SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
1
School Counseling College-Going Culture: Counselors’ Influence
on Students’ College-Going Decisions
Julia Bryan1, Jungnam Kim2, and Chang Liu3
1
Department of Educational Psychology, Counseling, and Special Education, The Pennsylvania
State University
2
Department of Counselor Education, School Psychology, and Human Services, University of
Nevada, Las Vegas
3
Department of Education Policy Studies, The Pennsylvania State University
Author Note
Julia Bryan
Jungnam Kim
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1471-1677
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9608-4872
Chang Liu.
We have no known conflict of interest to disclose.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Julia Bryan, Counselor Education
program, College of Education, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802.
Email: jabryan@psu.edu
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
2
Abstract
This study tested the conceptual framework of school counseling college-going culture (SCCGC)
using a national sample of 15,857 high school students from the High School Longitudinal Study
2009. We examined the relationship of SCCGC (i.e., counselor expectations and priorities,
student-counselor contact for college-career counseling prior to 12th grade, college and career
readiness activities, and constraints) to high school seniors’ college decisions (i.e., studentcounselor contact for college admissions counseling in 12th grade, student-counselor contact for
financial aid counseling in 12th grade, number of college applications, and enrollment in college).
Multinomial and ordinal logistic regression analyses revealed that counselors’ expectations and
priorities, student-counselor contact for college-career counseling prior to 12th grade, college
application and financial aid help, and college information and FAFSA meetings were positively
related while caseload was negatively related to students’ college decisions (after controlling for
parent involvement, academic performance and aspirations, and student demographics).
Keywords: School counseling, college-going culture, college-going decisions
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
3
School Counseling College-Going Culture: Counselors’ Influence
on Students’ College-Going Decisions
Students’ college-going decisions and behaviors continue to be of paramount interest
among policymakers and educators in a nation whose economic viability and global
competitiveness rely on a well-educated and skilled working population. Despite the cost of a
college education, research still indicates that a college degree produces a positive and
significant impact on individuals’ economic success and job satisfaction over a lifetime
(Emmons, Kent, & Ricketts, 2019). Thus, there is a national education mandate that regardless of
students’ postsecondary education choices, all students leave school college-and-career ready
and enroll in college (Bryan et al., 2016; Edwin, et al., 2019; Malin et al., 2017). In this article,
we use college to describe a number of postsecondary education (PSE) options including fouryear bachelor’s degree, two-year associate degree, and other postsecondary education (PSE)
options.
Yet, the college-going process is complicated for many students, even college-ready ones
(Cabrera & La Nasa, 2000, 2001). High school students must complete a series of major tasks
and decisions in the college going process, including acquiring information about college,
college admissions and financial aid; submitting applications to college; applying for financial
aid; and enrolling in college (Cabrera & LaNasa, 2000; Poynton & Lapan, 2017). Some students
have access to this information and help with these major tasks from their parents or other
supportive adults. However, for many students, this information must come from other sources.
A key source of college information is school counselors (Bryan, 2011, 2017). School counselors
are a source of social capital for students, providing a supportive relationship from which
information and resources flow to facilitate students’ pathways to college, especially for low-
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
4
income and first-generation students, and students of color (Bryan, 2011; McDonough, 1997,
2005a, 2005b; Perna et al., 2008). Through college admissions and financial aid counseling,
counselors provide students with critical college-related information, such as knowledge about
and assistance in the college application and enrollment process, and financial aid assistance and
advice (Bryan et al., 2011).
Three decades ago, although scholars recognized the importance of school counselors in
students’ college choices, they focused college-going research on a mix of student and school
characteristics that contribute to students’ college-going decisions. Important factors emerged as
predictors of whether students apply to and enroll in college including students’ socioeconomic
status (SES); race/ethnicity; academic achievement and rigorous course-taking such as AP
courses; students’ and parents’ postsecondary aspirations or expectations; and parent
involvement and encouragement (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2000, 2001; Hossler, Schmit, & Vesper,
1999; McDonough, 1997). These studies indicated that parent involvement, AP course-taking,
academic achievement scores, and students’ educational aspirations (or expectations) are salient
predictors of students’ college application and enrollment rates.
