Latin America,” in Proceedings of the International Symposium
on Herbal Medicine, A Holistic Approach, T. Shuman, M. Garrett,
and L. Wozniak, Eds., pp. 63–81, SDSU International Institute
for Human Resources Development, San Diego, Calif, USA,
1997.
[27] E. Béjar, R. W. Bussmann, C. Roa, and D. Sharon, Herbs of
Southern Ecuador—Hierbas del sur Ecuatoriano, Latin Herbal
Press, San Diego, Calif, USA, 2001.
[28] R. W. Bussmann, “Manteniendo el balance de naturaleza y
hombre, La diversidad.lorı́stica andina y su importancia por
la diversidad cultural—ejemplos del Norte de Perú y Sur de
Ecuador,” Arnaldoa, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 382–397, 2006.
[29] R. W. Bussmann and D. Sharon, Plants of Longevity—he
Medicinal Flora of Vilcabamba, Graicart, Trujillo, Peru, 2007.
[30] L. Brako and J. L. Zarucchi, Eds., Catalogue of the Flowering
Plants and Gymnosperms of Peru, Missouri Botanical Garden,
Saint Louis, Mo, USA, 1993.
[31] A. Brack Egg, Biodiversidad, Pobreza y Bionegocios, Lima, Peru,
2004.
[32] A. Brack Egg, Diccionario Enciclopédico de Plantas Útiles del
Perú, PNUD-CBC, Cuscso, Peru, 1999.
[33] A. Alarco de Zandra, Perú, el Libro de las Plantas Mágicas,
Concytec, Lima, Peru, 1988.
[34] M. La Torre-Cuadros and J. Albán Castillo, “Etnobotánica en los
Andes del Perú,” in Botánica Económica de los Andes Centrales,
M. Morales, L. Ollgaard, L. Kvist, F. Borchsenius, and H. Balslev,
Eds., pp. 239–245, 2006.
[35] F. Larco Herrera, “Plantas que curan y plantas que matan de la
Flora del Cusco,” Revista Del Museo Nacional, Lima, vol. 9, no.
1, pp. 74–127, 1940.
[36] H. Valdizan and Y. A. Maldonado, La Medicina Popular Peruana, Torres Aguirre, Lima, Peru, 1922.
[37] J. Soukup, Vocabulario de los nombres tradicionales de la Flora
Peruana y catálogo de los géneros, Editorial Salesiana, Lima,
Peru, 1987.
[38] T. A. López, C. M. Campero, R. Chayer, and M. De Hoyos,
“Ergotism and photosensitization in swine produced by the
combined ingestion of Claviceps purpurea sclerotia and Ammi
majus seeds,” Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation, vol.
9, no. 1, pp. 68–71, 1997.
[39] E. C. De Ferreira, “Plantas medicinales alto-andinas,” Boletin de
la Colonia Suiza en el Peru, vol. 1, pp. 1–6, 1978.
[40] E. C. De Ferreira, “Plantas que curan las heridas del hombre y
los animales,” Boletı́n de Lima, vol. 1, pp. 1–12, 1981.
[41] J. A. Duke and Y. R. Velazquez, Amazonian Ethnobotanical
Dictionary, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla, USA, 1994.
[42] L. Camino, Cerros, Plantas y Lagunas Ponderosas—La Medicina
al Norte del Perú, Lluvia Editores, Lima, Peru, 1999.
[43] G. Cruz Sánchez, “Informe sobre las aplicaciones populares
de la cimora en el norte del Perú,” Revista de Farmacologia y
Medicina Experimental, vol. 1, pp. 253–258, 1948.
[44] M. Dobkin de Rios, “Trichocereus pachanoi—a mescaline cactus
used in folk healing in Peru,” Economic Botany, vol. 22, no. 2, pp.
191–194, 1968.
27
[45] M. Dobkin de Rios, “Folk curing with a psychedelic cactus in the
north coast of Peru,” International Journal of Social Psychiatry,
vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 23–32, 1968.
[46] M. L. Bristol, “Tree Datura drugs of the Columbian Sibundoy,”
Botanical Museum Lealets, vol. 22, pp. 165–227, 1969.
[47] D. M. Crosby and J. L. McLaughlin, “Cactus alkaloids—19.
Crystallization of mescaline HCl and 3 methoxytyramine HCl
from Trichocereus pachanoi,” Lloydia, vol. 36, no. 4, pp. 416–418,
1973.
[48] M. D. Dobkin de Rios, “Plant Hallucinogens and the religion
of the Mochica-an ancient Peruvian people,” Economic Botany,
vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 189–203, 1977.
[49] M. Dobkin De Rios and M. Cardenas, “Plant hallucinogens,
shamanism and Nazca ceramics,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 233–246, 1980.
[50] S. Pummangura, J. L. McLaughlin, and R. C. Schiferdecker,
“Cactus alkaloids—LI. Lack of mescaline translocation in
grated Trichocereus,” Journal of Natural Products, vol. 45, no.
2, pp. 215–216, 1982.
[51] R. T. Martin, “he role of coca in the history, religion, and
medicine of South American Indians,” Economic Botany, vol. 24,
no. 4, pp. 422–438, 1970.
[52] P. Naranjo, “Social function of coca in pre-Columbian America,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 3, no. 2-3, pp. 161–172,
1981.
[53] T. Plowman, “Amazonian coca,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology,
vol. 3, no. 2-3, pp. 195–225, 1981.
[54] T. Plowman, “he ethnobotany of coca (Erythroxylum spp.,
Erythroxylaceae),” Advances in Economic Botany, vol. 1, pp. 62–
111, 1984.
[55] T. Plowman, “he origin, evolution, and difusion of coca,
Erythroxylum spp., in South and Central America,” Papers of the
Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, vol. 76, pp. 125–
163, 1984.
[56] L. Rivier and J.-E. Lindgren, “Ayahuasca, the South American
hallucinogenic drink: an ethnobotanical and chemical investigation,” Economic Botany, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 101–129, 1972.
[57] D. J. McKenna, L. E. Luna, and C. H. N. Towers, “Ingredientes
biodinámicos en las plantas que se mezclan al ayahuasca. Una
farmacopea tradicional no identiicada,” América Indı́gena, vol.
46, pp. 73–98, 1986.
[58] R. E. Schultes and R. Rafauf, Vine of the Soul, Synergetic Press,
Oracle, Ariz, USA, 1992.
[59] A. Bianchi and G. Samorini, “Plants in associacion with Ayahasuca,” Jahrbuch Ethnomedizin, vol. 2, pp. 21–42, 1993.
[60] M. Chiappe, M. Lemlij, and L. Millones, Alucinógenos y
Shamanismo en el Peru Contemporáneo, El Virrey, Lima, Peru,
1985.
[61] F. Cabieses Molina, “he magic plants of ancient Perú,” in Atti
del V Congresso Nazionale della Società Italiana di Fitochimica,
p. LP2, 1990.
[62] R. E. Schultes and A. Hofmann, Plants of the Gods, Healing Arts
Press, Rochester, NY, USA, 1992.
[63] F. Cabieses Molina, La Uña de Gato u su Entorno. De la Selva a
la Farmacia, Universidad de San Martin De Porres, Lima, Peru,
2000.
[64] E. Yacovlef and F. Larco-Herrera, “El Mundo Vegetal de los
antiguos peruanos,” Revista del Museo Nacional, vol. 4, 1935.
[65] A. Weberbauer, El Mundo Vegetal de los Andes Peruanos, Lima,
Peru, 1945.
28
[66] M. A. Towle, he Ethnobotany of Peru, Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, 1961.
[67] O. Valdivia Ponce, Hampicamayoc. Medicina Folklórica y su
Substrato Aborı́gen en el Perú, Universidad Nacional Mayor de
San Marcos, Lima, Peru, 1975.
[68] J. A. Lira, Medicina Andina. Farmacopea y Rituales, Centro
Bartolome de las Casas, Cusco, Peru, 1974.
[69] C. Franquemont, T. Plowman, E. Franquemont et al., “he Ethnobotany of Chinchero, an Andean Community in Southern
Peru,” Fieldiana Botany New Series, vol. 24, 1990.
[70] L. Girault, Kallawaya, Curanderos Itinerantes de los Andes,
UNICEF-OPS-OMS, La Paz, Bolivia, 1987.
[71] J. Bastien, Drum and Stethoscope, Integrating Ethnomedicine and
Biomedicine in Bolivia, University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City,
Utah, USA, 1992.
[72] J. Bastien, Healers of the Andes, Kallawaya Herbalists and heir
Medicinal Plants, University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, Utah,
USA, 1987.
[73] C. Roersch and Y. L. van der Hoogte, “Plantas medicinales
del surandino del Perú,” in II Congreso Internacional de PlantasTradicionales, Lima, Peru, 1988.
[74] C. Roersch, Plantas Medicinales en el Sur Andino del Perú, Koeltz
Scientiic Books, Königstein, Germany, 1994.
[75] M. J. Macı́a, E. Garcı́a, and P. J. Vidaurre, “An ethnobotanical
survey of medicinal plants commercialized in the markets of la
Paz and El Alto, Bolivia,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 97,
no. 2, pp. 337–350, 2005.
[76] G. T. Prance, “Ethnobotanical notes from Amazonian Brazil,”
Economic Botany, vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 221–237, 1972.
[77] R. Vazquez, Plantas Útiles de la Amazonia Peruana, Iquitos,
Peru, Peru, 1989.
[78] E. M. Jovel, J. Cabanillas, and G. H. N. Towers, “An ethnobotanical study of the traditional medicine of the Mestizo people of
Suni Miraio, Loreto, Peru,” Current Anthropology, vol. 46, no.
4, 2005.
[79] F. Cabieses Molina, Apuntes De Medicina Tradicional, vol. 1-2,
Diselpesa, Lima, Peru, 1993.
[80] F. Cabieses Molina, Apuntes de Medicina Tradicional, la
Racionalización de lo Irracional, CONCYTEC, Lima, Peru, 1993.
[81] E. Meza, Ed., ‘Sangre del Grado’ y el Reto de su Producción
Sustentable en el Perú, Universidad de San Marcos, 2002.
[82] M. Polia, Las Lagunas de los Encantos—Medicina Tradicional
Andina en el Peru. septentrional.
[83] V. De Feo, C. della Valle, F. De Simone, and C. Pizza, “Chemical constituents and antimicrobial activity of Arcytophyllum
nitidum HBK,” Annali di Chimica, vol. 82, pp. 476–486, 1992.
[84] V. De Feo, “Ethnomedical ield study in northern Peruvian
Andes with particular reference to divination practices,” Journal
of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 85, no. 2-3, pp. 243–256, 2003.
[85] V. De Feo, “Medicinal and magical plants in the northern
Peruvian Andes,” Fitoterapia, vol. 63, no. 5, pp. 417–440, 1992.
[86] G. B. Hammond, I. D. Fernández, L. F. Villegas, and A. J.
Vaisberg, “A survey of traditional medicinal plants from the
Callejon de Huaylas, Department of Ancash, Peru,” Journal of
Ethnopharmacology, vol. 61, no. 1, pp. 17–30, 1998.
[87] F. Rodriguez, Plantas de Uso Etnobotánica de la Zona Baja de
los Valles de Pativilca y Fortaleza, Provincia de Barranca, Lima
[Tesis de Licenciado de Biologı́a], Universidad Peruana Cayetano
Heredia, Lima, Peru, 2007.
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
[88] N. Farnsworth, O. Akerele, A. Bingel, D. Soejarto, and Z. Guo,
“Medicinal plants in therapy,” Bulletin of the World Health
Organization, vol. 63, no. 6, pp. 965–981, 1985.
[89] C. A. Seguin, La Enfermedad el Enfermo y el Médico, Piramide,
Madrid, Spain, 1982.
[90] C. A. Seguin, Medicinas Tradicionales Y Medicina Folkórica,
Banco Central de Reserva Peru, Lima, Peru, 1988.
[91] C. Hayden, When Nature Goes Public, the Making and Unmaking of Bioprospecting in Mexico, Princeton University Press,
Oxford, UK, 2003.
[92] T. H. Pallardel Peralta, “Plantas útiles para emergencia y
primeros auxilios,” in II Congreso Internacional de Plantas
Tradicionales, Lima, Peru, 1988.
[93] R. A. Rutter, “Catálogo de plantas útiles de la Amazonia
Peruana,” Comunidades y Culturas Peruanas, vol. 22, pp. 1–349,
1990.
[94] F. Cabieses Molina, La Salud y los Dioses, La Medicina en el
Antiguo Perú, Universidad Cientı́ica del Sur, Lima, Peru, 2007.
[95] F. Cabieses Molina, Ayer y Hoy (Las Plantas Medicinales),
Imprenta Luis Ramos Dı́az, Lima, Peru, 2003.
[96] B. Venero, “Componentes de la Diversidad Biológica Peruana
Patentados en el Extranjero, La Experiencia de Maca. Cómo
combatir la biopiraterı́a,” in Como Prevenir la Biopirateria en el
Peru Relexiones y Propuestas, P. Ferro and M. Ruiz, Eds., pp.
74–78, Lerma Gómez E.I.R.L., Lima, Peru, 2005.
[97] M. Chumpitaz, “De su propia medicina,” Somos, vol. 1164, pp.
28–31, 2009.
[98] Z. Portillo, “Peru’s patent win strikes blow against biopiracy.
Science and Development Network,” 2009, http://www.scidev
.net/en/news/peru-s-patent-win-strikes-blow-against-biopiracy
.html.
[99] A. M. Fernández Honores and E. F. Rodrı́gues Rodrı́guez,
Etnobotánica del Perú Pre-Hispáno, Universidad Nacional Trujillo, Peru, 2007.
[100] K. Moran, S. R. King, and T. J. Carlson, “Biodiversity prospecting: lessons and prospects,” Annual Review of Anthropology, vol.
30, pp. 505–526, 2001.
[101] M. M. Iwu, “Implementing the biodiversity treaty: how to
make international co-operative agreements work,” Trends in
Biotechnology, vol. 3-4, no. 146, pp. 67–107, 1996.
[102] X. Buitron, Ecuador, Uso Y Comercio De Plantasmedicinales,
Situacion Actual Y Aspectos importante sparasu conservación,
TRAFFIC International, Cambridge, UK, 1999.
[103] R. E. Schultes and R. Rafauf, he Healing Forest, Dioscorides
Press, Portland, Ore, USA, 1990.
[104] E. Elisabetsky and Z. C. Castilhos, “Plants used as analgesics
by Amazonian caboclos as a basis for selecting plants for
investigation,” International Journal of Crude Drug Research,
vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 309–320, 1990.
[105] P. A. Cox and M. J. Balick, “he ethnobotanical approach to
drug discovery,” Scientiic American, vol. 270, no. 6, pp. 82–87,
1994.
[106] R. E. Schultes, “Amazonian ethnobotany and the search for new
drugs,” in Proceedings of the Ciba Foundation Symposium, vol.
185, pp. 106–115, Wiley, Chichester, UK, 1994.
[107] M. Brown, Who Owns Native Culture? Harvard University
Press, Cambridge, UK, 2003.
[108] W. Reid, “he economic realities of biodiversity,” Issues in
Science and Technology, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 48–55, 1993.
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
[109] P. Mooney, “Aprovechando la diversidad, una nota sobre la
diversidad biológica y el conocimiento indı́gena,” América
Indı́gena, vol. 3, pp. 41–55, 1993.
[110] J. T. Baker, R. P. Borris, B. Carté et al., “Natural product drug
discovery and development: new perspectives on international
collaboration,” Journal of Natural Products, vol. 58, no. 9, pp.
1325–1357, 1995.
[111] P. Angulo, “Nuevos enfoques en la investigación de plantas
medicinales,” in Medicina Tradicional Andina, Planteamientos
Y Aproximaciones, R. Garrafa, Ed., pp. 351–384, CBC/CMA,
Cuzco, Spain, 2009.
[112] M. Manek and R. Lettington, “Indigenous knowledge rituals,
recognizing alternative worldviews,” Cultural Survival Quarterly, vol. 8-9, 2001.
[113] T. Greaves, “Cultural rights and ethnography,” General Anthropology, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 3–6, 1995.
[114] K. Bannister and K. Barrett, “Challenging the status quo in
ethnobotany, A new paradigm for publication may protect
cultural knowledge and traditional resources,” Cultural Survival
Quarterly, vol. 24, pp. 10–12, 2001.
[115] M. Ferro and P. Ruiz, Cómo prevenir la Biopiraterı́a en el Perú?
Relexiones y Propuestas, Lerma Gómez E.I.R.L, Lima, Peru,
2005.
[116] M. Ferro and P. Ruiz, Eds., Apuntes Sobre Agrobiodiversidad,
Conservación, Biotecnologı́a Y Conocimientos Tradicionales,
Lerma Gómez E.I.R.L., Lima, Peru, 2005.
[117] J. Agurto, “Comentarios de panelistas,” in Como prevenir la
Biopirateria en el Peru Relexiones y Propuestas, pp. 70–73,
Lerma Gomez E.I.R.L., Lima, Peru.
[118] L. Abad, Etnocidio y Resistencia en la Amazonia Peruana,
Ediciones de la Universidad de Castilla-la Mancha, Cuenca,
Spain, 2003.
[119] P. M. Unnikrishnan and M. S. Suneetha, Biodiversity, Traditional
Knowledge and Community Health, Strengthening Linkages,
United Nations University-Institute of Advanced Studies, Yokohama, Japan, 2012.
[120] G. Alam and J. Belt, “Developing a medicinal plant value chain,
Lessons from an initiative to cultivate kuti (Picrorhiza kurrooa)
in Northern India,” in KIT Working Papers Series, pp. 1–14, he
Royal Tropical Institute (KIT), he Netherlands, 2009.
[121] M. Balick and R. Mendelsohn, “Assessing the economic value
of traditional medicines from tropical forests,” Conservation
Biology, vol. 6, pp. 128–129, 1992.
[122] J. Lambert, J. Srivastava, and N. Vietmeyer, “Medicinal plants,
rescuing a global heritage,” he World Bank Technical Paper
355, Washington, DC, USA, 1997.
[123] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
Medicinal Plants for Forest Conservation and Health Care, Global
Initiative for Traditional Systems, Non-Wood Forest Products
No. 11. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations, 1997.
[124] R. W. Bussmann and D. Sharon, Plants of the Four Winds—
he Magic and Medicinal Flora of Peru, Graicart, Trujillo, Peru,
2007.
[125] R. W. Bussmann and D. Sharon, “Traditional medicinal plant
use in Loja province, Southern Ecuador,” Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, vol. 2, article 44, 2006.
[126] R. W. Bussmann and D. Sharon, “Traditional medicinal plant
use in Northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of healing
culture,” Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, vol. 2,
article 47, 2006.
29
[127] R. W. Bussmann, A. Glenn, K. Meyer, A. Kuhlman, and
A. Townesmith, “Herbal mixtures in traditional medicine in
Northern Peru,” Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, vol.
6, article 10, 2010.
[128] R. W. Bussmann, D. Sharon, I. Vandebroek, A. Jones, and Z.
Revene, “Health for sale: the medicinal plant markets in Trujillo
and Chiclayo, Northern Peru,” Journal of Ethnobiology and
Ethnomedicine, vol. 3, article 37, 2007.
[129] R. W. Bussmann, D. Sharon, and A. Lopez, “Blending traditional
and Western medicine: medicinal plant use among patients at
Clinica Anticona in El Porvenir, Peru,” Ethnobotany Research
and Applications, vol. 5, pp. 185–199, 2007.
[130] R. W. Bussmann, D. Sharon, and M. Garcia, “From chamomile
to Aspirin? Medicinal plant use among clients at Laboratorios
Beal in Trujillo, Peru,” Ethnobotany Research and Applications,
vol. 7, pp. 399–407, 2009.
[131] R. W. Bussmann, G. Malca-Garcı́a, A. Glenn et al., “Minimum
inhibitory concentrations of medicinal plants used in Northern
Peru as antibacterial remedies,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology,
vol. 132, no. 1, pp. 101–108, 2010.
[132] R. W. Bussmann, G. Malca, A. Glenn et al., “Toxicity of
medicinal plants used in traditional medicine in Northern
Peru,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 137, no. 1, pp. 121–140,
2011.
[133] R. W. Bussmann, D. Sharon, D. Diaz, and Y. Barocio, “Peruvian plants canchalagua (Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze),
hercampuri (Gentianella alborosea (Gilg.) Fabris), and corpus
way (Gentianella bicolor (Wedd.) J. Pringle) prove to be efective
in the treatment of acné,” Arnaldoa, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 149–152,
2008.
[134] R. W. Bussmann, D. Sharon, and F. Perez, “Antibacterial activity
of north-peruvian medicinal plants,” Arnaldoa, vol. 15, no. 1, pp.
127–148, 2008.
[135] R. W. Bussmann, D. Sharon, F. Perez, D. Dı́az, T. Ford, and T.
Rasheed, “Antibacterial activity of Northern-Peruvian Medicinal Plants—a low cost laboratory.approach to assess biological
activity,” Arnaldoa, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 127–148, 2008.
[136] R. W. Bussmann, A. Glenn, and K. Meyer, “Antibacterial activity
of medicinal plants of Northern Peru—part 2,” Arnaldoa, vol. 16,
no. 1, pp. 93–103, 2009.
[137] R. W. Bussmann, A. Glenn, D. Sharon et al., “Proving that traditional knowledge works: the antibacterial activity of Northern
Peruvian medicinal plants,” Ethnobotany Research and Applications, vol. 9, pp. 67–98, 2011.
[138] R. W. Bussmann, A. Glenn, K. Meyer et al., “Phyto-chemical
analysis of oeruvian medicinal plants,” Arnaldoa, vol. 16, no. 1,
pp. 105–110, 2009.
[139] F. Perez, F. Rodrı́guez, G. León et al., “Estudio itoquı́mico y
antibacteriana de mezclas de plantas medicinales. En búsqueda
de nuevos componentes,” Pueblo Continente, vol. 23, no. 2, pp.
339–343, 2012.
[140] R. W. Bussmann and A. Glenn, “Cooling the heat traditional
remedies for Malaria and fever in Northern Peru,” Ethnobotany
Research and Applications, vol. 8, pp. 125–134, 2010.
[141] R. W. Bussmann and D. Sharon, “Naming a phantom—the quest
to ind the identity of Ulluchu, an unidentiied ceremonial plant
of the Moche culture in Northern Peru,” Journal of Ethnobiology
and Ethnomedicine, vol. 5, article 8, 2009.
[142] Z. Revene, R. W. Bussmann, and D. Sharon, “Tracing the supply
of medicinal plants in Northern Peru—a plant collector’s tale,”
Ethnobotany Research and Applications, vol. 6, pp. 15–22, 2008.
30
[143] L. Carrillo, “Scientiic validation? How bioprospecting laboratory practices contribute to the devaluation of traditional
medicinal knowledge,” he Berkeley McNair Research Journal,
vol. 19, 2012.
[144] D. Sharon, B. Glass-Coin, and R. W. Bussmann, “La mesa de
Julia Calderón de Ávila,” in Medicina Tradicional Conocimiento
Milenario, C. Galvez, Ed., Serie Antropologı́a 1, pp. 245–254,
Museo de Arquelogı́a, Antropologı́a e Historia, Facultad de
Ciencias Sociales, Universidad Nacional de Trujillo, 2009.
[145] D. Sharon and C. Galvez, “La mesa de leoncio carrión,” in
Medicina Tradicional Conocimiento Milenario, C. Galvez, Ed.,
Serie Antropologı́a 1, pp. 236–244, Museo de Arquelogı́a,
Antropologı́a e Historia, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Universidad Nacional de Trujillo, 2009.
[146] D. Sharon, “Tuno y sus colegas: notas comparativas,” in
Medicina Tradicional Conocimiento Milenario, C. Galvez, Ed.,
Serie Antropologı́a no 1, pp. 255–267, Museo de Arquelogı́a,
Antropologı́a e Historia, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Universidad Nacional de Trujillo, 2009.
[147] R. Sánchez Garrafas and R. Sánchez Garrafas, Medicina Tradicional Andina, Planteamientos y Aproximaciones, CMA/CBC,
Cuzco, Spain, 2009.
[148] E. Vergara and R. Vásquez, Medicina Tradicional, Conocimiento
Milenario, vol. 1 of Serie Antropologı́a, Museo de Arqueologı́a,
Antropologı́a e Historia, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Universidad Nacional de Trujillo, Trujillo, Peru, 2009.
[149] M. Fernández, “La OMS y los sistemas médicos tradicionales,”
in Medicina Tradicional, Planteamientos y Aproximaciones, R.
Garrafa, Ed., pp. 325–371, CBC/CMA, Cuzco, Spain, 2009.
[150] M. Villar and O. Villavicencio, Manual de Fitoterapia, OPS/
OMS/EsSalud-Programa Nacional de Medicina Complementaria, Lima, Peru, 2001.
[151] J. F. McBride, Flora of Peru, Field Museum of Natural History,
Chicago, Ill, USA, 1981.
[152] “Catalogue of the vascular plants of Ecuador,” in Monographs
in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden, P. M.
Jørgensen and S. León-Yanez, Eds., vol. 75, 1999.
[153] P. M. Jørgensen and C. Ulloa Ulloa, “Seed plants of the High
Andes of Ecuador—a checklist,” AAU Reports, vol. 34, pp. 1–443,
1994.
[154] H. U. Pestalozzi, Flora Ilustrada Altoandina, Herbario Nacional
de Bolivia and Herbario.Forestal Nacional Martı́n Cardenas,
Cochabamba, Bolivia, 1998.
[155] C. Ulloa Ulloa and P. M. Jørgensen, “Arboles y arbustos de los
Andes del Ecuador,” AAU Reports, vol. 30, pp. 1–263, 1993.
[156] V. van den Eynden, C. Cueva, and O. Cabrera, “‘Climbing
Peanuts’ and “Dog’s Testicles”. Mestizo and Shuar plant nomenclature in Ecuador,” Journal of Ethnobiology, vol. 24, no. 2, pp.
279–306, 2004.
[157] R. W. Bussmann and D. Sharon, “Shadows of the colonial pastdiverging plant use in Northern Peru and Southern Ecuador,”
Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, vol. 5, article 4,
2009.
[158] World Health Organization, Declaración de Alma Ata, World
Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 2009.
[159] D. Sharon, Wizard of the Four Winds, A Shamans Story, Free
Press, New York, NY, USA, 1978.
[160] D. Sharon, El Chamán de los Cuatro Vientos, Siglo veintiuno
editores, DF, Mexico, 1980.
[161] D. Sharon, “Tuno y sus colegas, notas comparativas,” in En el
Nombre del Señor, Shamanes, Demonios y Curanderos del Norte
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
[162]
[163]
[164]
[165]
[166]
[167]
[168]
[169]
[170]
[171]
[172]
[173]
[174]
[175]
[176]
del Perú, L. Millones and M. Lemlij, Eds., pp. 128–147, Australis
S.A., Lima, Peru, 1994.
D. Joralemon and D. Sharon, Sorcery and Shamanism, Curanderos and Clients in Northern Peru, University of Utah Press,
Salt Lake City, Utah, USA, 1993.
E. Oblitas, Plantas Medicinales de Bolivia, Editorial Los Amigos
del Libro, La Paz, Bolivia, 1992.
R. P. Kohli, P. R. Dua, K. Shanker, and R. C. Saxena, “Some
central efects of an essential oil of Apium graveolens (Linn.),”
he Indian Journal of Medical Research, vol. 55, no. 10, pp. 1099–
1102, 1967.
V. K. Kulshrestha, N. Singh, R. C. Saxena, and R. P. Kohli, “A
study of central pharmacological activity of alkaloid fraction of
Apium graveolens Linn,” he Indian Journal of Medical Research,
vol. 58, no. 1, pp. 99–102, 1970.
W. Choochote, B. Tuetun, D. Kanjanapothi et al., “Potential of
crude seed extract of celery, Apium graveolens L., against the
mosquito Aedes aegypti (L.) (Diptera: Culicidae),” Journal of
Vector Ecology, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 340–346, 2004.
A. P. Tafreshi, A. Ahmadi, M. Ghafarpur et al., “An Iranian
herbal-marine medicine, MS14, ameliorates experimental allergic encephalomyelitis,” Phytotherapy Research, vol. 22, no. 8, pp.
1083–1086, 2008.
M. Emamghoreishi, M. Khasaki, and M. F. Aazam, “Coriandrum sativum: evaluation of its anxiolytic efect in the elevated
plus-maze,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 96, no. 3, pp.
365–370, 2005.
J. Bradwejn, Y. Zhou, D. Koszycki, and J. Shlik, “A double-blind,
placebo-controlled study on the efects of Gotu Kola (Centella
asiatica) on acoustic startle response in healthy subjects,”
Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, vol. 20, no. 6, pp. 680–
684, 2000.
M. H. Veerendra Kumar and Y. K. Gupta, “Efect of Centella
asiatica on cognition and oxidative stress in an intracerebroventricular streptozotocin model of Alzheimer’s disease in rats,”
Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology, vol. 30,
no. 5-6, pp. 336–342, 2003.
E. Ernst, “Herbal remedies for anxiety—a systematic review of
controlled clinical trials,” Phytomedicine, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 205–
208, 2006.
G. Saxena and S. J. S. Flora, “Changes in brain biogenic amines
and haem biosynthesis and their response to combined administration of succimers and Centella asiatica in lead poisoned
rats,” Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, vol. 58, no. 4, pp.
547–559, 2006.
P. Wijeweera, J. T. Arnason, D. Koszycki, and Z. Merali,
“Evaluation of anxiolytic properties of Gotukola—(Centella
asiatica) extracts and asiaticoside in rat behavioral models,”
Phytomedicine, vol. 13, no. 9-10, pp. 668–676, 2006.
R. Awad, D. Levac, P. Cybulska, Z. Merali, V. L. Trudeau, and J. T.
Arnason, “Efects of traditionally used anxiolytic botanicals on
enzymes of the �-aminobutyric acid (GABA) system,” Canadian
Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, vol. 85, no. 9, pp. 933–
942, 2007.
I. Corral, P. Martı́n-Dávila, J. Fortún et al., “Trends in neurological complications of endocarditis,” Journal of Neurology, vol.
254, no. 9, pp. 1253–1259, 2007.
N. R. Barbosa, F. Pittella, and W. F. Gattaz, “Centella asiatica
water extract inhibits iPLA2 and cPLA2 activities in rat cerebellum,” Phytomedicine, vol. 15, no. 10, pp. 896–900, 2008.
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
[177] K. Ponnusamy, M. Mohan, and H. S. Nagaraja, “Protective
antioxidant efect of Centella asiatica biolavonoids on lead
acetate induced neurotoxicity,” he Medical Journal of Malaysia,
vol. 63, p. 102, 2008.
[178] S. Fejes, Á. Kéry, A. Blázovics et al., “Investigation of the in vitro
antioxidant efect of Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Nym. ex A. W.
Hill,” Acta Pharmaceutica Hungarica, vol. 68, no. 3, pp. 150–156,
1998.
[179] B. B. Gaitonde and S. N. Joglekar, “Mechanism of neurotoxicity
of cardiotonic glycosides,” British Journal of Pharmacology, vol.
59, no. 2, pp. 223–229, 1977.
[180] D. Singh and A. Singh, “he toxicity of four native Indian
plants: efect on AChE and acid/alkaline phosphatase level in
ish Channa marulius,” Chemosphere, vol. 60, no. 1, pp. 135–140,
2005.
[181] M. Molina-Hernandez, N. P. Tellez-Alcantara, M. A. Diaz,
J. Perez Garcia, J. I. Olivera Lopez, and M. T. Jaramillo,
“Anticonlict actions of aqueous extracts of lowers of Achillea
millefolium L. vary according to the estrous cycle phases in
Wistar rats,” Phytotherapy Research, vol. 18, no. 11, pp. 915–920,
2004.
[182] T. C. M. De Lima, G. S. Morato, and R. N. Takahashi, “Evaluation of the central properties of Artemisia verlotorum,” Planta
Medica, vol. 59, no. 4, pp. 326–329, 1993.
[183] N. K. Ho, “Traditional Chinese medicine and treatment of
neonatal jaundice,” Singapore Medical Journal, vol. 37, no. 6, pp.
645–651, 1996.
[184] K. Gharzouli, S. Khennouf, S. Amira, and A. Gharzouli, “Efects
of aqueous extracts from Quercus ilex L. root bark, Punica
granatum L. fruit peel and Artemisia herba-alba Asso leaves on
ethanol-induced gastric damage in rats,” Phytotherapy Research,
vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 42–45, 1999.
[185] W. Classen, B. Altmann, P. Gretener, C. Souppart, P. SkeltonStroud, and G. Krinke, “Diferential efects of orally versus
parenterally administered qinghaosu derivative artemether in
dogs,” Experimental and Toxicologic Pathology, vol. 51, no. 6, pp.
507–516, 1999.
[186] S. Haze, K. Sakai, and Y. Gozu, “Efects of fragrance inhalation
on sympathetic activity in normal adults,” Japanese Journal of
Pharmacology, vol. 90, no. 3, pp. 247–253, 2002.
[187] S. Amos, B. A. Chindo, J. Abbah et al., “Postsynaptic dopamine
(D2)-mediated behavioural efects of high acute doses of
artemisinin in rodents,” Brain Research Bulletin, vol. 62, no. 3,
pp. 255–260, 2003.
[188] F. F. Perazzo, J. C. T. Carvalho, J. E. Carvalho, and V. L.
G. Rehder, “Central properties of the essential oil and the
crude ethanol extract from aerial parts of Artemisia annua L,”
Pharmacological Research, vol. 48, no. 5, pp. 497–502, 2003.
[189] F. Vermiglio, V. P. Lo Presti, M. Moleti et al., “Attention deicit
and hyperactivity disorders in the ofspring of mothers exposed
to mild-moderate iodine deiciency: a possible novel iodine
deiciency disorder in developed countries,” Journal of Clinical
Endocrinology and Metabolism, vol. 89, no. 12, pp. 6054–6060,
2004.
[190] T. Y. Oh, G. J. Ahn, S. M. Choi, B. O. Ahn, and W. B. Kim,
“Increased susceptibility of ethanol-treated gastric mucosa to
naproxen and its inhibition by DA-9601, sn Artemisia asiatica
extract,” World Journal of Gastroenterology, vol. 11, no. 47, pp.
7450–7456, 2005.
[191] P. Pereira, D. Tysca, P. Oliveira, L. F. D. S. Brum, J. N. Picada,
and P. Ardenghi, “Neurobehavioral and genotoxic aspects of
31
[192]
[193]
[194]
[195]
[196]
[197]
[198]
[199]
[200]
[201]
[202]
[203]
[204]
[205]
[206]
[207]
rosmarinic acid,” Pharmacological Research, vol. 52, no. 3, pp.
199–203, 2005.
S. M. Salah and A. K. Jäger, “Screening of traditionally
used Lebanese herbs for neurological activities,” Journal of
Ethnopharmacology, vol. 97, no. 1, pp. 145–149, 2005.
D. H. Kim, S. J. Jeon, K. H. Son et al., “he ameliorating efect
of oroxylin A on scopolamine-induced memory impairment in
mice,” Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, vol. 87, no. 4, pp.
536–546, 2007.
Y.-H. Kim, Y.-W. Kim, Y.-J. Oh et al., “Protective efect of
the ethanol extract of the roots of Brassica rapa on cisplatininduced nephrotoxicity in LLC-PK1 cells and rats,” Biological
and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, vol. 29, no. 12, pp. 2436–2441,
2006.
O. L. Beong, G. C. Hae, W.-H. Lee, W. L. Ho, and K. Suk,
“Inhibition of microglial neurotoxicity by ethanol extract of
Artemisia asiatica Nakai,” Phytotherapy Research, vol. 22, no. 2,
pp. 279–282, 2008.
J. Tortoriello and L. Aguilar-Santamarı́a, “Evaluation of the
calcium-antagonist, antidiarrhoeic and central nervous system
activities of Baccharis serraefolia,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 53, no. 3, pp. 157–163, 1996.
S. J. Newsholme, T. S. Kellerman, and W. G. Welman, “Pathology
of a nervous disorder (pushing disease or “stootsiekte”) in cattle
caused by the plant Matricaria nigellifolia DC. (Asteraceae),”
Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research, vol. 51, no. 2, pp.
119–127, 1984.
R. Avallone, P. Zanoli, G. Puia, M. Kleinschnitz, P. Schreier, and
M. Baraldi, “Pharmacological proile of apigenin, a lavonoid
isolated from Matricaria chamomilla,” Biochemical Pharmacology, vol. 59, no. 11, pp. 1387–1394, 2000.
P. Zanoli, R. Avallone, and M. Baraldi, “Behavioral characterisation of the lavonoids apigenin and chrysin,” Fitoterapia, vol.
71, no. 1, supplement, pp. S117–S123, 2000.
K. I. Block, C. Gyllenhaal, and M. N. Mead, “Safety and eicacy
of herbal sedatives in cancer care,” Integrative Cancer herapies,
vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 128–148, 2004.
R. G. Dianova, “Efect of platyphylline on the activity of
certain substances depressing the central nervous system,”
Farmakologiia i Toksikologiia, vol. 23, pp. 106–109, 1960.
J. H. Vos, A. A. J. Geerts, J. W. Borgers, M. H. Mars, J. A. M.
Muskens, and L. A. Van Wuijckhuise-Sjouke, “Senecio jacobaea,
deceiving beauty. Senecio jacobaea poisoning,” Tijdschrit voor
Diergeneeskunde, vol. 127, no. 24, pp. 753–756, 2002.
S. Catalano, P. L. Cioni, A. Menichini, A. R. Bilia, I. Morelli, and
V. De Feo, “Kauranoid diterpenes in Gynoxys oleifolia,” Planta
Medica, vol. 59, no. 3, pp. 278–279, 1993.
N. Chandhoke and B. J. Ghatak, “Studies on Tagetes minuta:
some pharmacological actions of the essential oil,” he Indian
Journal of Medical Research, vol. 57, no. 5, pp. 864–876, 1969.
R. H. Marin, D. A. Garcia, I. D. Martijena, J. A. Zygadlo, A. Arce,
and M. A. Perillo, “Anxiogenic-like efects of Tagetes minuta
L essential oil on T-maze and tonic immobility behaviour in
domestic chicks,” Fundamental and Clinical Pharmacology, vol.
12, no. 4, pp. 426–432, 1998.
G. Guadarrama-Cruz, F. J. Alarcon-Aguilar, R. Lezama-Velasco,
G. Vazquez-Palacios, and H. Bonilla-Jaime, “Antidepressantlike efects of Tagetes lucida Cav. in the forced swimming test,”
Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 120, no. 2, pp. 277–281, 2008.
L. Henderson, Q. Y. Yue, C. Bergquist, B. Gerden, and P. Arlett,
“St John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum): drug interactions and
32
[208]
[209]
[210]
[211]
[212]
[213]
[214]
[215]
[216]
[217]
[218]
[219]
[220]
[221]
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
clinical outcomes,” British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, vol.
54, no. 4, pp. 349–356, 2002.
A. Szegedi, R. Kohnen, A. Dienel, and M. Kieser, “Acute
treatment of moderate to severe depression with hypericum
extract WS 5570 (St John’s wort): randomised controlled double
blind non-inferiority trial versus paroxetine,” British Medical
Journal, vol. 330, no. 7490, pp. 503–506, 2005.