During the past two decades, researchers focused on the school’s college-going culture
(e.g., McDonough, 2005a, 2005b). These studies examined the important cultural factors in
schools influencing students’ college-going outcomes taking the stance that school counseling is
just one aspect of that culture. McDonough (2005a, 2005b) identified nine central elements of
college-going culture including college expectations, college talk, college partnerships, and a
comprehensive school counseling program. More recently, in a study of how school counselors
shape college opportunity and college-going culture, Engberg and Gilbert (2014) found that
college opportunity structure, which they defined as counseling norms (i.e., average counselor
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
5
caseload, priority of postsecondary preparation and college counseling) and counseling resources
(i.e., college visits and fairs, financial aid assistance, college information sessions), was linked to
a school’s four-year college-going rates. However, researchers (e.g., McDonough, 2005a, 2005b;
Perna, 2006; Engberg & Gilbert, 2014) examined the role of school counselors in students’
college choices through frameworks that do not consider the direct influence of school
counselors and their programs. Students share numerous stories that attest to the ways in which
school counselors help or hinder them in the college-going process regardless of/above and
beyond the school wide college-going culture (e.g., Williams et al., 2014).
Two national datasets from the National Center of Education Statistics (NCES), the
Educational Longitudinal Study 2002 (ELS 2002) and the High School Longitudinal Study 2009
(HSLS: 09), have afforded researchers the opportunity to examine the effects of school
counselors on a variety of student outcomes including those in this study. However, only the
HSLS:09 includes a school counselor survey with multiple indicators suitable for examining how
school counselors and their programs influence students’ college-going pathways and decisions.
Consequently, in a number of extant studies, scholars have begun to explore the associations and
effects of a range of school counseling variables including school counselor expectations (Bryan
et al., 2009; 2017); priority goals, use of time, hours spent on college readiness counseling
(Engberg & Gilbert, 2014; Qi & Brown, 2020; Rangel & Ballysingh, 2020; Velez, 2016);
frequently, student-counselor contact, visits, or talk (Bryan et al., 2011, 2017; Belasco, 2013;
Velez, 2016); college and career readiness activities (Edwin, et al., 2019; Engberg & Gilbert
2014; Fitzpatrick, 2019; Fitzpatrick & Schneider, 2016; Rangel & Ballysingh, 2020); counselor
caseloads (Goodman‐Scott, at al., 2018; Shi & Brown, 2020; Woods & Domina, 2014); and
number of counselors (Bryan et al., 2011; Robinson & Roksa, 2016) on students’ college-going
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
6
decisions, including receiving counseling for college admissions and for financial aid, career
aspirations, applying to college, and college enrollment.
However, despite their valuable insights, these extant studies indicate the need for a
conceptual model that links school counseling antecedents to students’ college-going outcomes
in one holistic model. Disparate studies fall short of expanding understanding of the processes
and effects of school counseling on students’ college going decisions. Building on the extant
research and using the HSLS:09, in this study, we created and tested a school counselingcentered conceptual framework that integrates the counseling variables and predictors from the
aforementioned studies. The school counseling college-going culture (SCCGC) framework may
explain how school counselors, and the culture in school counseling programs and departments,
influence students’ college-going decisions and outcomes. We conceptualize school counseling
college-going culture as four related, but distinct components: (a) counselor expectations and
priorities; (b) student-counselor contact for college-career counseling and advising; (c) college
and career readiness activities; and (d) constraints. These variables are the key antecedents to
four major college-going decisions or outcomes: college admissions counseling, financial aid
counseling, number of college applications, and college enrollment. Below, we define school
counseling college-going culture, followed by a discussion of the operationalized components of
the school counseling college-going culture (SCCGC) framework.