H. Azaizeh, B. Saad, K. Khalil, and O. Said, “he state of the art
of traditional Arab herbal medicine in the Eastern region of the
Mediterranean: a review,” Evidence-Based Complementary and
Alternative Medicine, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 229–235, 2006.
S. Kasper, I.-G. Anghelescu, A. Szegedi, A. Dienel, and M.
Kieser, “Superior eicacy of St John’s wort extract WS 5570
compared to placebo in patients with major depression: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multi-center trial
[ISRCTN77277298],” BMC Medicine, vol. 4, article 14, 2006.
R. Soulimani, J. Fleurentin, F. Mortier, R. Misslin, G. Derrieu,
and J.-M. Pelt, “Neurotropic action of the hydroalcoholic extract
of Melissa oicinalis in the mouse,” Planta Medica, vol. 57, no. 2,
pp. 105–109, 1991.
M. Coleta, M. G. Campos, M. D. Cotrim, and A. Pronça da
Cunha, “Comparative evaluation of Melissa oicinalis L., Tilia
europaea L., Passilora edulis Sims. and Hypericum perforatum
L. in the elevated plus maze anxiety test,” Pharmacopsychiatry,
vol. 34, no. 1, pp. S20–S21, 2001.
M. Herrera-Ruiz, Y. Garcı́a-Beltrán, S. Mora et al., “Antidepressant and anxiolytic efects of hydroalcoholic extract from Salvia
elegans,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 107, no. 1, pp. 53–58,
2006.
L. Huang, S. Abuhamdah, M.-J. R. Howes et al., “Pharmacological proile of essential oils derived from Lavandula angustifolia
and Melissa oicinalis with anti-agitation properties: focus on
ligand-gated channels,” Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology,
vol. 60, no. 11, pp. 1515–1522, 2008.
A. J. Morgan and A. F. Jorm, “Self-help interventions for
depressive disorders and depressive symptoms: a systematic
review,” Annals of General Psychiatry, vol. 7, article 14, 2008.
S. Lahlou, L. D. F. Leal Interaminense, J. H. Leal-Cardoso, S. M.
Morais, and G. P. Duarte, “Cardiovascular efects of the essential
oil of Ocimum gratissimum leaves in rats: role of the autonomic
nervous system,” Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and
Physiology, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 219–225, 2004.
L. F. Leal Interaminense, J. H. Leal-Cardoso, P. J. Caldas Magalhães, G. Pinto Duarte, and S. Lahlou, “Enhanced hypotensive
efects of the essential oil of Ocimum gratissimum leaves
and its main constituent, eugenol, in DOCA-salt hypertensive
conscious rats,” Planta Medica, vol. 71, no. 4, pp. 376–378, 2005.
P. Prakash and N. Gupta, “herapeutic uses of Ocimum sanctum
Linn (Tulsi) with a note on eugenol and its pharmacological
actions: a short review,” Indian Journal of Physiology and
Pharmacology, vol. 49, no. 2, pp. 125–131, 2005.
R. Ravindran, R. S. Devi, J. Samson, and M. Senthilvelan,
“Noise-stress-induced brain neurotransmitter changes and the
efect of Ocimum sanctum (Linn) treatment in albino rats,”
Journal of Pharmacological Sciences, vol. 98, no. 4, pp. 354–360,
2005.
C. M. M. Freire, M. O. M. Marques, and M. Costa, “Efects
of seasonal variation on the central nervous system activity of
Ocimum gratissimum L. essential oil,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 105, no. 1-2, pp. 161–166, 2006.
R. Capasso, F. Borrelli, F. Capasso et al., “he hallucinogenic
herb Salvia divinorum and its active ingredient salvinorin
[222]
[223]
[224]
[225]
[226]
[227]
[228]
[229]
[230]
[231]
[232]
[233]
[234]
[235]
[236]
[237]
A inhibit enteric cholinergic transmission in the guinea-pig
ileum,” Neurogastroenterology and Motility, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 69–
75, 2006.
C. Cosola, M. Albrizio, A. C. Guaricci et al., “Opioid agonist/antagonist efect of naloxone in modulating rabbit jejunum
contractility in vitro,” Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology,
vol. 57, no. 3, pp. 439–449, 2006.
S. Mora, R. Millán, H. Lungenstrass et al., “he hydroalcoholic
extract of Salvia elegans induces anxiolytic- and antidepressantlike efects in rats,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 106, no.
1, pp. 76–81, 2006.
M. Imanshahidi and H. Hosseinzadeh, “he pharmacological
efects of Salvia species on the central nervous system,” Phytotherapy Research, vol. 20, no. 6, pp. 427–437, 2006.
A. Capasso, V. De Feo, F. De Simone, and L. Sorrentino,
“Activity-directed isolation of spasmolytic (anti-cholinergic)
alkaloids from Brugmansia arborea (L.) Lagerheim,” International Journal of Pharmacognosy, vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 43–48, 1997.
H. G. Park, S. Y. Yoon, J. Y. Choi et al., “Anticonvulsant efect of
wogonin isolated from Scutellaria baicalensis,” European Journal
of Pharmacology, vol. 574, no. 2-3, pp. 112–119, 2007.
J. Sarris, “Herbal medicines in the treatment of psychiatric
disorders: a systematic review,” Phytotherapy Research, vol. 21,
no. 8, pp. 703–716, 2007.
E. Okuyama, Y. Okamoto, M. Yamazaki, and M. Satake, “Pharmacologically active components of a Peruvian medicinal plant,
Huanarpo (Jatropha cilliata),” Chemical and Pharmaceutical
Bulletin, vol. 44, no. 2, pp. 333–336, 1996.
C. I. F. Franco, L. C. S. L. Morais, L. J. Quintans Jr., R. N.
Almeida, and A. R. Antoniolli, “CNS pharmacological efects of
the hydroalcoholic extract of Sida cordifolia L. leaves,” Journal
of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 98, no. 3, pp. 275–279, 2005.
A. K. Demetriades, P. D. Wallman, A. McGuiness, and M. C.
Gavalas, “Low cost, high risk: accidental nutmeg intoxication,”
Emergency Medicine Journal, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 223–225, 2005.
G. S. Sonavane, V. P. Sarveiya, V. S. Kasture, and S. B. Kasture,
“Anxiogenic activity of Myristica fragrans seeds,” Pharmacology
Biochemistry and Behavior, vol. 71, no. 1-2, pp. 239–244, 2002.
K. J. Suka, J. T. Roach, J. Chambliss et al., “Anxiolytic properties
of botanical extracts in the chick social separation-stress procedure,” Psychopharmacology, vol. 153, no. 2, pp. 219–224, 2001.
E. Nogueira, G. J. M. Rosa, and V. S. Vassilief, “Involvement
of GABA(A)-benzodiazepine receptor in the anxiolytic efect
induced by hexanic fraction of Rubus brasiliensis,” Journal of
Ethnopharmacology, vol. 61, no. 2, pp. 119–126, 1998.
K. Toriizuka, H. Kamiki, N. Ohmura et al., “Anxiolytic efect
of Gardeniae Fructus-extract containing active ingredient from
Kamishoyosan (KSS), a Japanese traditional Kampo medicine,”
Life Sciences, vol. 77, no. 24, pp. 3010–3020, 2005.
M. S. Al-Said, M. Tariq, M. A. Al-Yahya, S. Rafatullah, O.
T. Ginnawi, and A. M. Ageel, “Studies on Ruta chalepensis,
an ancient medicinal herb still used in traditional medicine,”
Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 305–312, 1990.
E. Speroni and A. Minghetti, “Neuropharmacological activity of
extracts from Passilora incarnata,” Planta Medica, vol. 54, no. 6,
pp. 488–491, 1988.
M. Herrera-Ruiz, R. Román-Ramos, A. Zamilpa, J. Tortoriello,
and J. E. Jiménez-Ferrer, “Flavonoids from Tilia americana with
anxiolytic activity in plus-maze test,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 118, no. 2, pp. 312–317, 2008.
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
[238] M. L. Barreiro Arcos, G. Cremaschi, S. Werner, J. Coussio,
G. Ferraro, and C. Anesini, “Tilia cordata Mill. Extracts and
scopoletin (isolated compound): diferential cell growth efects
on lymphocytes,” Phytotherapy Research, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 34–
40, 2006.
[239] E. Aguirre-Hernández, H. Rosas-Acevedo, M. Soto-Hernéndez,
A. L. Martı́nez, J. Moreno, and M. E. González-Trujano,
“Bioactivity-guided isolation of �-sitosterol and some fatty
acids as active compounds in the anxiolytic and sedative efects
of Tilia americana var. mexicana,” Planta Medica, vol. 73, no. 11,
pp. 1148–1155, 2007.
[240] E. Aguirre-Hernández, A. L. Martı́nez, M. E. González-Trujano,
J. Moreno, H. Vibrans, and M. Soto-Hernández, “Pharmacological evaluation of the anxiolytic and sedative efects of Tilia
americana L. var. mexicana in mice,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 109, no. 1, pp. 140–145, 2007.
[241] G. Pérez-Ortega, P. Guevara-Fefer, M. Chávez et al., “Sedative and anxiolytic eicacy of Tilia americana var. mexicana
inlorescences used traditionally by communities of State of
Michoacan, Mexico,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 116, no.
3, pp. 461–468, 2008.
[242] V. De Feo, A. Capasso, F. De Simone, and L. Sorrentino, “CNS
pharmacological efects of aqueous extract from Iresine herbstii,”
International Journal of Pharmacognosy, vol. 34, no. 3, pp. 184–
188, 1996.
[243] A. Capasso and V. De Feo, “Alkaloids from Brugmansia arborea
(L.) Lagerhein reduce morphine withdrawal in vitro,” Phytotherapy Research, vol. 17, no. 7, pp. 826–829, 2003.
[244] V. De Feo and C. Faro, “Pharmacological efects of extracts from
Valeriana adscendens Trel—II. Efects on GABA uptake and
amino acids,” Phytotherapy Research, vol. 17, no. 6, pp. 661–664,
2003.
[245] S. Mora, G. Dı́az-Véliz, R. Millán et al., “Anxiolytic and antidepressant-like efects of the hydroalcoholic extract from
Aloysia polystachya in rats,” Pharmacology Biochemistry and
Behavior, vol. 82, no. 2, pp. 373–378, 2005.
[246] M. C. Hellión-Ibarrola, D. A. Ibarrola, Y. Montalbetti et al., “he
anxiolytic-like efects of Aloysia polystachya (Griseb.) Moldenke
(Verbenaceae) in mice,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 105,
no. 3, pp. 400–408, 2006.
[247] G. Autore, F. Capasso, V. De Feo, F. De Simone, and N. Mascolo,
“Attività gastrointestinale.di Huperzia sp. (Lycopodiaceae),” in
Atti Del IV Congresso Italo-Latinoamericano Di EtnomeDicina,
p. 33, Roma, Italy, 1994.
[248] R. Kawamoto, C. Murase, I. Ishihara et al., “he efect of lemon
fragrance on simple mental performance and psychophysiological parameters during task performance,” Journal of UOEH, vol.
27, no. 4, pp. 305–313, 2005.
[249] J. Lehrner, G. Marwinski, S. Lehr, P. Johren, and L. Deecke,
“Ambient odors of orange and lavender reduce anxiety and
improve mood in a dental oice,” Physiology and Behavior, vol.
86, no. 1-2, pp. 92–95, 2005.
[250] M. Imura, “he psychological efects of aromatherapy-massage
in healthy postpartum mothers,” Journal of Midwifery and
Women’s Health, vol. 51, no. 2, pp. e21–e27, 2006.
[251] M. Komiya, T. Takeuchi, and E. Harada, “Lemon oil vapor
causes an anti-stress efect via modulating the 5-HT and DA
activities in mice,” Behavioural Brain Research, vol. 172, no. 2,
pp. 240–249, 2006.
33
[252] A. De Moraes Pultrini, L. Almeida Galindo, and M. Costa,
“Efects of the essential oil from Citrus aurantium L. in experimental anxiety models in mice,” Life Sciences, vol. 78, no. 15, pp.
1720–1725, 2006.
[253] L.-T. Yi, J.-M. Li, Y.-C. Li, Y. Pan, Q. Xu, and L.-D. Kong,
“Antidepressant-like behavioral and neurochemical efects of
the citrus-associated chemical apigenin,” Life Sciences, vol. 82,
no. 13-14, pp. 741–751, 2008.
[254] P. D. Leathwood, F. Chaufard, E. Heck, and R. Munoz-Box,
“Aqueous extract of valerian root (Valeriana oicinalis L.)
improves sleep quality in man,” Pharmacology Biochemistry and
Behavior, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 65–70, 1982.
[255] J. M. Kim, S. M. Choi, D. H. Kim et al., “Combined use
of omeprazole and a novel antioxidative cytoprotectant for
the treatment of peptic ulcer: facilitation of ulcer healing in
experimental animals,” Drug Research, vol. 55, no. 7, pp. 387–
393, 2005.
[256] P. D. Leathwood and F. Chaufard, “Aqueous extract of valerian
reduces latency to fall asleep in man,” Planta Medica, no. 2, pp.
144–148, 1985.
[257] V. V. Dunayev, S. D. Trzhetsinsky, V. S. Tishkin, N. S. Fursa,
V. I. Linenko, and V. R. Stets, “Biological activity of the
sum of valepotriates isolated from Val. alliariifolia Adams,”
Farmakologiya i Toksikologiya, vol. 50, no. 6, pp. 33–37, 1987.
[258] J. Leuschner, J. Muller, and M. Rudmann, “Characterisation
of the central nervous depressant activity of a commercially
available valerian root extract,” Drug Research, vol. 43, no. 6, pp.
638–641, 1993.
[259] M. S. Santos, F. Ferreira, A. P. Cunha, A. P. Carvalho, and
T. Macedo, “An aqueous extract of valerian inluences the
transport of GABA in synaptosomes,” Planta Medica, vol. 60,
no. 3, pp. 278–279, 1994.
[260] M. S. Santos, F. Ferreira, C. Faro et al., “he amount of GABA
present in aqueous extracts of valerian is nt to account for
[3H]GABA release in synaptosomes,” Planta Medica, vol. 60, no.
5, pp. 475–476, 1994.
[261] C. Cavadas, I. Araujo, M. D. Cotrim et al., “In vitro study on the
interaction of Valeriana oicinalis L. extracts and their amino
acids on GABA(A) receptor in rat brain,” Drug Research, vol.
45, no. 7, pp. 753–755, 1995.
[262] A. Capasso, A. Di Giannuario, A. Loizzo, S. Pieretti, S.
Sagratella, and L. Sorrentino, “Dexamethasone selective inhibition of acute opioid physical dependence in isolated tissues,”
Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental herapeutics, vol.
276, no. 2, pp. 743–751, 1996.
[263] P. J. Houghton, “he scientiic basis for the reputed activity of
valerian,” Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, vol. 51, no. 5,
pp. 505–512, 1999.
[264] J. G. Ortiz, J. Nieves-Natal, and P. Chavez, “Efects of Valeriana
oicinalis extracts on [3H]lunitrazepam binding, synaptosomal [3H]GABA uptake, and hippocampal [3H]GABA release,”
Neurochemical Research, vol. 24, no. 11, pp. 1373–1378, 1999.
[265] L. S. Miyasaka, A. N. Atallah, and B. G. Soares, “Valerian for
anxiety disorders,” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews,
no. 4, Article ID CD004515, 2006.
[266] D. Bhattacharyya, U. Jana, P. K. Debnath, and T. K. Sur, “Initial
exploratory observational pharmacology of Valeriana wallichii
on stress management: a clinical report,” Nepal Medical College
Journal, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 36–39, 2007.
[267] R. Fachinetto, J. G. Villarinho, C. Wagner et al., “Valeriana
oicinalis does not alter the orofacial dyskinesia induced by
34
[268]
[269]
[270]
[271]
[272]
[273]
[274]
[275]
[276]
[277]
[278]
[279]
[280]
[281]
[282]
[283]
[284]
[285]
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
haloperidol in rats: role of dopamine transporter,” Progress in
Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, vol. 31,
no. 7, pp. 1478–1486, 2007.
S. E. Geller and L. Studee, “Botanical and dietary supplements
for mood and anxiety in menopausal women,” Menopause, vol.
14, no. 3, pp. 541–549, 2007.
A. D. Krystal, “Treating the health, quality of life, and functional
impairments in insomnia,” Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine,
vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 63–72, 2007.
S. A. Saeed, R. M. Bloch, and D. J. Antonacci, “Herbal and
dietary supplements for treatment of anxiety disorders,” American Family Physician, vol. 76, no. 4, pp. 549–556, 2007.
J.-K. Wu, J.-H. Huo, and X.-W. Du, “Pharmacological efects of
volatile oil of Valeriana amurensis on CNS,” Journal of Chinese
Medicinal Materials, vol. 30, no. 8, pp. 977–980, 2007.
M. Yao, H. E. Ritchie, and P. D. Brown-Woodman, “A developmental toxicity-screening test of valerian,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 113, no. 2, pp. 204–209, 2007.
M. Hattesohl, B. Feistel, H. Sievers, R. Lehnfeld, M. Hegger,
and H. Winterhof, “Extracts of Valeriana oicinalis L. s.l. show
anxiolytic and antidepressant efects but neither sedative nor
myorelaxant properties,” Phytomedicine, vol. 15, no. 1-2, pp. 2–
15, 2008.
S. H. Tariq and S. Pulisetty, “Pharmacotherapy for Insomnia,”
Clinics in Geriatric Medicine, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 93–105, 2008.
S. Bhattacharya, S. Pal, and A. K. N. Chaudhuri, “Neuropharmacological studies on Mikania cordata root extract,” Planta
Medica, vol. 54, no. 6, pp. 483–487, 1988.
P. A. G. M. De Smet, “A multidisciplinary overview of intoxicating snuf rituals in the western hemisphere,” Journal of
Ethnopharmacology, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 3–49, 1985.
J. Berenguer, “Consumo nasal de alucinogenos en Tiwanaku,
una aproximacidn.iconogriica,” Boletin del Museo Chileno de
Arte Precolombino, vol. 2, pp. 33–53, 1987.
C. M. Torres, “Status of research on psychoactive snuf powders,
a review of the literature,” in Jahrbuch für Ethnomedizin, pp. 15–
39, 1996.
C. M. Torres, D. B. Repke, K. Chan et al., “Snuf powders from
pre-Hispanic San Pedro de Atacama, chemical and contestual
analysis,” Current Anthropology, vol. 32, pp. 640–649, 1991.
C. M. Torres and D. B. Repke, “he Use of Anadenanrhera
colubrina var. cebil by Wichi (Mataco) Shamans of the Chaco
Central, Argentina,” in Jahrbuch für Ethnomedizin, pp. 41–58,
1996.
C. M. Torres, “Archaeological evidence for the antiquity of
psychoactive plant use in the Central Andes,” Annuli dei Musei
Civici Roverero, vol. 11, pp. 291–326, 1995.
R. E. Schultes, “A new narcotic genus from the Amazon slope in
the Colombian Andes,” Botanical Museum Lealets, vol. 17, pp.
1–11, 1955.
R. E. Schultes, “An overview of hallucinogens in western hemisphere.,” in Flesh of the Gods, the Ritual Use of Hallucinogens, P.
Furst, Ed., pp. 3–54, Praeger, New York, NY, USA, 1972.
R. E. Schultes and B. Holmstedt, “De plantis toxicariis e mundo
novo tropicale commentationes—XI. he ethnobotanical signiicance of additives to New World hallucinogens,” Plant
Science Bulletin, vol. 18, pp. 34–41, 1972.
R. E. Schultes, “De plantis toxicariis e mundo novo commentationes—X. New data on the Malpighiaceous narcotics of South
America,” Botanical Museum Lealets, vol. 23, pp. 137–147, 1972.
[286] R. E. Schultes, “Solanaceous hallucinogens and their role in the
development of the new world cultures,” in he Biology and
Taxonomy of Solanaceae, J. G. Hawkes, R. N. Lester, and A. D.
Shelding, Eds., pp. 137–160, Academic Press, London, UK, 1979.
[287] T. E. Lockwood, “he ethnobotany of Brugmansia,” Journal of
Ethnopharmacology, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 147–164, 1979.
[288] J. J. Rojas, V. J. Ochoa, S. A. Ocampo, and J. F. Muñoz, “Screening
for antimicrobial activity of ten medicinal plants used in
Colombian folkloric medicine: a possible alternative in the
treatment of non-nosocomial infections,” BMC Complementary
and Alternative Medicine, vol. 6, article 2, 2006.
[289] O. E. Roses, E. E. Villaamii, J. C. Garcia Fernandez, and J. H.
Miño, “Accion farmacodinamica de las lores de la Brugmansia
candida,” Fitoterapia, vol. 59, pp. 120–125, 1988.
[290] O. E. Roses, V. E. Gambaro, and R. Roi, “La presencia de
norhioscina y hioscina en lores de Brugmansia candida Pers.
como posible caracteristica de su procedencia,” Acta Farmacologica Bonaerense, vol. 7, pp. 85–90, 1988.
[291] O. E. Roses, C. M. Lopez, and J. C. Garcia Fernandez,
“Aislamiento e identiicación de alcaloides del tropano en
especies del género Brugmansia (Solanaceae),” Acta Farmacologica Bonaerense, vol. 6, pp. 67–174, 1987.
[292] V. E. Gambaro and O. E. Roses, “La presencia de nicotina en
extractos y decocciones de lores.de Brugmansia candida Pers,”
Acta Farmacologica Bonaerense, vol. 8, pp. 17–22, 1989.
[293] A. Capasso, A. Pinto, N. Mascolo, G. Autore, and F. Capasso,
“Reduction of agonist-induced contractions of guinea-pig isolated ileum by lavonoids,” Phytotherapy Research, vol. 5, no. 2,
pp. 85–87, 1991.
[294] A. Capasso, A. Di Giannuario, A. Loizzo, S. Pieretti, and L.
Sorrentino, “Central interaction of dexamethasone and RU38486 on morphine antinociception in mice,” Life Sciences, vol.
51, no. 14, pp. PL139–PL143, 1992.
[295] A. Capasso, V. de Feo, F. de Simone, and L. Sorrentino,
“Pharmacological efects of aqueous extract from Valeriana
adscendens,” Phytotherapy Research, vol. 10, pp. 309–312, 1996.
[296] A. Capasso and V. De Feo, “Central nervous system pharmacological efects of plants from northern Peruvian Andes: Valeriana adscendens, Iresine herbstii and Brugmansia arborea,”
Pharmaceutical Biology, vol. 40, no. 4, pp. 274–293, 2002.
[297] H. Anaya Reyes-Gavilan, J. E. Tacoronte Morales, C. Nogueiras
Lima, V. Fuentes Fiallo, and M. Basterrechea Rey, “Determination of main alkaloids present in species of the Brugmansia
section, gen,” Datura Revista CENIC, Ciencia Quimica, vol. 30,
pp. 90–91, 1999.
[298] W. J. Griin and G. D. Lin, “Chemotaxonomy and geographical
distribution of tropane alkaloids,” Phytochemistry, vol. 53, no. 6,
pp. 623–637, 2000.
[299] T. Plowman, “Brunfelsia in ethnomedicine,” Botanical Museum
lealets, Harvard University, vol. 25, pp. 289–320, 1977.
[300] E. H. Poindexter Jr. and R. D. Carpenter, “Isolation of harmane
and nor-harmane from cigarette smoke,” Chemistry and Industry, vol. 26, no. 1, p. 176, 1962.
[301] J. Wilbert, “Tobacco and shamanism in South America,” in
Psychoactive Plants of the World, vol. 1, Yale University Press,
London, UK, 1987.
[302] J. Wilbert, “Tobacco and shamanistic ecstasy among the Warrao
Indians of Venezuela,” in Flesh of the Gods, the Ritual Use of
Hallucinogens, P. Furst, Ed., pp. 53–83, Praeger, New York, NY,
USA, 1972.
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
[303] O. Janiger and M. Dobkin de Rios, “Nicotiana an hallucinogen?”
Economic Botany, vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 149–151, 1976.
[304] M. J. Plotkin, R. A. Mittermeier, and I. Constable, “Psychotomimetic use of tobacco in Surinam and French Guiana,”
Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 295–297, 1980.
[305] J. G. R. Elferink, “he narcotic and hallucinogenic use
of tobacco in pre-Columbian Central America,” Journal of
Ethnopharmacology, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 111–122, 1983.
[306] L. A. Knauer and W. J. Maloney, “A preliminary note on
the psychic action of mescaline with.special reference to the
mechanism of visual hallucinations,” Journal of Nervous and
Mental Disorders, vol. 40, pp. 425–436, 1913.
[307] J. Poisson, “Presence of mescaline in a Peruvian Cactaceae,”
Annales Farmaceutiques Françaises, vol. 18, pp. 764–765, 1960.
[308] H. Klüver, “Mescal and Mechanisms of Hallucinations,”
Phoenix Books, he University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Ill,
USA, 1966.
[309] A. T. Shulgin, “Mescaline: the chemistry and pharmacology of
its analogs,” Lloydia, vol. 36, no. 1–4, pp. 46–58, 1973.
[310] A. T. Shulgin, “Chemistry of phenethylamines related to mescaline,” Journal of Psychedelic Drugs, vol. 11, no. 1-2, pp. 41–52, 1979.
[311] J. H. Pardanani, J. L. McLaughlin, R. W. Kondrat, and R.
G. Cooks, “Cactus alkaloids. XXXVI. Mescaline and related
compounds from Trichocereus peruvianus,” Lloydia, vol. 40, no.
6, pp. 585–590, 1977.
[312] M. C. Gennaro, E. Gioannini, D. Giacosa, and D. Siccardi,
“Determination of mescaline in hallucinogenic cactaceae by
ion-interaction HPLC,” Analytical Letters, vol. 29, no. 13, pp.
2399–2409, 1996.
[313] K.-A. Kovar, “Chemistry and pharmacology of hallucinogens,
entactogens and stimulants,” Pharmacopsychiatry, vol. 31, no. 2,
supplement, pp. 69–72, 1998.
[314] E. W. Davis, “Sacred plants in the San Pedro cult,” Botanical
Museum Lealets, vol. 29, pp. 367–382, 1983.
[315] J. G. Bruhn, P. A. G. M. De Smet, H. R. El-Seedi, and O. Beck,
“Mescaline use for 5700 years,” he Lancet, vol. 359, no. 9320, p.
1866, 2002.
[316] D. J. McKenna, G. H. N. Towers, and F. Abbott, “Monoamine
oxidase inhibitors in South American hallucinogenic plants:
tryptamine and �-carboline constituents of Ayahuasca,” Journal
of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 195–223, 1984.
[317] J. Riba, P. Anderer, A. Morte et al., “Topographic pharmacoEEG mapping of the efects of the South American psychoactive
beverage ayahuasca in healthy volunteers,” British Journal of
Clinical Pharmacology, vol. 53, no. 6, pp. 613–628, 2002.
[318] J. Riba, M. Valle, G. Urbano, M. Yritia, A. Morte, and M. J.
Barbanoj, “Human pharmacology of ayahuasca: subjective and
cardiovascular efects, monoamine metabolite excretion, and
pharmacokinetics,” Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental
herapeutics, vol. 306, no. 1, pp. 73–83, 2003.
[319] E. A. Carlini, “Plants and the central nervous system,” Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, vol. 75, no. 3, pp. 501–512,
2003.
[320] D. X. Da Silveira, C. S. Grob, M. D. De Rios et al., “Ayahuasca
in adolescence: a preliminary psychiatric assessment,” Journal
of Psychoactive Drugs, vol. 37, no. 2, pp. 129–133, 2005.
[321] K. A. O’Connor and B. L. Roth, “Screening the receptorome for
plant-based psychoactive compounds,” Life Sciences, vol. 78, no.
5, pp. 506–511, 2005.
[322] R. G. Santos, J. Landeira-Fernandez, R. J. Strassman, V. Motta,
and A. P. M. Cruz, “Efects of ayahuasca on psychometric
35
[323]
[324]
[325]
[326]
[327]
[328]
[329]
[330]
[331]
[332]
[333]
[334]
[335]
[336]
[337]
measures of anxiety, panic-like and hopelessness in Santo
Daime members,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 112, no.
3, pp. 507–513, 2007.
G. Frison, D. Favretto, F. Zancanaro, G. Fazzin, and S. D.
Ferrara, “A case of �-carboline alkaloid intoxication following
ingestion of Peganum harmala seed extract,” Forensic Science
International, vol. 179, no. 2-3, pp. e37–e43, 2008.
World Health Organization, “Implementation of the WHO
Strategy for Prevention and Control of Chronic Respiratory
Diseases,” WHO /MNC/CRA/O2.2, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 2002.
A. T. Weil, “Coca leaf as a therapeutic agent,” American Journal
of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 75–86, 1978.
C. D. A. Biella, M. J. Salvador, D. A. Dias, M. Dias-Barui,
and L. S. Pereira-Crott, “Evaluation of immunomodulatory
and anti-inlammatory efects and phytochemical screening of
Alternanthera tenella Colla (Amaranthaceae) aqueous extracts,”
Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, vol. 103, no. 6, pp. 569–577,
2008.
F. G. Braga, M. L. M. Bouzada, R. L. Fabri et al., “Antileishmanial
and antifungal activity of plants used in traditional medicine in
Brazil,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 111, no. 2, pp. 396–
402, 2007.
A. H. Atta and A. Alkofahi, “Anti-nociceptive and antiinlammatory efects of some Jordanian medicinal plant
extracts,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 60, no. 2, pp. 117–
124, 1998.
F. B. Holetz, G. L. Pessini, N. R. Sanches, D. A. G. Cortez, C. V.
Nakamura, and B. P. Dias Filho, “Screening of some plants used
in the Brazilian folk medicine for the treatment of infectious
diseases,” Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, vol. 97, no. 7, pp.
1027–1031, 2002.
F. Pérez-Garcı́a, E. Marı́n, T. Adzet, and S. Cañigueral, “Activity
of plant extracts on the respiratory burst and the stress protein
synthesis,” Phytomedicine, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 31–38, 2001.
S. Jarić, Z. Popović, M. Macukanović-Jocić et al., “An ethnobotanical study on the usage of wild medicinal herbs from
Kopaonik Mountain (Central Serbia),” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 111, no. 1, pp. 160–175, 2007.
A. Bardón, S. Borkosky, M. I. Ybarra, S. Montanaro, and
E. Cartagena, “Bioactive plants from Argentina and Bolivia,”
Fitoterapia, vol. 78, no. 3, pp. 227–231, 2007.
R. Enriquez, J. Ortega, and X. Lozoya, “Active components in
Perezia roots,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 2, no. 4, pp.
389–393, 1980.
E. Uzun, G. Sariyar, A. Adsersen et al., “Traditional medicine
in Sakarya province (Turkey) and antimicrobial activities of
selected species,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 95, no. 2-3,
pp. 287–296, 2004.
A. Caceres, A. V. Alvarez, A. E. Ovando, and B. E. Samayoa,
“Plants used in Guatemala for the treatment of respiratory diseases. 1. Screening of 68 plants against Gram-positive bacteria,”
Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 193–208, 1991.
N. J. Turner and R. J. Hebda, “Contemporary use of bark for
medicine by two salishan native elders of Southeast Vancouver
Island, Canada,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 29, no. 1, pp.
59–72, 1990.
M. S. Gachet and W. Schühly, “Jacaranda—an ethnopharmacological and phytochemical review,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 121, no. 1, pp. 14–27, 2009.
36
[338] M. Ishtiaq, W. Hanif, M. A. Khan, M. Ashraf, and A. M. Butt,
“An ethnomedicinal survey and documentation of important
medicinal folklore food phytonims of lora of Samahni valley,
(Azad Kashmir) Pakistan,” Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences, vol. 10, no. 13, pp. 2241–2256, 2007.
[339] G. M. Molina-Salinas, A. Pérez-López, P. Becerril-Montes, R.
Salazar-Aranda, S. Said-Fernández, and N. W. D. Torres, “Evaluation of the lora of Northern Mexico for in vitro antimicrobial
and antituberculosis activity,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology,
vol. 109, no. 3, pp. 435–441, 2007.
[340] M. J. Abad, P. Bermejo, E. Carretero, C. Martı́nez-Acitores,
B. Noguera, and A. Villar, “Antiinlammatory activity of some
medicinal plant extracts from Venezuela,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 55, no. 1, pp. 63–68, 1996.
[341] Y. Kumarasamy, P. J. Cox, M. Jaspars, L. Nahar, and S. D. Sarker,
“Screening seeds of Scottish plants for antibacterial activity,”
Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 83, no. 1-2, pp. 73–77, 2002.
[342] E. Linares and R. A. Bye Jr., “A study of four medicinal plant
complexes of Mexico and adjacent United States,” Journal of
Ethnopharmacology, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 153–183, 1987.
[343] World Health Organization, Mortality Country Fact Sheet Peru
2006. World Health Statistics, World Health Organization,
Geneva, Switzerland, 2006.
[344] S. S. Hebbar, V. H. Harsha, V. Shripathi, and G. R. Hegde,
“Ethnomedicine of Dharwad district in Karnataka, India—
plants used in oral health care,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology,
vol. 94, no. 2-3, pp. 261–266, 2004.
[345] V. Hajhashemi, A. Ghannadi, and B. Sharif, “Anti-inlammatory
and analgesic properties of the leaf extracts and essential oil of
Lavandula angustifolia Mill,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol.
89, no. 1, pp. 67–71, 2003.
[346] D. E. Cruz-Vega, M. J. Verde-Star, N. Salinas-González et
al., “Antimycobacterial activity of Juglans regia, Juglans mollis, Carya illinoensis and Bocconia frutescens,” Phytotherapy
Research, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 557–559, 2008.
[347] E. Deharo, R. Baelmans, A. Gimenez, C. Quenevo, and G.
Bourdy, “In vitro immunomodulatory activity of plants used by
the Tacana ethnic group in Bolivia,” Phytomedicine, vol. 11, no.
6, pp. 516–522, 2004.
[348] M. E. Heitzman, C. C. Neto, E. Winiarz, A. J. Vaisberg, and G. B.
Hammond, “Ethnobotany, phytochemistry and pharmacology
of Uncaria (Rubiaceae),” Phytochemistry, vol. 66, no. 1, pp. 5–29,
2005.
[349] L. M. Giron, V. Freire, A. Alonzo, and A. Caceres, “Ethnobotanical survey of the medicinal lora used by the Caribs of
Guatemala,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 34, no. 2-3, pp.
173–187, 1991.
[350] B. Wannissorn, S. Jarikasem, T. Siriwangchai, and S. hubthimthed, “Antibacterial properties of essential oils from hai
medicinal plants,” Fitoterapia, vol. 76, no. 2, pp. 233–236, 2005.
[351] A. Andrade-Cetto, “Ethnobotanical study of the medicinal
plants from Tlanchinol, Hidalgo, México,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 122, no. 1, pp. 163–171, 2009.
[352] Y. Rakover, E. Ben-Arye, and L. H. Goldstein, “he treatment
of respiratory ailments with essential oils of some aromatic
medicinal plants,” Harefuah, vol. 147, no. 10, pp. 783–838, 2008.
[353] M. D. Carmona, R. Llorach, C. Obon, and D. Rivera, “‘Zahraa’,
a Unani multicomponent herbal tea widely consumed in Syria:
components of drug mixtures and alleged medicinal properties,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 102, no. 3, pp. 344–350,
2005.
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
[354] R. A. A. Mothana, R. Mentel, C. Reiss, and U. Lindequist, “Phytochemical screening and antiviral activity of some medicinal
plants from the island Soqotra,” Phytotherapy Research, vol. 20,
no. 4, pp. 298–302, 2006.
[355] V. Petkov, “Bulgarian traditional medicine: a source of ideas for
phytopharmacological investigations,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 121–132, 1986.
[356] L. Bielory, “Complementary and alternative interventions in
asthma, allergy, and immunology,” Annals of Allergy, Asthma
and Immunology, vol. 93, no. 2, supplement, pp. S45–S54, 2004.
[357] W. Al-Momani, E. Abu-Basha, S. Janakat, R. A. J. Nicholas, and
R. D. Ayling, “In vitro antimycoplasmal activity of six Jordanian
medicinal plants against three Mycoplasma species,” Tropical
Animal Health and Production, vol. 39, no. 7, pp. 515–519, 2007.
[358] D. Rivera and C. Obón, “he ethnopharmacology of Madeira
and Porto Santo islands, a review,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 73–93, 1995.
[359] E. M. Ritch-Krc, S. homas, N. J. Turner, and G. H. N. Towers,
“Carrier herbal medicine: traditional and contemporary plant
use,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 52, no. 2, pp. 85–94,
1996.
[360] M. C. T. Duarte, G. M. Figueira, A. Sartoratto, V. L. G.
Rehder, and C. Delarmelina, “Anti-Candida activity of Brazilian
medicinal plants,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 97, no. 2,
pp. 305–311, 2005.
[361] S. S. Redžić, “he ecological aspect of ethnobotany and
ethnopharmacology of population in Bosnia and Herzegovina,”
Collegium Antropologicum, vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 869–890, 2007.
[362] M. S. Ali-Shtayeh, Z. Yaniv, and J. Mahajna, “Ethnobotanical
survey in the Palestinian area: a classiication of the healing
potential of medicinal plants,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology,
vol. 73, no. 1-2, pp. 221–232, 2000.
[363] World Health Organization, Urinary Tract Infections in Infants
and Children in Developing Countries in the Context of IMCI,
World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 2005.
[364] S. Kirdpon, W. Kirdpon, W. Airarat, A. Trevanich, and S.
Nanakorn, “Efect of aloe (Aloe vera Linn.) on healthy adult
volunteers: changes in urinary composition,” Journal of the
Medical Association of hailand, vol. 89, pp. S9–14, 2006.
[365] A. Mishra, J. V. Dogra, J. N. Singh, and O. P. Jha, “Post-coital
antifertility activity of Annona squamosa and Ipomoea istulosa,”
Planta Medica, vol. 35, no. 3, pp. 283–285, 1979.
[366] S.-C. Lee, C.-C. Tsai, J.-C. Chen, C.-C. Lin, M.-L. Hu, and S. Lu,
“he evaluation of reno- and hepato-protective efects of HuaiShan-Yao (Rhizome Dioscoreae),” American Journal of Chinese
Medicine, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 609–616, 2002.
[367] K. Wojcikowski, H. Wohlmuth, D. W. Johnson, M. Rolfe, and G.
Gobe, “An in vitro investigation of herbs traditionally used for
kidney and urinary system disorders: potential therapeutic and
toxic efects,” Nephrology, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 70–79, 2009.
[368] A. B. Samuelsen, “he traditional uses, chemical constituents
and biological activities of Plantago major L. A review,” Journal
of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 71, no. 1-2, pp. 1–21, 2000.
[369] C. Lans, “Ethnomedicines used in Trinidad and Tobago for
reproductive problems,” Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, vol. 3, article 13, 2007.
[370] F. Grases, G. Melero, A. Costa-Bauza, R. Prieto, and J. G.