Definition and Rationale for School Counseling College-Going Culture (SCCGC)
“School cultures are the shared orientations, values, norms, and practices that hold an
educational unit together, give it a distinctive identity, and vigorously resist change from the
outside” (Kaplan & Owings, 2013, p. 2). Schools typically have an overarching culture and
several subcultures often shaped by teachers’ subject disciplines, work functions, or
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
7
departmental affiliations (Grossman & Stodolsky, 1995; Stodolsky & Grossman, 1995). Like
most subject-based departments or units in schools, school counseling departments have a
distinct subculture nested in the larger organizational culture (Bellou, 2008; Bunce & Willower,
2001). As members of a high school counseling department or subculture, counselors share a
cultural context, comprising common knowledge, identities, and job functions; values and
beliefs; expectations and goals; norms and resources; and patterns and behaviors that impact
every aspect of their work (Bunce & Willower, 2001; Friedman, Galligan, Albano, & O’Connor,
2009; Grossman & Stodolsky, 1995; Siskin, 1991; Stodolsky & Grossman, 1995).
College-going takes place within multiple layered cultural contexts, the wider school
context or college-going culture of the school and the school counseling context or school
counseling college-going culture (McKillip et al., 2012; Perna, 2006; Perna et al.,, 2008). In this
study, we examine the latter, that is, the school counseling college-going culture. When it comes
to college-going, each school counseling department has a distinct culture that patterns and
structures school counselors’ daily interactions and activities with students, parents, teachers and
other stakeholders about college as well as their use of time and priorities and the structural
constraints they face (McKillip et al., 2012; Perna, 2006; Perna et al., 2008). School counseling
subcultures can promote college-going even when the culture of the school runs counter to that
(Nikischer, Weis, and Dominguez, 2016). We hypothesize that school counseling college-going
culture either supports or discourages students’ college-going decisions and access to college.
We define school counseling college-going culture as counselors’ expectations and goals or
priorities; their contact and interactions with students for college and career counseling and
advising; their practices and activities that support college and career readiness; and the
constraints and resources (or lack of) within a school counseling department. School counseling
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
8
college-going culture may be stronger than or exist regardless of the wider college-going culture
of the school because what counselors do around college-going has substantial influence on the
perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors of students, parents, teachers, and administration (Belasco,
2013; Bellou, 2008; Engberg & Gilbert, 2014; Nikischer, Weis, and Dominguez, 2016; Perna et
al., 2008; Poynton & Lapan, 2017; Rangel & Ballysingh, 2020). The following section discusses
each of the variables or units of analysis in the conceptual framework and rationale for selecting
them based on the existing research.
Conceptual Framework: Operationalizing School Counseling College-Going Culture
We operationalize school counseling college-going culture (SCCGC) as comprising four
components: (a) counselor expectations and priorities; (b) student-counselor contact for collegecareer counseling and advising; (c) college and career readiness activities; and (d) constraints.
Below, we define and describe each aspect or construct of school counseling college-going
culture, which will subsequently be measured and used as predictors of students’ college
decisions. We expect these four constructs or dimensions to be related to each other, but
conceptually distinct and important to measure separately. See Figure 1 for a conceptual (not
structural) model of the components of school counseling college-going culture.
Counselor Expectations and Priorities. Counselors’ expectations are their perceptions
of or beliefs about their students’ abilities and outcomes and their roles in serving students.
Counselors’ priorities describe what program goals they prioritize in their daily work and what
percentage of time they spend on those goals. Scholars indicate that educators’ expectations
matter, impacting student outcomes such as college enrollment and persistence in college (Boser,
Wilhelm, & Hanna, 2014; Papageorge, Gershenson, & Kang, 2020). Yet, few empirical studies
about counselor expectations demonstrate that counselors affect whether students seek the
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
9
counselor for college information and students’ postsecondary education enrollment (Bryan, et
al., 2009, 2017). These expectations are transmitted to students through educators’ conversations
and behaviors and are often reflected in counselors’ program priorities. Counselors must
prioritize among several goals such as academic counseling and development, providing help
with job-seeking, personal-social counseling and development, or college/postsecondary
admissions counseling.
Although unspoken, counselors’ expectations and priorities shape the norms or daily
pattern of behaviors and activities in their program and school. Using the ELS 2002 dataset,
counselors’ postsecondary expectations (i.e., whether they would get a job, join the military, get
married, or enroll in college) predicted high school seniors’ likelihood to receive college
admissions counseling from their counselors in 12th grade and counselors’, teachers’, and
coaches’ postsecondary expectations of students, predicted students’ attendance at a
postsecondary institution (Bryan et al., 2009, 2017). In the HSLS 2009 dataset, counselors’
expectations are assessed by school counselors’ beliefs about students in general. Only one study
has used this measure of school counselors’ general beliefs about students to explore the effects
of counselors’ expectations on college-going (i.e., Kim, Geesa, & McDonald, 2020); positive
counselor expectations or general beliefs predicted a greater likelihood that students would enroll
in college/postsecondary education (PSE).