March, “Urolithiasis and phytotherapy,” International Urology
and Nephrology, vol. 26, no. 5, pp. 507–511, 1994.
[371] R. Masteiková, R. Klimas, B. B. Samura et al., “An orientational
examination of the efects of extracts from mixtures of herbal
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
[372]
[373]
[374]
[375]
[376]
[377]
[378]
[379]
[380]
[381]
[382]
[383]
[384]
[385]
[386]
[387]
drugs on selected renal functions,” Ceska a Slovenska Farmacie,
vol. 56, no. 2, pp. 85–89, 2007.
C. I. Wright, L. Van-Buren, C. I. Kroner, and M. M. G.
Koning, “Herbal medicines as diuretics: a review of the scientiic
evidence,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 114, no. 1, pp. 1–31,
2007.
L. Hernández, R. A. Muñoz, G. Miró, M. Martı́nez, J. SilvaParra, and P. I. Chávez, “Use of medicinal plants by ambulatory
patients in Puerto Rico,” American Journal of Hospital Pharmacy, vol. 41, no. 10, pp. 2060–2064, 1984.
S. Kieley, R. Dwivedi, and M. Monga, “Ayurvedic medicine and
renal calculi,” Journal of Endourology, vol. 22, no. 8, pp. 1613–
1616, 2008.
N. A. Gillett and C. Chan, “Applications of immunohistochemistry in the evaluation of immunosuppressive agents,” Human
and Experimental Toxicology, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 251–254, 2000.
K. Rahman, “Garlic and aging: new insights into an old remedy,”
Ageing Research Reviews, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 39–56, 2003.
B. B. Aggarwal and S. Shishodia, “Suppression of the nuclear
factor-�B activation pathway by spice-derived phytochemicals:
reasoning for seasoning,” Annals of the New York Academy of
Sciences, vol. 1030, pp. 434–441, 2004.
S. Darshan and R. Doreswamy, “Patented antiinlammatory
plant drug development from traditional medicine,” Phytotherapy Research, vol. 18, no. 5, pp. 343–357, 2004.
J. Zochling, L. M. March, H. Lapsley, M. Cross, K. Tribe, and P.
Brooks, “Use of complementary medicines for osteoarthritis—
a prospective study,” Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, vol. 63,
no. 5, pp. 549–554, 2004.
J. O. Ban, J. H. Oh, T. M. Kim et al., “Anti-inlammatory and
arthritic efects of thiacremonone, a novel sulfurcompound
isolated from garlic via inhibition of NF-�B,” Arthritis Research
and herapy, vol. 11, no. 5, article R145, 2009.
H.-S. Lee, C.-H. Lee, H.-C. Tsai, and D. M. Salter, “Inhibition
of cyclooxygenase 2 expression by diallyl sulide on joint
inlammation induced by urate crystal and IL-1�,” Osteoarthritis
and Cartilage, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 91–99, 2009.
J. Piscoya, Z. Rodriguez, S. A. Bustamante, N. N. Okuhama, M.
J. S. Miller, and M. Sandoval, “Eicacy and safety of freeze-dried
cat’s claw in osteoarthritis of the knee: mechanisms of action of
the species Uncaria guianensis,” Inlammation Research, vol. 50,
no. 9, pp. 442–448, 2001.
E. Mur, F. Hartig, G. Eibl, and M. Schirmer, “Randomized
double blind trial of an extract from the pentacyclic alkaloidchemotype of uncaria tomentosa for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis,” Journal of Rheumatology, vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 678–
681, 2002.
A. R. Setty and L. H. Sigal, “Herbal medications commonly used
in the practice of rheumatology: mechanisms of action, eicacy,
and side efects,” Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism, vol. 34,
no. 6, pp. 773–784, 2005.
S. R. Hardin, “Cat’s claw: an Amazonian vine decreases inlammation in osteoarthritis,” Complementary herapies in Clinical
Practice, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 25–28, 2007.
K. Riehemann, B. Behnke, and K. Schulze-Osthof, “Plant
extracts from stinging nettle (Urtica dioica), an antirheumatic
remedy, inhibit the proinlammatory transcription factor NF�B,” FEBS Letters, vol. 442, no. 1, pp. 89–94, 1999.
C. Randall, H. Randall, F. Dobbs, C. Hutton, and H. Sanders,
“Randomized controlled trial of nettle sting for treatment of
base-of-thumb pain,” Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine,
vol. 93, no. 6, pp. 305–309, 2000.
37
[388] J. Broer and B. Behnke, “Immunosuppressant efect of IDS 30, a
stinging nettle leaf extract, on myeloid dendritic cells in vitro,”
Journal of Rheumatology, vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 659–666, 2002.
[389] G. Schulze-Tanzil, P. De Souza, B. Behnke, S. Klingelhoefer,
A. Scheid, and M. Shakibaei, “Efects of the antirheumatic
remedy Hox alpha—a new stinging nettle leaf extract—on
matrix metalloproteinases in human chondrocytes in vitro,”
Histology and Histopathology, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 477–485, 2002.
[390] A. Konrad, M. Mähler, S. Arni, B. Flogerzi, S. Klingelhöfer, and
F. Seibold, “Ameliorative efect of IDS 30, a stinging nettle leaf
extract, on chronic colitis,” International Journal of Colorectal
Disease, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 9–17, 2005.
[391] M. S. Khalifeh, W. Hananeh, R. Al-Rukibat, O. Okour, and
A. Boumezrag, “Clinical and histopathological evaluation of
MDP/collagen induced arthritis rat model (MCIA) ater treatment with Urtica dioica, Plantago major and Hypericum perforatum L herbal mixture,” Experimental Animals, vol. 57, no. 2,
pp. 101–110, 2008.
[392] K. Rayburn, E. Fleischbein, J. Song et al., “Stinging nettle cream
for osteoarthritis,” Alternative herapies in Health and Medicine,
vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 60–61, 2009.
[393] M. Ratheesh, G. L. Shyni, G. Sindhu, and A. Helen, “Protective
efects of isolated polyphenolic and alkaloid fractions of Ruta
graveolens L. on acute and chronic models of inlammation,”
Inlammation, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 18–24, 2010.
[394] M. Ratheesh, G. L. Shyni, G. Sindhu, and A. Helen, “Inhibitory
efect of Ruta graveolens L. on oxidative damage, inlammation
and aortic pathology in hypercholesteromic rats,” Experimental
and Toxicologic Pathology, vol. 63, no. 3, pp. 285–290, 2011.
[395] R. N. M. Guerra, H.-A. W. Pereira, L. M. S. Silveira, and R. S. G.
Olea, “Immunomodulatory properties of Alternanthera tenella
Colla aqueous extracts in mice,” Brazilian Journal of Medical and
Biological Research, vol. 36, no. 9, pp. 1215–1219, 2003.
[396] M. J. Abad, A. L. Bessa, B. Ballarin, O. Aragón, E. Gonzales,
and P. Bermejo, “Anti-inlammatory activity of four Bolivian
Baccharis species (Compositae),” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 103, no. 3, pp. 338–344, 2006.
[397] L. Menghini, P. Massarelli, G. Bruni, and R. Pagiotti, “Antiinlammatory and analgesic efects of Spartium junceum L.
lower extracts: a preliminary study,” Journal of Medicinal Food,
vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 386–390, 2006.
[398] C. Lans, N. Turner, T. Khan, G. Brauer, and W. Boepple,
“Ethnoveterinary medicines used for ruminants in British
Columbia, Canada,” Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine,
vol. 3, article 11, 2007.
[399] P. Cisár, R. Jány, and I. Waczulı́ková, “Efect of pine bark
extract (Pycnogenol) on symptoms of knee osteoarthritis,”
Phytotherapy Research, vol. 22, no. 8, pp. 1087–1092, 2008.
[400] E. Yeşilada, O. Üstün, E. Sezik, Y. Takaishi, Y. Ono, and G.
Honda, “Inhibitory efects of Turkish folk remedies on inlammatory cytokines: interleukin-1�, interleukin-1� and tumor
necrosis factor �,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 58, no. 1,
pp. 59–73, 1997.
[401] R. Ruta, “Alkaline phosphatase activity in basophil granulocytes
of peripheral blood in rheumatic diseases,” Folia Histochemica
et Cytochemica, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 177–182, 1970.
[402] A. M. Ageel, J. S. Mossa, M. A. Al-Yahya, M. S. Al-Said, and
M. Tariq, “Experimental studies on antirheumatic crude drugs
used in Saudi traditional medicine,” Drugs under Experimental
and Clinical Research, vol. 15, no. 8, pp. 369–372, 1989.
38
[403] N. P. Hurst, P. Kind, D. Ruta, M. Hunter, and A. Stubbings,
“Measuring health-related quality of life in rheumatoid arthritis, validity, responsiveness and reliability of EuroQol (EQ-5D),”
British Journal of Rheumatology, vol. 36, no. 5, pp. 551–559, 1997.
[404] D. A. Ruta, N. P. Hurst, P. Kind, M. Hunter, and A. Stubbings,
“Measuring health status in British patients with rheumatoid
arthritis: reliability, validity and responsiveness of the short
form 36-item health survey (SF-36),” British Journal of Rheumatology, vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 425–436, 1998.
[405] P. M. Guarrera and L. M. Lucia, “Ethnobotanical remarks
on central and southern Italy,” Journal of Ethnobiology and
Ethnomedicine, vol. 3, article 23, 2007.
[406] World Health Organization, Foodborne Disease, World Health
Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 2002.
[407] A. Singh and S. S. Handa, “Hepatoprotective activity of Apium
graveolens and Hygrophila auriculata against paracetamol and
thioacetamide intoxication in rats,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 49, no. 3, pp. 119–126, 1995.
[408] B. Ahmed, T. Alam, M. Varshney, and S. A. Khan, “Hepatoprotective activity of two plants belonging to the Apiaceae and the
Euphorbiaceae family,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 79,
no. 3, pp. 313–316, 2002.
[409] S. Subehan, S. F. H. Zaidi, S. Kadota, and Y. Tezuka, “Inhibition
on human liver cytochrome P450 3A4 by constituents of fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare): identiication and characterization of a
mechanism-based inactivator,” Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry, vol. 55, no. 25, pp. 10162–10167, 2007.
[410] F. Perez, F. Rodrı́guez, M. León, and G. Malca, “Mezcla
de extractos de plantas medicinales, singerismo o reacción
quı́mica?” Pueblo Continente, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 239–242, 2010.
[411] G. B. Mahady, S. L. Pendland, A. Stoia et al., “In vitro susceptibility of Helicobacter pylori to botanical extracts used traditionally
for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders,” Phytotherapy
Research, vol. 19, no. 11, pp. 988–991, 2005.
[412] I. A. Al Moleh, A. A. Alhalder, J. S. Mossa, M. O. Al-Soohalbani,
and S. Rafatullah, “Aqueous suspension of anise “Pimpinella
anisum” protects rats against chemically induced gastric ulcers,”
World Journal of Gastroenterology, vol. 13, no. 7, pp. 1112–1118,
2007.
[413] R. O. Nneli and O. A. Woyike, “Antiulcerogenic efects of
coconut (Cocos nucifera) extract in rats,” Phytotherapy Research,
vol. 22, no. 7, pp. 970–972, 2008.
[414] A. M. Cavalcanti, C. H. Baggio, C. S. Freitas et al., “Safety and
antiulcer eicacy studies of Achillea millefolium L. ater chronic
treatment in Wistar rats,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol.
107, no. 2, pp. 277–284, 2006.
[415] S. Yaeesh, Q. Jamal, A.-U. Khan, and A. H. Gilani, “Studies on
hepatoprotective, antispasmodic and calcium antagonist activities of the aqueous-methanol extract of Achillea millefolium,”
Phytotherapy Research, vol. 20, no. 7, pp. 546–551, 2006.
[416] S.-C. Lin, T.-C. Chung, C.-C. Lin et al., “Hepatoprotective efects of Arctium lappa on carbon tetrachloride- and
acetaminophen-induced liver damage,” American Journal of
Chinese Medicine, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 163–173, 2000.
[417] S.-C. Lin, C.-H. Lin, C.-C. Lin et al., “Hepatoprotective efects
of Arctium lappa Linne on liver injuries induced by chronic
ethanol consumption and potentiated by carbon tetrachloride,”
Journal of Biomedical Science, vol. 9, no. 5, pp. 401–409, 2002.
[418] A. C. Dos Santos, C. H. Baggio, C. S. Freitas et al., “Gastroprotective activity of the chloroform extract of the roots from Arctium
lappa L,” Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, vol. 60, no. 6,
pp. 795–801, 2008.
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
[419] K. Schütz, R. Carle, and A. Schieber, “Taraxacum—a review
on its phytochemical and pharmacological proile,” Journal of
Ethnopharmacology, vol. 107, no. 3, pp. 313–323, 2006.
[420] H.-G. Grigoleit and P. Grigoleit, “Gastrointestinal clinical pharmacology of peppermint oil,” Phytomedicine, vol. 12, no. 8, pp.
607–611, 2005.
[421] Y. You, S. Yoo, H.-G. Yoon et al., “In vitro and in vivo
hepatoprotective efects of the aqueous extract from Taraxacum
oicinale (dandelion) root against alcohol-induced oxidative
stress,” Food and Chemical Toxicology, vol. 48, no. 6, pp. 1632–
1637, 2010.
[422] K. Kuroda and K. Takagi, “Studies on capsella bursa pastoris—
II. Diuretic, anti-inlammatory and anti-ulcer action of ethanol
extracts of the herb,” Archives Internationales de Pharmacodynamie et de herapie, vol. 178, no. 2, pp. 392–399, 1969.
[423] K. Kuroda, M. Akao, M. Kanisawa, and K. Miyaki, “Inhibitory
efect of Capsella bursa pastoris on hepatocarcinogenesis
induced by 3’ methyl 4 (dimethylamino)azobenzene in rats,”
he Japanese Journal of Cancer Research, vol. 65, no. 4, pp. 317–
319, 1974.
[424] K. Kuroda and M. Akao, “Efect of Capsella bursa pastoris
on liver catalase activity in rats fed 3’ methyl 4 (dimethylamino)azobenzene,” Gann, he Japanese Journal of Cancer
Research, vol. 66, no. 4, pp. 461–462, 1975.
[425] R. B. An, G. S. Jeong, J.-S. Beom, D. H. Sohn, and Y. C.
Kim, “Chromone glycosides and hepatoprotective constituents
of Hypericum erectum,” Archives of Pharmacal Research, vol. 32,
no. 10, pp. 1393–1397, 2009.
[426] C. Desmarchelier, F. W. Schaus, J. Coussio, and G. Cicca, “Efects
of Sangre de Drago from Croton lechleri Muell.-Arg. on the
production of active oxygen radicals,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 58, no. 2, pp. 103–108, 1997.
[427] K. Jones, “Review of Sangre de Drago (Croton lechleri)—a South
American tree sap in the treatment of diarrhea, inlammation,
insect bites, viral infections, and wounds: traditional uses to
clinical research,” Journal of Alternative and Complementary
Medicine, vol. 9, no. 6, pp. 877–896, 2003.
[428] P. Dharmani, P. K. Mishra, R. Maurya, V. S. Chauhan, and
G. Palit, “Desmodium gangeticum: a potent anti-ulcer agent,”
Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, vol. 43, no. 6, pp. 517–
521, 2005.
[429] G. B. Melo, R. L. Silva, V. A. Melo et al., “Efect of the aqueous
extract of Hyptis pectinata on liver mitochondrial respiration,”
Phytomedicine, vol. 12, no. 5, pp. 359–362, 2005.
[430] C. M. Park, H. J. Youn, H. K. Chang, and Y. S. Song, “TOP1 and
2, polysaccharides from Taraxacum oicinale, attenuate CCl4induced hepatic damage through the modulation of NF-�B and
its regulatory mediators,” Food and Chemical Toxicology, vol. 48,
no. 5, pp. 1255–1261, 2010.
[431] B. Aristatile, K. S. Al-Numair, C. Veeramani, and K. V.
Pugalendi, “Antihyperlipidemic efect of carvacrol on dgalactosamine-induced hepatotoxic rats,” Journal of Basic and
Clinical Physiology and Pharmacology, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 15–27,
2009.
[432] M. R. Al-Sereiti, K. M. Abu-Amer, and P. Sen, “Pharmacology
of rosemary (Rosmarinus oicinalis Linn.) and its therapeutic
potentials,” Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, vol. 37, no.
2, pp. 124–130, 1999.
[433] I. Castillo-Juárez, V. González, H. Jaime-Aguilar et al., “AntiHelicobacter pylori activity of plants used in Mexican traditional
medicine for gastrointestinal disorders,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 122, no. 2, pp. 402–405, 2009.
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
[434] R. Gutiérrez, J. L. Alvarado, M. Presno, O. Pérez-Veyna, C.
J. Serrano, and P. Yahuaca, “Oxidative stress modulation by
Rosmarinus oicinalis in CCl 4-induced liver cirrhosis,” Phytotherapy Research, vol. 24, no. 4, pp. 595–601, 2010.
[435] T. Harach, O. Aprikian, I. Monnard et al., “Rosemary (Rosmarinus oicinalis L.) Leaf extract limits weight gain and liver
steatosis in mice fed a high-fat diet,” Planta Medica, vol. 76, no.
6, pp. 566–571, 2010.
[436] H. Kawagishi, Y. Fukumoto, M. Hatakeyama et al., “Liver injury
suppressing compounds from avocado (Persea americana),”
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, vol. 49, no. 5, pp.
2215–2221, 2001.
[437] E. I. Khasina, M. N. Sgrebneva, R. G. Ovodova, V. V.
Golovchenko, and Y. S. Ovodov, “Gastroprotective efect of
Lemnan, a pectic polysaccharide from Duchweed Lemna minor
L,” Doklady Akademii Nauk, vol. 390, no. 3, pp. 204–206, 2003.
[438] E. Z. Schuldt, M. R. Farias, R. M. Ribeiro-Do-Valle, and K.
Ckless, “Comparative study of radical scavenger activities of
crude extract and fractions from Cuphea carthagenensis leaves,”
Phytomedicine, vol. 11, no. 6, pp. 523–529, 2004.
[439] I. Gürbüz, A. M. Özkan, E. Yesilada, and O. Kutsal, “Antiulcerogenic activity of some plants used in folk medicine of
Pinarbasi (Kayseri, Turkey),” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol.
101, no. 1-3, pp. 313–318, 2005.
[440] S. Kültür, “Medicinal plants used in Kirklareli Province
(Turkey),” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 111, no. 2, pp. 341–
364, 2007.
[441] B. Maity, D. Banerjee, S. K. Bandyopadhyay, and S. Chattopadhyay, “Myristica malabarica heals stomach ulceration by
increasing prostaglandin synthesis and angiogenesis,” Planta
Medica, vol. 74, no. 15, pp. 1774–1778, 2008.
[442] A. S. Yadav and D. Bhatnagar, “Free radical scavenging activity,
metal chelation and antioxidant power of some of the Indian
spices,” BioFactors, vol. 31, no. 3-4, pp. 219–227, 2007.
[443] A. Chaturvedi, G. Bhawani, P. K. Agarwal, S. Goel, A. Singh,
and R. K. Goel, “Ulcer healing properties of ethanolic extract
of Eugenia jambolana seed in diabetic rats: study on gastric
mucosal defensive factors,” Indian Journal of Physiology and
Pharmacology, vol. 53, no. 1, pp. 16–24, 2009.
[444] C.-F. Chau and Y.-L. Huang, “Efects of the insoluble iber
derived from Passilora edulis seed on plasma and hepatic lipids
and fecal output,” Molecular Nutrition and Food Research, vol.
49, no. 8, pp. 786–790, 2005.
[445] M. Rudnicki, M. M. Silveira, T. V. Pereira et al., “Protective
efects of Passilora alata extract pretreatment on carbon tetrachloride induced oxidative damage in rats,” Food and Chemical
Toxicology, vol. 45, no. 4, pp. 656–661, 2007.
[446] H. Matsuda, K. Ninomiya, T. Morikawa, D. Yasuda, I. Yamaguchi, and M. Yoshikawa, “Hepatoprotective amide constituents from the fruit of Piper chaba: structural requirements,
mode of action, and new amides,” Bioorganic and Medicinal
Chemistry, vol. 17, no. 20, pp. 7313–7323, 2009.
[447] Z. Hou, P. Qin, and G. Ren, “Efect of anthocyanin-rich extract
from black rice (Oryza sativa L. Japonica) on chronically
alcohol-induced liver damage in rats,” Journal of Agricultural
and Food Chemistry, vol. 58, no. 5, pp. 3191–3196, 2010.
[448] A. Quı́lez, B. Berenguer, G. Gilardoni et al., “Anti-secretory,
anti-inlammatory and anti-Helicobacter pylori activities of
several fractions isolated from Piper carpunya Ruiz & Pav,”
Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 128, no. 3, pp. 583–589, 2010.
[449] M. Ratheesh, G. L. Shyni, and A. Helen, “Methanolic extract of
Ruta graveolens L. inhibits inlammation and oxidative stress in
39
[450]
[451]
[452]
[453]
[454]
[455]
[456]
[457]
[458]
[459]
[460]
[461]
[462]
[463]
[464]
adjuvant induced model of arthritis in rats,” Inlammopharmacology, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 100–105, 2009.
G. Kaur, Z. Jabbar, M. Athar, and M. S. Alam, “Punica granatum (pomegranate) lower extract possesses potent antioxidant
activity and abrogates Fe-NTA induced hepatotoxicity in mice,”
Food and Chemical Toxicology, vol. 44, no. 7, pp. 984–993, 2006.
A. Faria, R. Monteiro, N. Mateus, I. Azevedo, and C. Calhau,
“Efect of pomegranate (Punica granatum) juice intake on
hepatic oxidative stress,” European Journal of Nutrition, vol. 46,
no. 5, pp. 271–278, 2007.
H. Z. Toklu, M. U. Dumlu, Ö. Sehirli et al., “Pomegranate peel
extract prevents liver ibrosis in biliary-obstructed rats,” Journal
of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, vol. 59, no. 9, pp. 1287–1295,
2007.
I. Celik, A. Temur, and I. Isik, “Hepatoprotective role and
antioxidant capacity of pomegranate (Punica granatum) lowers
infusion against trichloroacetic acid-exposed in rats,” Food and
Chemical Toxicology, vol. 47, no. 1, pp. 145–149, 2009.
K. Singh, A. S. Jaggi, and N. Singh, “Exploring the ameliorative
potential of Punica granatum in dextran sulfate sodium induced
ulcerative colitis in mice,” Phytotherapy Research, vol. 23, no. 11,
pp. 1565–1574, 2009.
M. Washiyama, Y. Sasaki, T. Hosokawa, and S. Nagumo, “Antiinlammatory constituents of sappan Lignum,” Biological and
Pharmaceutical Bulletin, vol. 32, no. 5, pp. 941–944, 2009.
T. Saewong, S. Ounjaijean, Y. Mundee et al., “Efects of green
tea on iron accumulation and oxidative stress in livers of ironchallenged thalassemic mice,” Medicinal Chemistry, vol. 6, no.
2, pp. 57–64, 2010.
World Health Organization, Sexually Transmitted Infections
Fact Sheet, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland,
2007.
P. B. Telefo, P. F. Moundipa, and F. M. Tchouanguep, “Oestrogenicity and efect on hepatic metabolism of the aqueous extract
of the leaf mixture of Aloe buettneri, Dicliptera verticillata,
Hibiscus macranthus and Justicia insularis,” Fitoterapia, vol. 73,
no. 6, pp. 472–478, 2002.
J. D. Adams Jr. and C. Garcia, “Women’s health among the
Chumash,” Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative
Medicine, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 125–131, 2006.
H. Niederhofer, “Is phytotherapy efective in menopausal dysphoric disorder?” Menopause, vol. 16, no. 3, p. 616, 2009.
C. Kupfersztain, C. Rotem, R. Fagot, and B. Kaplan, “he
immediate efect of natural plant extract, Angelica sinensis
and Matricaria chamomilla (Climex) for the treatment of hot
lushes during menopause. A preliminary report,” Clinical and
Experimental Obstetrics and Gynecology, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 203–
206, 2003.
H. Greenlee, C. Atkinson, F. Z. Stanczyk, and J. W. Lampe,
“A pilot and feasibility study on the efects of naturopathic
botanical and dietary interventions on sex steroid hormone
metabolism in premenopausal women,” Cancer Epidemiology
Biomarkers and Prevention, vol. 16, no. 8, pp. 1601–1609, 2007.
X. Zhi, K.-I. Honda, K. Ozaki, T. Misugi, T. Sumi, and O. Ishiko,
“Dandelion T-1 extract up-regulates reproductive hormone
receptor expression in mice,” International Journal of Molecular
Medicine, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 287–292, 2007.
G. Bourdy and A. Walter, “Maternity and medicinal plants in
Vanuatu—I. he cycle of reproduction,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 37, no. 3, pp. 179–196, 1992.
40
[465] P. A. Komesarof, C. V. S. Black, V. Cable, and K. Sudhir, “Efects
of wild yam extract on menopausal symptoms, lipids and sex
hormones in healthy menopausal women,” Climacteric, vol. 4,
no. 2, pp. 144–150, 2001.
[466] L. Russell, G. S. Hicks, A. K. Low, J. M. Shepherd, and C. A.
Brown, “Phytoestrogens: a viable option?” American Journal of
the Medical Sciences, vol. 324, no. 4, pp. 185–188, 2002.
[467] W.-H. Wu, L.-Y. Liu, C.-J. Chung, H.-J. Jou, and T.-A. Wang,
“Estrogenic efect of yam ingestion in healthy postmenopausal
women,” Journal of the American College of Nutrition, vol. 24,
no. 4, pp. 235–243, 2005.
[468] K. Parton, D. Gardner, and N. B. Williamson, “Isocupressic
acid, an abortifacient component of Cupressus macrocarpa,”
New Zealand Veterinary Journal, vol. 44, no. 3, pp. 109–111, 1996.
[469] Y.-S. Tsai, Y.-C. Tong, J.-T. Cheng, C.-H. Lee, F.-S. Yang, and
H.-Y. Lee, “Pumpkin seed oil and phytosterol-F can block
testosterone/prazosin-induced prostate growth in rats,” Urologia Internationalis, vol. 77, no. 3, pp. 269–274, 2006.
[470] H. L. Yong, H. H. Sun, and Y. C. Se, “Efect of herbal extract mixture on menopausal urinary incontinence in ovariectomized
rats,” BioFactors, vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 171–178, 2006.
[471] M. Gossell-Williams, A. Davis, and N. O’Connor, “Inhibition
of testosterone-induced hyperplasia of the prostate of SpragueDawley rats by pumpkin seed oil,” Journal of Medicinal Food,
vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 284–286, 2006.
[472] M. K. Nusier, H. N. Bataineh, and H. M. Daradkah, “Adverse
efects of rosemary (Rosmarinus oicinalis L.) on reproductive
function in adult male rats,” Experimental Biology and Medicine,
vol. 232, no. 6, pp. 809–813, 2007.
[473] N. Chowdhury, A. Ghosh, and G. Chandra, “Mosquito larvicidal activities of Solanum villosum berry extract against the
dengue vector Stegomyia aegypti,” BMC Complementary and
Alternative Medicine, vol. 8, no. 1, article 10, 2008.
[474] N. Sharma and D. Jacob, “Assessment of reversible contraceptive
eicacy of methanol extract of Mentha arvensis L. leaves in male
albino mice,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 80, no. 1, pp.
9–13, 2002.
[475] N. Sharma and D. Jocob, “Antifertility investigation and toxicological screening of the petroleum ether extract of the
leaves of Mentha arvensis L. in male albino mice,” Journal of
Ethnopharmacology, vol. 75, no. 1, pp. 5–12, 2001.
[476] C. Ciganda and A. Laborde, “Herbal infusions used for induced
abortion,” Journal of Toxicology, vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 235–239, 2003.
[477] S. K. Batta and G. Santhakumari, “he antifertility efect of
Ocimum sanctum and Hibiscus rosa sinensis,” he Indian Journal
of Medical Research, vol. 59, no. 5, pp. 777–781, 1971.
[478] S. Kasinathan, S. Ramakrishnan, and S. L. Basu, “Antifertility
efect of Ocimum sanctum L,” Indian Journal of Experimental
Biology, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 23–25, 1972.
[479] N. R. Farnsworth and D. P. Waller, “Current status of plant
products reported to inhibit sperm,” Research Frontiers in
Fertility Regulation, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 1–16, 1982.
[480] M. Ahmed, R. N. Ahamed, R. H. Aladakatti, and M. G.
Ghosesawar, “Reversible anti-fertility efect of benzene extract
of Ocimum sanctum leaves on sperm parameters and fructose
content in rats,” Journal of Basic and Clinical Physiology and
Pharmacology, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 51–59, 2002.
[481] P. Allan and G. Bilkei, “Oregano improves reproductive performance of sows,” heriogenology, vol. 63, no. 3, pp. 716–721, 2005.
[482] I. M. El-Ashmawy, A. Saleh, and O. M. Salama, “Efects of
marjoram volatile oil and grape seed extract on ethanol toxicity
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
[483]
[484]
[485]
[486]
[487]
[488]
[489]
[490]
[491]
[492]
[493]
[494]
[495]
[496]
[497]
[498]
in male rats,” Basic and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology,
vol. 101, no. 5, pp. 320–327, 2007.
J. EAST, “he efect of certain plant preparations on the
fertility of laboratory mammals. 4. Sanguisorba oicinalis L,”
he Journal of Endocrinology, vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 273–276, 1955.
G. A. Conway and J. C. Slocumb, “Plants used as abortifacients
and emmenagogues by Spanish New Mexicans,” Journal of
Ethnopharmacology, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 241–261, 1979.
J. L. Gutiérrez-Pajares, L. Zúñiga, and J. Pino, “Ruta graveolens
aqueous extract retards mouse preimplantation embryo development,” Reproductive Toxicology, vol. 17, no. 6, pp. 667–672,
2003.
T. G. De Freitas, P. M. Augusto, and T. Montanari, “Efect of Ruta
graveolens L. on pregnant mice,” Contraception, vol. 71, no. 1, pp.
74–77, 2005.
N. A. Khouri and Z. EL-Akawi, “Antiandrogenic activity of Ruta
graveolens L in male Albino rats with emphasis on sexual and
aggressive behavior,” Neuroendocrinology Letters, vol. 26, no. 6,
pp. 823–829, 2005.
K. Dhawan, S. Kumar, and A. Sharma, “Beneicial efects of
chrysin and benzolavone on virility in 2-year-old male rats,”
Journal of Medicinal Food, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 43–48, 2002.
K. Dhawan, S. Kumar, and A. Sharma, “Aphrodisiac activity of
methanol extract of leaves of Passilora incarnata Linn. in mice,”
Phytotherapy Research, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 401–403, 2003.
K. Dhawan and A. Sharma, “Restoration of chronic- �9THC-induced decline in sexuality in male rats by a novel
benzolavone moiety from Passilora incarnata Linn,” British
Journal of Pharmacology, vol. 138, no. 1, pp. 117–120, 2003.
R. Tabach, E. Rodrigues, and E. A. Carlini, “Preclinical toxicological assessment of a phytotherapeutic product—CPV (based
on dry extracts of Crataegus oxyacantha L., Passilora incarnata
L., and Valeriana oicinalis L.),” Phytotherapy Research, vol. 23,
no. 1, pp. 33–40, 2009.
A. Tajuddin, S. Ahmad, A. Latif, and I. A. Qasmi, “Aphrodisiac
activity of 50% ethanolic extracts of Myristica fragrans Houtt.
(nutmeg) and Syzygium aromaticum (L) Merr. & Perry. (clove)
in male mice: a comparative study,” BMC Complementary and
Alternative Medicine, vol. 3, article 6, 2003.
F. B. Mello, D. Jacobus, K. Carvalho, and J. R. B. Mello, “Efects
of Lantana camara (Verbenaceae) on general reproductive
performance and teratology in rats,” Toxicon, vol. 45, no. 4, pp.
459–466, 2005.
F. B. De Mello, D. Jacobus, K. Cristina, S. De Carvalho, and J. R.
B. De Mello, “Efects of Lantana camara (verbenaceae) on rat
fertility,” Veterinary and Human Toxicology, vol. 45, no. 1, pp.
20–23, 2003.
O. P. Verma, S. Kumar, and S. N. Chatterjee, “Antifertility
efects of common edible Portulaca oleracea on the reproductive
organs of male albino mice,” Indian Journal of Medical Research,
vol. 75, no. 2, pp. 301–310, 1982.
S. F. Shobeiri, S. Sharei, A. Heidari, and S. Kianbakht, “Portulaca
oleracea L. in the treatment of patients with abnormal uterine
bleeding: a pilot clinical trial,” Phytotherapy Research, vol. 23,
no. 10, pp. 1411–1414, 2009.
C. De Zwaan, M. J. A. P. Daemen, and W. T. Hermens,
“Mechanisms of cell death in acute myocardial infarction,
pathophysiological implications for treatment,” Netherlands
Heart Journal, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 30–44, 2001.
R. B. Kreider, C. D. Wilborn, L. Taylor et al., “ISSN exercise and
sport nutrition review: research and recommendations,” Journal
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
[499]
[500]
[501]
[502]
[503]
[504]
[505]
[506]
[507]
[508]
[509]
[510]
[511]
[512]
[513]
[514]
of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, vol. 7, article 7,
2010.
J. V. Neel, F. M. Salzano, P. C. Unqueira, F. Keiter, and
D. Maybury-Lewis, “Studies on the Xavante Indians of the
Brazilian Mato Grosso,” American Journal of Human Genetics,
vol. 16, pp. 52–140, 1964.
A. S. Botsaris, “Plants used traditionally to treat malaria in
Brazil: the archives of Flora Medicinal,” Journal of Ethnobiology
and Ethnomedicine, vol. 3, article 18, 2007.
D. G. Abrahams and W. P. Cockshott, “Multiple non-luetic
aneurysms in young Nigerians,” British Heart Journal, vol. 24,
pp. 83–91, 1962.
M. S. N. Murthy, “he efect of amino-nitrile-induced vascular
injury on cholesterol-induced atherosclerosis in Rabbits,” American Journal of Pathology, vol. 44, no. 2, pp. 247–253, 1964.
D. M. Kramsch, C. Franzblau, and W. Hollander, “he protein
and lipid composition of arterial elastin and its relationship
to lipid accumulation in the atherosclerotic plaque,” Journal of
Clinical Investigation, vol. 50, no. 8, pp. 1666–1677, 1971.
C. I. Levene, “Atherosclerosis—disease of old age or infancy?”
Journal of Clinical Pathology, vol. 12, pp. 165–173, 1978.
V. Ali and T. Nozaki, “Current therapeutics, their problems,
and sulfur-containing-amino-acid metabolism as a novel target
against infections by “amitochondriate” protozoan parasites,”
Clinical Microbiology Reviews, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 164–187, 2007.
E. Lev, “Ethno-diversity within current ethno-pharmacology
as part of Israeli traditional medicine—a review,” Journal of
Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, vol. 2, article 4, 2006.
G. Block, C. D. Jensen, E. P. Norkus et al., “Usage patterns,
health, and nutritional status of long-term multiple dietary
supplement users: a cross-sectional study,” Nutrition Journal,
vol. 6, article 30, 2007.
V. Ganji and J. Kuo, “Serum lipid responses to psyllium iber:
diferences between pre- and post-menopausal, hypercholesterolemic women,” Nutrition Journal, vol. 7, no. 1, article 22,
2008.
T. L. Raymond, W. E. Connor, and D. S. Lin, “he interaction
of dietary ibers and cholesterol upon the plasma lipids and
lipoproteins, sterol balance, and bowel function in human
subjects,” Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol. 60, no. 6, pp.
1429–1437, 1977.
I. Fukazawa, N. Uchida, E. Uchida, and H. Yasuhara, “Efects
of grapefruit juice on pharmacokinetics of atorvastatin and
pravastatin in Japanese,” British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, vol. 57, no. 4, pp. 448–455, 2004.
World Health Organization, World Health Fact Sheet, World
Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 2009.
C. Carlier, M. Etchepare, J.-F. Ceccon, M.-S. Mourey, and O.
Amedee-Manesme, “Eicacy of massive oral doses of retinyl
palmitate and mango (Mangifera indica L.) consumption to
correct an existing vitamin A deiciency in Senegalese children,”
British Journal of Nutrition, vol. 68, no. 2, pp. 529–540, 1992.
G. Garrido, R. Delgado, Y. Lemus, J. Rodrı́guez, D. Garcı́a,
and A. J. Núñez-Sellés, “Protection against septic shock and
suppression of tumor necrosis factor alpha and nitric oxide production on macrophages and microglia by a standard aqueous
extract of Mangifera indica L. (VIMANGⓇ): role of mangiferin
isolated from the extract,” Pharmacological Research, vol. 50, no.
2, pp. 165–172, 2004.
J. Leiro, D. Garcı́a, J. A. Arranz, R. Delgado, M. L. Sanmartı́n, and F. Orallo, “An Anacardiaceae preparation reduces
41
[515]
[516]
[517]
[518]
[519]
[520]
[521]
[522]
[523]
[524]
[525]
[526]
[527]
[528]
the expression of inlammation-related genes in murine
macrophages,” International Immunopharmacology, vol. 4, no.
8, pp. 991–1003, 2004.
M. Farinacci, M. Colitti, S. Sgorlon, and B. Stefanon, “Immunomodulatory activity of plant residues on ovine neutrophils,”
Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology, vol. 126, no. 12, pp. 54–63, 2008.
Z. Yueqin, M. C. Recio, S. Máñez, R. M. Giner, M. CerdáNicolás, and J.-L. Rios, “Isolation of two triterpenoids and a
bilavanone with anti-inlammatory activity from schinus molle
fruits,” Planta Medica, vol. 69, no. 10, pp. 893–898, 2003.
Y. Sreenivasan, A. Sarkar, and S. K. Manna, “Oleandrin suppresses activation of nuclear transcription factor-�B and activator protein-1 and potentiates apoptosis induced by ceramide,”
Biochemical Pharmacology, vol. 66, no. 11, pp. 2223–2239, 2003.
S. Rinaldi, D. O. Silva, F. Bello et al., “Characterization of the
antinociceptive and anti-inlammatory activities from Cocos
nucifera L. (Palmae),” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 122,
no. 3, pp. 541–546, 2009.
E. M. Giner-Larza, S. Máñez, R. M. Giner-Pons, M. Carmen
Recio, and J.-L. Rı́os, “On the anti-inlammatory and antiphospholipase A2 activity of extracts from lanostane-rich
species,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 73, no. 1-2, pp. 61–
69, 2000.
J. M. Prieto, M. C. Recio, R. M. Giner, S. Máñez, E. M.
Giner-Larza, and J. L. Rı́os, “Inluence of traditional Chinese
anti-inlammatory medicinal plants on leukocyte and platelet
functions,” Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, vol. 55, no.
9, pp. 1275–1282, 2003.
T.-J. Li, Y. Qiu, J.-Q. Mao, P.-Y. Yang, Y.-C. Rui, and W.S. Chen, “Protective efects of Guizhi-Fuling-capsules on rat
brain ischemia/reperfusion injury,” Journal of Pharmacological
Sciences, vol. 105, no. 1, pp. 34–40, 2007.