Regarding counselor priorities, recent research using the HSLS 2009 indicates that when
counselors make students’ readiness for postsecondary education a priority (as opposed to other
competing priorities) and dedicate a greater percentage of their time to it, their four-year collegegoing rates are likely to increase (Engberg & Gilbert, 2014; Robinson & Roksa, 2016; Rangel &
Ballysingh, 2020; Shi & Brown, 2020). However, these results are inconsistent; in another study
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
10
using the HSLS 2009, when counselors’ priority is college preparation, students were less likely
to enroll in four-year colleges (Radford & Ifill, 2013). In the context of student demographic and
other school counseling variables, we expect that counselor expectations and priorities would
affect not only college enrollment, but other student college-going decisions, namely, students’
contact with counselors for college admissions and financial aid counseling and number of
college applications.
Student-counselor Contact for College-Career Counseling and Advising. Studentcounselor contact for college counseling comprises students’ direct contact with counselors for
college or career related information in the form of college admissions counseling, financial aid
information and assistance, and academic and career advising and planning. Student-counselor
contact (also called talk, conversations, visits, or interactions) can serve as a source of social
capital for student; the flow of information, resources, and assistance through counselor-student
contact, especially in earlier grades, appear to positively affect students’ high school outcomes,
such as course taking, graduation, applying to college, Free Application for Federal Student Aid
(FAFSA) submission, and college enrollment (Bryan et al., 2011; 2017; Belasco, 2013;
Fitzpatrick, 2019; Poynton & Lapan, 2017; Robinson & Roksa, 2016; Velez, 2016).
However, mere contact may not be enough; early and multiple points of student contact
with counselors may also be important in the college-decision making process (Bryan, 2011;
Belasco, 2013). Students who see the counselor multiple times prior to 12th grade may be more
likely to see counselors for college admissions and financial aid counseling in 12th grade, submit
more college applications and enroll in college. Velez (2016) examined early student-counselor
contact and found that if a student met with a counselor for college information in ninth grade,
that student had 27% greater chance of meeting with a counselor during 12th grade for college
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
11
admissions counseling, a critical step, in the college going process. Similarly, Bryan et al. (2011)
found that meeting with school counselors for college information before 11th grade predicted
higher college application rates. Previous studies using large national educational datasets
measure whether student-counselor contact took place and reasons for contacts. In this current
study, we measure earlier and multiple points of contact in 9th and 11th grade for college
information (i.e., earlier student-counselor contact for college-career counseling (prior to 12th
grade)). In the context of student demographic and other school counseling variables, we expect
that these contacts will predict students’ college decisions including later contact for college
admissions counseling and financial aid counseling in 12th grade, college application rates, and
college enrollment.
College and Career Readiness Activities. College and career readiness means students
have the knowledge, skills, and dispositions necessary for success in postsecondary education or
training leading to employment. College and career readiness (CCR) activities are essential tasks,
practices, and programs that school counselors typically coordinate to promote students’ college
and career readiness such as college campus visits, college and career fairs, career awareness
activities and career assessments, and college application and financial aid workshops and
meetings (Bryan et al., 2016, 2019; Conley & McGaughy, 2012; Goodwin, et al., 2016;
McDonough, 2005). These informational supports or systemically coordinated activities, typical
aspects of college preparation programs, are critical factors that positively impact students’
college decisions (Bell, Rowan-Kenyon, & Perna, 2009; Engberg and Gilbert, 2014;
McDonough, 2005). In the context of student demographic and other school counseling
variables, we expect that whether or not school counselors are able to facilitate or coordinate
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
12
such CCR activities will affect students’ college-going decisions (Belasco, 2013; Engberg &
Gilbert, 2016; Robinson, & Roksa, 2016).