Z. Lin, D. Zhu, Y. Yan, and B. Yu, “Herbal formula FBD extracts
prevented brain injury and inlammation induced by cerebral
ischemia-reperfusion,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 118,
no. 1, pp. 140–147, 2008.
B. Benedek and B. Kopp, “Achillea millefolium L. s.l. revisited:
recent indings conirm the traditional use,” Wiener Medizinische Wochenschrit, vol. 157, no. 13-14, pp. 312–314, 2007.
E. Nemeth and J. Bernath, “Biological activities of yarrow
species (Achillea spp.),” Current Pharmaceutical Design, vol. 14,
no. 29, pp. 3151–3167, 2008.
D. A. Cifuente, M. J. Simirgiotis, L. Silvina Favier, A. E.
Rotelli, and L. E. Pelzer, “Antiinlammatory activity from aerial
parts of Baccharis medullosa, Baccharis rufescens and Laennecia
sophiifolia in mice,” Phytotherapy Research, vol. 15, no. 6, pp.
529–531, 2001.
E. L. Paul, A. Lunardelli, E. Caberlon et al., “Anti-inlammatory
and immunomodulatory efects of baccharis trimera aqueous
extract on induced pleurisy in rats and lymphoproliferation in
vitro,” Inlammation, vol. 32, no. 6, pp. 419–425, 2009.
R. L. C. Pereira, T. Ibrahim, L. Lucchetti, A. J. R. Da Silva, and V.
L. G. De Moraes, “Immunosuppressive and anti-inlammatory
efects of methanolic extract and the polyacetylene isolated
from Bidens pilosa L,” Immunopharmacology, vol. 43, no. 1, pp.
31–37, 1999.
C. L.-T. Chang, H.-K. Kuo, S.-L. Chang et al., “he distinct
efects of a butanol fraction of Bidens pilosa plant extract on
the development of h1-mediated diabetes and h2-mediated
airway inlammation in mice,” Journal of Biomedical Science,
vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 79–89, 2005.
42
[529] N. Yoshida, T. Kanekura, Y. Higashi, and T. Kanzaki, “Bidens
pilosa suppresses interleukin-1�-induced cyclooxygenase-2
expression through the inhibition of mitogen activated protein
kinases phosphorylation in normal human dermal ibroblasts,”
Journal of Dermatology, vol. 33, no. 10, pp. 676–683, 2006.
[530] M. L. Clavin, S. Gorzalczany, J. Miño et al., “Antinociceptive.efect of some Argentine medicinal species of Eupatorium,”
Phytotherapy Research, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 275–277, 2000.
[531] S. Habtemariam, “Antiinlammatory activity of the antirheumatic herbal drug, gravel root (Eupatorium purpureum):
further biological activities and constituents,” Phytotherapy
Research, vol. 15, no. 8, pp. 687–690, 2001.
[532] S. Habtemariam, “Cistifolin, an integrin-dependent cell adhesion blocker from the anti- rheumatic herbal drug, gravel root
(Rhizome of Eupatorium purpureum),” Planta Medica, vol. 64,
no. 8, pp. 683–685, 1998.
[533] L. Muschietti, S. Gorzalczany, G. Ferraro, C. Acevedo, and V.
Martino, “Phenolic compounds with anti-inlammatory activity
from Eupatorium buniifolium,” Planta Medica, vol. 67, no. 8, pp.
743–744, 2001.
[534] M. T. Chomnawang, S. Surassmo, V. S. Nukoolkarn, and W.
Gritsanapan, “Antimicrobial efects of hai medicinal plants
against acne-inducing bacteria,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology,
vol. 101, no. 1-3, pp. 330–333, 2005.
[535] M. Ganzera, P. Schneider, and H. Stuppner, “Inhibitory efects
of the essential oil of chamomile (Matricaria recutita L.) and its
major constituents on human cytochrome P450 enzymes,” Life
Sciences, vol. 78, no. 8, pp. 856–861, 2006.
[536] Y. Kasahara, K. Yasukawa, S. Kitanaka, M. Tauiq Khan, and
F. J. Evans, “Efect of methanol extract from lower petals of
Tagetes patula L. on Acute and chronic inlammation model,”
Phytotherapy Research, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 217–222, 2002.
[537] Y. Kashiwada, K. Takanaka, H. Tsukada et al., “Sesquiterpene
glucosides from anti-leukotriene B4 release fraction of Taraxacum oicinale,” Journal of Asian Natural Products Research, vol.
3, no. 3, pp. 191–197, 2001.
[538] P.-F. Su, V. Staniforth, C.-J. Li et al., “Immunomodulatory
efects of phytocompounds characterized by in vivo transgenic
human GM-CSF promoter activity in skin tissues,” Journal of
Biomedical Science, vol. 15, no. 6, pp. 813–822, 2008.
[539] P. Hiransai, S. Ratanachaiyavong, A. Itharat, P. Graidist, P.
Ruengrairatanaroj, and J. Purintrapiban, “Dioscorealide B suppresses LPS-induced nitric oxide production and inlammatory
cytokine expression in RAW 264.7 macrophages: the inhibition
of NF-�B and ERK1/2 activation,” Journal of Cellular Biochemistry, vol. 109, no. 5, pp. 1057–1063, 2010.
[540] B. Zhang, X.-L. He, Y. Ding, and G.-H. Du, “Gaultherin, a natural salicylate derivative from Gaultheria yunnanensis: towards a
better non-steroidal anti-inlammatory drug,” European Journal
of Pharmacology, vol. 530, no. 1-2, pp. 166–171, 2006.
[541] O. O. Adeyemi, O. K. Yemitan, and L. Afolabi, “Inhibition
of chemically induced inlammation and pain by orally and
topically administered leaf extract of Manihot esculenta Crantz
in rodents,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 119, no. 1, pp. 6–
11, 2008.
[542] A. C. Hirko, R. Dallasen, S. Jomura, and Y. Xu, “Modulation of
inlammatory responses ater global ischemia by transplanted
umbilical cord matrix stem cells,” Stem Cells, vol. 26, no. 11, pp.
2893–2901, 2008.
[543] V. Lomash, S. K. Parihar, N. K. Jain, and A. K. Katiyar, “Efect of
Solanum nigrum and Ricinus communis extracts on histamine
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
[544]
[545]
[546]
[547]
[548]
[549]
[550]
[551]
[552]
[553]
[554]
[555]
[556]
[557]
[558]
and carrageenan-induced inlammation in the chicken skin,”
Cellular and Molecular Biology, vol. 56, no. 1, pp. 1239–1251, 2010.
M. Kawano, M. Otsuka, K. Umeyama et al., “Anti-inlammatory
and analgesic components from “hierba santa”, a traditional
medicine in Peru,” Journal of Natural Medicines, vol. 63, no. 2,
pp. 147–158, 2009.
S. Shukla, A. Mehta, P. Mehta, S. P. Vyas, S. Shukla, and V. K.
Bajpai, “Studies on anti-inlammatory, antipyretic and analgesic
properties of Caesalpinia bonducella F. seed oil in experimental
animal models,” Food and Chemical Toxicology, vol. 48, no. 1, pp.
61–64, 2010.
H. O. Mbagwu, R. A. Anene, and O. O. Adeyemi, “Analgesic,
antipyretic and anti-inlammatory properties of Mezoneuron
benthamianum Baill (Caesalpiniaceae),” Nigerian Quarterly
Journal of Hospital Medicine, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 35–41, 2007.
S.-C. Lai, W.-H. Peng, S.-C. Huang et al., “Analgesic and antiinlammatory activities of methanol extract from Desmodium
trilorum DC in mice,” American Journal of Chinese Medicine,
vol. 37, no. 3, pp. 573–588, 2009.
J. C. Souza-Pinto, M. L. V. Oliva, C. A. M. Sampaio et al., “Efect
of a serine proteinase inhibitor from Leucaena leucocephala on
plasma kallikrein and plasmin,” Immunopharmacology, vol. 33,
no. 1-3, pp. 330–332, 1996.
L. Krenn and D. H. Paper, “Inhibition of angiogenesis and
inlammation by an extract of red clover (Trifolium pratense L.),”
Phytomedicine, vol. 16, no. 12, pp. 1083–1088, 2009.
F. R. Carrasco, G. Schmidt, A. L. Romero et al., “Immunomodulatory activity of Zingiber oicinale Roscoe, Salvia oicinalis
L. and Syzygium aromaticum L. essential oils: evidence for
humor- and cell-mediated responses,” Journal of Pharmacy and
Pharmacology, vol. 61, no. 7, pp. 961–967, 2009.
J. Fichna, R. Schicho, C. N. Andrews et al., “Salvinorin A inhibits
colonic transit and neurogenic ion transport in mice by activating �-opioid and cannabinoid receptors,” Neurogastroenterology
and Motility, vol. 21, no. 12, pp. 1326–1328, 2009.
H.-J. Jung, Y. S. Song, C.-J. Lim, and E.-H. Park, “Antiinlammatory, anti-angiogenic and anti-nociceptive activities
of an ethanol extract of Salvia plebeia R. Brown,” Journal of
Ethnopharmacology, vol. 126, no. 2, pp. 355–360, 2009.
C. Uslu, R. M. Karasen, F. Sahin, S. Taysi, and F. Akcay, “Efects
of aqueous extracts of Satureja hortensis L. on rhinosinusitis
treatment in rabbit,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 88, no.
2-3, pp. 225–228, 2003.
N. Backhouse, L. Rosales, C. Apablaza et al., “Analgesic, antiinlammatory and antioxidant properties of Buddleja globosa,
Buddlejaceae,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 116, no. 2, pp.
263–269, 2008.
Y. J. Lee, D. G. Kang, J. S. Kim, and H. S. Lee, “Efect of Buddleja
oicinalis on high-glucose-induced vascular inlammation in
human umbilical vein endothelial cells,” Experimental Biology
and Medicine, vol. 233, no. 6, pp. 694–700, 2008.
L.-C. Chiang, L. T. Ng, W. Chiang, M.-Y. Chang, and C.-C. Lin,
“Immunomodulatory activities of lavonoids, monoterpenoids,
triterpenoids, iridoid glycosides and phenolic compounds of
Plantago species,” Planta Medica, vol. 69, no. 7, pp. 600–604,
2003.
G. Sindhu, M. Ratheesh, G. L. Shyni, and A. Helen, “Inhibitory
efects of Cynodon dactylon L. on inlammation and oxidative
stress in adjuvant treated rats,” Immunopharmacology and
Immunotoxicology, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 647–653, 2009.
S. K. Manna, C. Bueso-Ramos, F. Alvarado, and B. B. Aggarwal,
“Calagualine inhibits nuclear transcription factors-�B activated
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
[559]
[560]
[561]
[562]
[563]
[564]
[565]
[566]
[567]
[568]
[569]
[570]
[571]
[572]
by various inlammatory and tumor promoting agents,” Cancer
Letters, vol. 190, no. 2, pp. 171–182, 2003.
E. Zwart, H. Van Steeg, S. Gonzalez, R. Kishore, and D. A.
Goukassian, “Polypodium leucotomos extract decreases UVinduced Cox-2 expression and inlammation, enhances DNA
repair, and decreases.mutagenesis in hairless mice,” American
Journal of Pathology, vol. 175, no. 5, pp. 1952–1961, 2009.
M. Sandoval-Chacón, J. H. hompson, X.-J. Zhang et al.,
“Antiinlammatory actions of cat’s claw: the role of NF-�B,”
Alimentary Pharmacology and herapeutics, vol. 12, no. 12, pp.
1279–1289, 1998.
M. I. Calvo, “Anti-inlammatory and analgesic activity of the
topical preparation of Verbena oicinalis L,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 107, no. 3, pp. 380–382, 2006.
E. Speroni, R. Cervellati, S. Costa et al., “Efects of diferential
extraction of Verbena oicinalis on rat models of inlammation,
cicatrization and gastric damage,” Planta Medica, vol. 73, no. 3,
pp. 227–235, 2007.
S. Sood, B. Arora, S. Bansal et al., “Antioxidant, anti-inlammatory and analgesic potential of the Citrus decumana L. peel
extract,” Inlammopharmacology, vol. 17, no. 5, pp. 267–274,
2009.
J. Oben, E. Enonchong, S. Kothari, W. Chambliss, R. Garrison,
and D. Dolnick, “Phellodendron and Citrus extracts beneit
joint health in osteoarthritis patients: a pilot, double-blind,
placebo-controlled study,” Nutrition Journal, vol. 8, no. 1, article
38, 2009.
K. Yoshino, N. Higashi, and K. Koga, “Inhibitory efects of acidic
xylooligosaccharide on stress-induced gastric inlammation in
mice,” Journal of the Food Hygienic Society of Japan, vol. 47, no.
6, pp. 284–287, 2006.
K. Vafeiadou, D. Vauzour, H. Y. Lee, A. Rodriguez-Mateos, R. J.
Williams, and J. P. E. Spencer, “he citrus lavanone naringenin
inhibits inlammatory signalling in glial cells and protects
against neuroinlammatory injury,” Archives of Biochemistry and
Biophysics, vol. 484, no. 1, pp. 100–109, 2009.
H. Ghanim, C. L. Sia, M. Upadhyay et al., “Orange juice
neutralizes the proinlammatory efect of a high-fat, highcarbohydrate meal and prevents endotoxin increase and tolllike receptor expression,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition,
vol. 91, no. 4, pp. 940–949, 2010.
H.-J. Koo, K.-H. Lim, H.-J. Jung, and E.-H. Park, “Antiinlammatory evaluation of gardenia extract, geniposide and
genipin,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 103, no. 3, pp. 496–
500, 2006.
P.-S. Oh and K.-T. Lim, “Plant originated glycoprotein has
anti-oxidative and anti-inlammatory efects on dextran sulfate
sodium-induced colitis in mouse,” Journal of Biomedical Science, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 549–560, 2006.
J. Jiang and Q. Xu, “Immunomodulatory activity of the aqueous
extract from rhizome of Smilax glabra in the later phase of
adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 85, no. 1, pp. 53–59, 2003.
J. B. Calixto, A. R. Santos, V. Cechinel Filho, and R. A. Yunes, “A
review of the plants of the genus Phyllanthus, their chemistry,
pharmacology, and therapeutic efects,” Medicinal Research
Reviews, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 225–258, 1998.
M.-Q. Man, Y. Shi, M. Man et al., “Chinese herbal medicine
(Tuhuai extract) exhibits topical anti-proliferative and antiinlammatory activity in murine disease models,” Experimental
Dermatology, vol. 17, no. 8, pp. 681–687, 2008.
43
[573] A. J. Vargas, D. S. Geremias, G. Provensi et al., “Passilora
alata and Passilora edulis spray-dried aqueous extracts inhibit
inlammation in mouse model of pleurisy,” Fitoterapia, vol. 78,
no. 2, pp. 112–119, 2007.
[574] H. H. El-Kamali and K. F. El-Khalifa, “Treatment of malaria
through herbal drugs in the Central Sudan,” Fitoterapia, vol. 68,
no. 6, pp. 527–528, 1997.
[575] W. Milliken, “Traditional anti-malarial medicine in Roraima,
Brazil,” Economic Botany, vol. 51, no. 3, pp. 212–237, 1997.
[576] M. P. E. Connelly, E. Fabiano, I. H. Patel, S. M. Kinyanjui,
E. K. Mberu, and W. M. Watkins, “Antimalarial activity in
crude extracts of Malawian medicinal plants,” Annals of Tropical
Medicine and Parasitology, vol. 90, no. 6, pp. 597–602, 1996.
[577] Z. O. Gbile, Vernacular Names of Nigerian Plants (Yoruba),
FRIN, Ibadan, Nigeria, 1984.
[578] N. Minakawa, G. Sonye, M. Mogi, A. Githeko, and G. Yan, “he
efects of climatic factors on the distribution and abundance of
malaria vectors in Kenya,” Journal of Medical Entomology, vol.
39, no. 6, pp. 833–841, 2002.
[579] S. I. Hay, E. C. Were, M. Renshaw et al., “Forecasting, warning,
and detection of malaria epidemics: a case study,” he Lancet,
vol. 361, no. 9370, pp. 1705–1706, 2003.
[580] L. P. Kvist, S. B. Christensen, H. B. Rasmussen, K. Mejia, and
A. Gonzalez, “Identiication and evaluation of Peruvian plants
used to treat malaria and leishmaniasis,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 106, no. 3, pp. 390–402, 2006.
[581] V. Roumy, G. Garcia-Pizango, A.-L. Gutierrez-Choquevilca
et al., “Amazonian plants from Peru used by Quechua and
Mestizo to treat malaria with evaluation of their activity,”
Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 112, no. 3, pp. 482–489, 2007.
[582] C. Lans, T. Harper, K. Georges, and E. Bridgewater, “Medicinal
and ethnoveterinary remedies of hunters in Trinidad,” BMC
Complementary and Alternative Medicine, vol. 1, article 10, 2001.
[583] A. W. Stowers, L.-H. Chen, Y. Zhang et al., “A recombinant
vaccine expressed in the milk of transgenic mice protects Aotus
monkeys from a lethal challenge with Plasmodium falciparum,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America, vol. 99, no. 1, pp. 339–344, 2002.
[584] N. Bletter, “A quantitative synthesis of the medicinal ethnobotany of the Malinké of Mali and the Asháninka of Peru,
with a new theoretical framework,” Journal of Ethnobiology and
Ethnomedicine, vol. 3, article 36, 2007.
[585] B. G. J. Knols, B. N. Njiru, E. M. Mathenge, W. R. Mukabana, J. C.
Beier, and G. F. Killeen, “MalariaSphere: a greenhouse-enclosed
simulation of a natural Anophelesgambiae (Diptera: Culicidae)
ecosystem in western Kenya,” Malaria Journal, vol. 1, article 1,
pp. 1–13, 2002.
[586] R. W. Bussmann, G. G. Gilbreath, J. Solio et al., “Plant use of
the Maasai of Sekenani Valley, Maasai Mara, Kenya,” Journal of
Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, vol. 2, article 22, 2006.
[587] R. W. Bussmann, “Ethnobotany of the Samburu of Mt. Nyiru,
South Turkana, Kenya,” Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, vol. 2, article 35, 2006.
[588] J. Kayode, “Conservation of indigenous medicinal botanicals in
Ekiti State, Nigeria,” Journal of Zhejiang University B, vol. 7, no.
9, pp. 713–718, 2006.
[589] C. Lacuna-Richman, “he use of non-wood forest products
by migrants in a new settlement: experiences of a Visayan
community in Palawan, Philippines,” Journal of Ethnobiology
and Ethnomedicine, vol. 2, article 36, 2006.
44
[590] S. Rajkumar and A. Jebanesan, “Oviposition deterrent and skin
repellent activities of Solanum trilobatum leaf extract against
the malarial vector Anopheles stephensi,” Journal of Insect
Science, vol. 5, article 15, 2005.
[591] E. A. Makundi, H. M. Malebo, P. Mhame, A. Y. Kitua, and M.
Warsame, “Role of traditional healers in the management of
severe malaria among children below ive years of age: the case
of Kilosa and Handeni Districts, Tanzania,” Malaria Journal, vol.
5, article 58, 2006.
[592] G. N. Njoroge and R. W. Bussmann, “Diversity and utilization of antimalarial ethnophytotherapeutic remedies among
the Kikuyus (Central Kenya),” Journal of Ethnobiology and
Ethnomedicine, vol. 2, article 8, 2006.
[593] A. L. Sajem and K. Gosai, “Traditional use of medicinal plants
by the Jaintia tribes in North Cachar Hills district of Assam,
northeast India,” Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine,
vol. 2, article 33, 2006.
[594] T. Teklehaymanot and M. Giday, “Ethnobotanical study of
medicinal plants used by people in Zegie Peninsula, Northwestern Ethiopia,” Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, vol. 3,
article 12, 2007.
[595] M. O. Nanyingi, J. M. Mbaria, A. L. Lanyasunya et al.,
“Ethnopharmacological survey of Samburu district, Kenya,”
Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, vol. 4, article 14,
2008.
[596] I. Vandebroek, E. homas, S. Sanca, P. Van Damme, L. V. Van,
and N. De Kimpe, “Comparison of health conditions treated
with traditional and biomedical health care in a Quechua
community in rural Bolivia,” Journal of Ethnobiology and
Ethnomedicine, vol. 4, article 1, 2008.
[597] L. R. S. Gazzaneo, R. F. Paiva de Lucena, and U. P. de Albuquerque, “Knowledge and use of medicinal plants by local
specialists in an region of Atlantic Forest in the state of Pernambuco (Northeastern Brazil),” Journal of Ethnobiology and
Ethnomedicine, vol. 1, article 9, 2005.
[598] K. Ishihara, N. Yamagishi, Y. Saito, M. Takasaki, T. Konoshima,
and T. Hatayama, “Arctigenin from Fructus Arctii is a novel
suppressor of heat shock response in mammalian cells,” Cell
Stress and Chaperones, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 154–161, 2006.
[599] M.-W. Wang, X. Hao, and K. Chen, “Biological screening of
natural products and drug innovation in China,” Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B, vol. 362, no. 1482, pp. 1093–
1105, 2007.
[600] N. P. Hays, P. R. Galassetti, and R. H. Coker, “Prevention and
treatment of type 2 diabetes: current role of lifestyle, natural
product, and pharmacological interventions,” Pharmacology
and herapeutics, vol. 118, no. 2, pp. 181–191, 2008.
[601] L. M. Johnson, “Gitksan medicinal plants-cultural choice and
eicacy,” Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, vol. 2,
article 29, 2006.
[602] S. Bhattarai, R. P. Chaudhary, and R. S. L. Taylor, “Ethnomedicinal plants used by the people of Manang district, central Nepal,”
Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, vol. 2, article 41,
2006.
[603] C. P. Kala, P. P. Dhyani, and B. S. Sajwan, “Developing the
medicinal plants sector in northern India: challenges and
opportunities,” Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, vol.
2, article 32, 2006.
[604] O. Said, S. Fulder, K. Khalil, H. Azaizeh, E. Kassis, and B.
Saad, “Maintaining a physiological blood glucose level with
’glucolevel’, a combination of four anti-diabetes plants used in
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
[605]
[606]
[607]
[608]
[609]
[610]
[611]
[612]
[613]
[614]
[615]
[616]
[617]
[618]
[619]
[620]
the traditional Arab herbal medicine,” Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 421–428,
2008.
K. Linde, G. ter Riet, M. Hondras, A. Vickers, R. Saller, and
D. Melchart, “Systematic reviews of complementary therapies—
an annotated bibliography—part 2: herbal medicine,” BMC
Complementary and Alternative Medicine, vol. 1, article 5, 2001.
J. H. Cummings, “Dietary ibre,” Gut, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 69–81,
1973.
J. C. Aguiyi, C. I. Obi, S. S. Gang, and A. C. Igweh, “Hypoglycaemic activity of Ocimum gratissimum in rats,” Fitoterapia, vol.
71, no. 4, pp. 444–446, 2000.
U. G. Egesie, A. B. Adelaiye, J. O. Ibu, and O. J. Egesie,
“Safety and hypoglycaemic properties of aqueous leaf extract of
Ocimum gratissimum in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats,”
Nigerian Journal of Physiological Sciences, vol. 21, no. 1-2, pp. 31–
35, 2006.
A. E. A. Jaiyesimi, A. A. Adeyemi, and O. Oderinde, “Hypoglycaemic activities of the stem bark of Citrus sinensis (L) Osbeck
and Citrus aurantifolia (Christm) Swengle,” Nigerian Quarterly
Journal of Hospital Medicine, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 69–72, 2000.
H. Ali, P. J. Houghton, and A. Soumyanath, “�-Amylase
inhibitory activity of some Malaysian plants used to treat
diabetes; with particular reference to Phyllanthus amarus,”
Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 107, no. 3, pp. 449–455, 2006.
D. S. Ogunleye, A. A. Adeyemi, and A. M. Sanni, “Hypoglycaemic activities of the stem bark of Cola acuminata Vahl and
leaf of Ficus exasperata (P. Beauv) Schott and Endl,” Nigerian
Quarterly of Hospital Medicine, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 58–60, 2003.
J. A. O. Ojewole and C. O. Adewunmi, “Hypoglycemic efect
of methanolic extract of Musa paradisiaca (Musaceae) green
fruits in normal and diabetic mice,” Methods and Findings in
Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, vol. 25, no. 6, pp. 453–
456, 2003.
J. A. O. Ojewole, “Analgesic, antiinlammatory and hypoglycaemic efects of ethanol extract of Zingiber oicinale (Roscoe)
rhizomes (Zingiberaceae) in mice and rats,” Phytotherapy
Research, vol. 20, no. 9, pp. 764–772, 2006.
C. C. Capen, “Criteria for development of animal models
of diseases of the endocrine system,” American Journal of
Pathology, vol. 101, no. 3, pp. 141–160, 1980.
J. H. Cano and G. Volpato, “Herbal mixtures in the traditional
medicine of Eastern Cuba,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol.
90, no. 2-3, pp. 293–316, 2004.
I. Vandebroek, M. J. Balick, A. Ososki et al., “he importance
of botellas and other plant mixtures in Dominican traditional
medicine,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 128, no. 1, pp. 20–
41, 2010.
R. Perumal Samy and S. Ignacimuthu, “Antibacterial activity of
some folklore medicinal plants used by tribals in Western Ghats
of India,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 69, no. 1, pp. 63–71,
2000.
M. D’Agostino, F. De Simone, N. De Tommasi, and C. Pizza,
“Constituents of Calcitium canescens,” Fitoterapia, vol. 66, no.
6, pp. 550–551, 1995.
M. D’Agostino, C. Pizza, and F. De Simone, “Flavone and
lavonol glycosides from Desmodium mollicum,” Fitoterapia,
vol. 66, no. 4, p. 384, 1995.
E. Okuyama, K. Umeyama, S. Ohmori, M. Yamazaki, and M.
Satake, “Pharmacologically active components from a Peruvian
medicinal plant, Huira-Huira (Culcitium canescens H. and B.),”
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
[621]
[622]
[623]
[624]
[625]
[626]
[627]
[628]
[629]
[630]
[631]
[632]
[633]
[634]
[635]
Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, vol. 42, no. 10, pp. 2183–
2186, 1994.
J. Rodriguez, P. Pacheco, I. Razmilic, J. I. Loyola, G. SchmedaHirschmann, and C. heoduloz, “Hypotensive and diuretic
efect of Equisetum bogotense and Fuchsia magellanica and
micropropagation of E. bogotense,” Phytotherapy Research, vol.
8, no. 3, pp. 157–160, 1994.
E. Umana and O. Castro, “Chemical constituents of Verbena
littoralis,” International Journal of Crude Drug Research, vol. 28,
no. 3, pp. 175–176, 1990.
M. L. A. Bastos, M. R. F. Lima, L. M. Conserva, V. S. Andrade, E.
M. M. Rocha, and R. P. L. Lemos, “Studies on the antimicrobial
activity and brine shrimp toxicity of Zeyheria tuberculosa (Vell.)
Bur. (Bignoniaceae) extracts and their main constituents,”
Annals of Clinical Microbiology and Antimicrobials, vol. 8, article
16, 2009.
G. Jiménez, M. Hasegawa, M. Rodrı́guez et al., “Biological
screening of plants of the Venezuelan Amazons,” Journal of
Ethnopharmacology, vol. 77, no. 1, pp. 77–83, 2001.
P. A. Meléndez and V. A. Capriles, “Antibacterial properties of
tropical plants from Puerto Rico,” Phytomedicine, vol. 13, no. 4,
pp. 272–276, 2006.
I. C. Zampini, S. Cuello, M. R. Alberto et al., “Antimicrobial activity of selected plant species from the “Argentine
Puna” against sensitive and multi-resistant bacteria,” Journal of
Ethnopharmacology, vol. 124, no. 3, pp. 499–505, 2009.
P. G. Kirira, G. M. Rukunga, A. W. Wanyonyi et al., “Antiplasmodial activity and toxicity of extracts of plants used in
traditional malaria therapy in Meru and Kilii Districts of
Kenya,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 106, no. 3, pp. 403–
407, 2006.
P. Kloucek, B. Svobodova, Z. Polesny, I. Langrova, S. Smrcek,
and L. Kokoska, “Antimicrobial activity of some medicinal
barks used in Peruvian Amazon,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 111, no. 2, pp. 427–429, 2007.
G. G. F. Nascimento, J. Locatelli, P. C. Freitas, and G. L. Silva,
“Antibacterial activity of plant extracts and phytochemicals on
antibiotic-resistant bacteria,” Brazilian Journal of Microbiology,
vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 247–256, 2000.
L. F. Villegas, I. D. Fernández, H. Maldonado et al., “Evaluation
of the wound-healing activity of selected traditional medicinal
plants from Peru,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 55, no. 3,
pp. 193–200, 1997.
C. C. Neto, C. W. Owens, R. D. Langield et al., “Antibacterial
activity of some Peruvian medicinal plants from the Callejon
de Huaylas,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 79, no. 1, pp.
133–138, 2002.
K. K. Lee, B.-N. Zhou, D. G. I. Kingston, A. J. Vaisberg, and G. B.
Hammond, “Bioactive indole alkaloids from the bark of Uncaria
guianensis,” Planta Medica, vol. 65, no. 8, pp. 759–760, 1999.
D. A. Bustos, A. A. Tapia, G. E. Feresin, and L. Ariza Espinar,
“Ethnopharmacobotanical survey of Bauchazeta district, San
Juan Province, Argentina,” Fitoterapia, vol. 67, no. 5, pp. 411–415,
1996.
A. Taha and H. Alsayed, “Brine shrimp bioassay of ethanol
extracts of Sesuvium verrucosum, Salsola baryosma and Zygophyllum quatarense medicinal plants from Bahrain,” Phytotherapy Research, vol. 14, pp. 48–50, 2000.
L. V. Costa-Lotufo, M. T. H. Khan, A. Ather et al., “Studies
of the anticancer potential of plants used in Bangladeshi folk
medicine,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 99, no. 1, pp. 21–
30, 2005.
45
[636] M. L. A. Hammer and E. A. Johns, “Tapping an Amazonian
plethora: four medicinal plants of Marajo Island, Para (Brazil),”
Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 53–75, 1993.
[637] L. P. Santos Pimenta, G. B. Pinto, J. A. Takahashi, L. G. F. E. Silva,
and M. A. D. Boaventura, “Biological screening of Annonaceous
Brazilian Medicinal Plants using Artemia salina (Brine Shrimp
Test),” Phytomedicine, vol. 10, no. 2-3, pp. 209–212, 2003.
[638] A. R. McCutcheon, S. M. Ellis, R. E. W. Hancock, and G. H. N.
Towers, “Antibiotic screening of medicinal plants of the British
Columbian native peoples,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol.
37, no. 3, pp. 213–223, 1992.
[639] P. Cuadra, M. Furrianca, A. Oyarzún, E. Yáñez, A. Gallardo,
and V. Fajardo, “Biological activity of some Patagonian plants,”
Fitoterapia, vol. 76, no. 7-8, pp. 718–721, 2005.
[640] C. F. Dufy and R. F. Power, “Antioxidant and antimicrobial
properties of some Chinese plant extracts [2],” International
Journal of Antimicrobial Agents, vol. 17, no. 6, pp. 527–529, 2001.
[641] M. J. Martı́nez, J. Betancourt, N. Alonso-González, and A.
Jauregui, “Screening of some Cuban medicinal plants for
antimicrobial activity,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 52,
no. 3, pp. 171–174, 1996.
[642] A. Lagarto Parra, R. Silva Yhebra, I. Guerra Sardiñas, and L.
Iglesias Buela, “Comparative study of the assay of Artemia salina
L. and the estimate of the medium lethal dose (LD50 value)
in mice, to determine oral acute toxicity of plant extracts,”
Phytomedicine, vol. 8, no. 5, pp. 395–400, 2001.
[643] R. O. Guerrero, S. M. Rivera, S. Rivera, and L. A. Sueiro,
“Bioassay screening of Amazonian plants,” Puerto Rico Health
Sciences Journal, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 291–297, 2003.
[644] A. Caceres, L. Figueroa, A. M. Taracena, and B. Samayoa,
“Plants used in Guatemala for the treatment of respiratory
diseases—2: evaluation of activity of 16 plants against Grampositive bacteria,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 39, no. 1,
pp. 77–82, 1993.
[645] A. Cáceres, B. López, S. González, I. Berger, I. Tada, and J.
Maki, “Plants used in Guatemala for the treatment of protozoal infections. I. Screening of activity to bacteria, fungi
and American trypanosomes of 13 native plants,” Journal of
Ethnopharmacology, vol. 62, no. 3, pp. 195–202, 1998.
[646] A. Cáceres, B. López, X. Juárez, J. Del Aguila, and S. Garcı́a,
“Plants used in Guatemala for the treatment of dermatophytic
infections. 2. Evaluation of antifungal activity of seven American plants,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 40, no. 3, pp.
207–213, 1993.
[647] D. L. Lentz, A. M. Clark, C. D. Huford et al., “Antimicrobial properties of Honduran medicinal plants,” Journal of
Ethnopharmacology, vol. 63, no. 3, pp. 253–263, 1998.
[648] R. Padmaja, P. C. Arun, D. Prashanth, M. Deepak, A. Amit, and
M. Anjana, “Brine shrimp lethality bioassay of selected Indian
medicinal plants,” Fitoterapia, vol. 73, no. 6, pp. 508–510, 2002.
[649] G. N. Wanyoike, S. C. Chhabra, C. C. Lang’at-horuwa, and S.
A. Omar, “Brine shrimp toxicity and antiplasmodial activity of
ive Kenyan medicinal plants,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology,
vol. 90, no. 1, pp. 129–133, 2004.
[650] A. Sánchez-Medina, K. Garcı́a-Sosa, F. May-Pat, and L. M.
Peña-Rodrı́guez, “Evaluation of biological activity of crude
extracts from plants used in Yucatecan traditional medicine
part I. Antioxidant, antimicrobial and �-glucosidase inhibition
activities,” Phytomedicine, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 144–151, 2001.
[651] F. G. Coe, D. M. Parikh, and C. A. Johnson, “Alkaloid presence
and brine shrimp (Artemia salina) bioassay of medicinal species
46
[652]
[653]
[654]
[655]
[656]
[657]
[658]
[659]
[660]
[661]
[662]
[663]
[664]
[665]
[666]
[667]
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
of eastern Nicaragua,” Pharmaceutical Biology, vol. 48, no. 4, pp.
439–445, 2010.
E. O. Ajaiyeoba, O. O. Abiodun, M. O. Falade et al., “In vitro
cytotoxicity studies of 20 plants used in Nigerian antimalarial
ethnomedicine,” Phytomedicine, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 295–298,
2006.
C. Sánchez, M. Gupta, M. Vásquez, Y. M. de Noriega, and G.
Montenegro, “Bioessay with brine Artemia to predict antibacterial and pharmacologic activity,” Revista Medica de Panama,
vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 62–69, 1993.
A. Nick, T. Rali, and O. Sticher, “Biological screening of
traditional medicinal plants from Papua New Guinea,” Journal
of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 49, no. 3, pp. 147–156, 1995.
F. D. Horgen, R. A. Edrada, G. De Los Reyes et al., “Biological
screening of rain forest plot trees from Palawan Island (Philippines),” Phytomedicine, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 71–81, 2001.
A. Gonzalez, F. Ferreira, A. Vazquez, P. Moyna, and E. Alonso
Paz, “Biological screening of Uruguayan medicinal plants,”
Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 39, no. 3, pp. 217–220, 1993.
A. U. Turker and N. D. Camper, “Biological activity of common
mullein, a medicinal plant,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol.
82, no. 2-3, pp. 117–125, 2002.
R. B. Badisa, V. L. D. Badisa, E. H. Walker, and L. M.
Latinwo, “Potent cytotoxic activity of Saururus cernuus extract
on human colon and breast carcinoma cultures under normoxic
conditions,” Anticancer Research, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 189–194, 2007.
S. Van Slambrouck, A. L. Daniels, C. J. Hooten et al., “Efects of
crude aqueous medicinal plant extracts on growth and invasion
of breast cancer cells,” Oncology Reports, vol. 17, no. 6, pp. 487–
492, 2007.
B. N. Meyer, N. R. Ferrigni, and J. E. Putnam, “Brine shrimp:
a convenient general bioassay for active plant constituents,”
Planta Medica, vol. 45, no. 1, pp. 31–34, 1982.
J. L. McLaughlin, C. J. Chang, and D. L. Smith, “Bench-top
bioassays for the discovery of bioactive natural products, an
update,” in Studies in Natural Product Chemistry, A. Rahman,
Ed., vol. 9, pp. 383–409, Elsevier, Amsterdam, he Netherlands,
1991.
F. Cepleanu, M. O. Hamburger, B. Sordat et al., “Screening of tropical medicinal plants for molluscicidal, larvicidal,
fungicidal and cytotoxic activities and brine shrimp toxicity,”
International Journal of Pharmacognosy, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 294–
307, 1994.
A. de Alcedo, Diccionario geograico histórico de las indias
occidentales o América, Madrid, Spain, 1789.
R. W. Bussmann and D. Sharon, “From collection to market and
cure—traditional medicinal use in Northern Peru,” in Recent
Development and Case Studies in Ethnobotany, U. Albuquerque,
Ed., pp. 184–207, Recife, 2009.
C. C. Downer, “Insights, Mining Peru’s Andean Forest Puts
Unique Species, Ecosystem at Risk,” Environmental News Service, 2006.
D. I. Zamora Pérez, Creación de un Órgano Administrativo
Especializado en imponer sanciones a los concesionarios mineros
en caso de incumplimiento de sus obligaciones ambientales [tesis],
Abogado Universidad Privada Antenor Orrego, Trujillo, Perú,
2007.
R. W. Bussmann, N. Paniagua Zambrana, M. Rivas Chamorro,
N. Molina Moreira, M. L. Cuadros Negri, and J. Olivera,
“Peril in the market—classiication and dosage of species used
as anti-diabetics in Lima, Peru,” Journal of Ethnobiology and
Ethnomedicine, vol. 9, no. 37, 2013.
Journal of
Obesity
Gastroenterology
Research and Practice
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com
Volume 2013
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com
Volume 2013
The Scientiic
World Journal
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com
Volume 2013
Journal of
Diabetes Research
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com
Volume 2013
Endocrinology
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com
Volume 2013
BioMed Research
International
Volume 2013
Volume 2013
PPAR
Research
Submit your manuscripts at
http://www.hindawi.com
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com
Evidence-Based
Complementary and
Alternative Medicine
International Journal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com
Journal of
Oncology
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com
Volume 2013
Volume 2013
MEDIATORS
of
INFLAMMATION
Journal of
Immunology Research
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com
Volume 2013
ISRN
Allergy
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com
Volume 2013
ISRN
Biomarkers
Volume 2013
Computational and
Mathematical Methods
in Medicine
Oxidative Medicine and
Cellular Longevity
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com
Volume 2013
ISRN
Addiction
Volume 2013
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com
Volume 2013
ISRN
Anesthesiology
Volume 2013
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com
Journal of
Ophthalmology
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com
Volume 2013
ISRN
AIDS
Volume 2013
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com
Volume 2013