Constraints. Too often, systemic or structural policies and resource challenges constrain
counselors’ roles and the services they provide especially regarding preparation for
postsecondary decisions and transitions (Bryan et al., 2016, 2017, 2019; Perna et al., 2008).
Common constraints include student-counselor caseloads, numbers of counselors, and collegespecific guidance and counseling provided through designated college counselors, advisors,
mentors, or coaches (Bryan et al., 2009; Poynton & Lapan, 2017; Shi & Brown, 2020). Two
qualitative studies revealed that constraints such as large caseloads and little designated time for
college and career readiness counseling limit school counselors from fully supporting students in
the college going process (Shillingford, Oh, & Finnell, 2018; Gearns, Kelly, & Bugallo, 2018).
Also, in a number of studies using national datasets, both counselor caseload and number of
counselors affect the provision of school counseling services and students’ academic outcomes
and college application and enrollment rates (Bryan et al., 2011; Engberg & Gilbert, 2014;
Fitzpatrick, 2019; Goodman‐Scott, Sink, Cholewa, & Burgess, 2018; Poynton & Lapan, 2017;
Rangel & Ballysingh, 2020; Shi & Brown, 2020; Woods & Domina, 2014). Researchers seeking
to quantify the impact of school counselors, found that one additional high school counselor
resulted in a 10-percentage point increase in four-year college-going rates (Hurwitz & Howell,
2014). Nevertheless, results on counselor caseload are mixed with studies indicating both
negative and positive relationships to college application and enrollment found (Engberg &
Gilbert, 2014). In the context of student demographic and other school counseling variables, we
expect that caseload will be a negative predictor and number of school counselors and school
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
13
counselor designated for college readiness will be positive predictors of students’ college
decisions.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of school counseling college-going
culture (SCCGC) regarding four critical college-going decisions that high school seniors have to
make: whether to seek or receive college counseling and financial aid counseling in 12th grade,
how many colleges to apply to, and whether to enroll in college/postsecondary education. Using
the conceptual model of school counseling college-going culture (see Figure 1), the following
research question guided this study:
What is the relationship of school counseling college-going culture (i.e., counselor expectations
and priorities, student-counselor contact for college-career counseling prior to 12th grade (i.e.,
earlier student-counselor contact), college and career readiness activities, and constraints) to high
school seniors’ college decisions?
(a) student-counselor contact for college admissions counseling in 12th grade,
(b) student-counselor contact for financial aid counseling in 12th grade,
(c) number of college applications, and
(d) enrollment in college
after controlling for parent involvement, academic performance and aspirations, and student
demographics?
We hypothesize that the variables assessing school counseling college-going culture will predict
each of these four college-going outcomes. Testing this conceptual framework should increase
understanding of how school counselors can provide more effective services and supports that
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
14
promote college-going and create greater access for students, especially underrepresented
students.
Method
Participants
We used data from the High School Longitudinal Study 2009 (HSLS:09; Ingels et al.,
2015), a national representative longitudinal survey of administrators, math and science teachers,
lead school counselors, parents and over 23,000 9th graders from 944 schools in 2009 with
follow-up surveys in 2012, 2013, and 2016. The HSLS: 09 is designed to examine students’
transitions through and from high school to postsecondary education and work. The analytic
sample for the current study comprised 15,857 high school students (weighted sample =
4,143,944) who participated in the base year (2009), first follow-up (2012), and 2013 surveys. Of
the sample, 56.59% were White, 15.41% Hispanic, 10.15% Black/African American, 8.07%
Asian, 8.66% multiracial, and 1.12% Indigenous or Amer. Indian/Alaska Native/Native
Hawaii/Pacific islander. About 50.30% were female and 49.70% male. Approximately 14.52%
were in the lowest SES quintile, 16.14 % in the low middle SES, 18.90 % in the middle SES,
21.28 % in the upper middle SES, and 29.15% in the upper SES quintiles.
Dependent Variables: Students’ College Decisions
Student-counselor contact for college admissions counseling in 12th grade. This
variable measured whether students met with their high school counselor about college
admissions in their senior year with one categorical item coded into three categories: 1 = yes
(72.01%; reference category), 2 = no (20.43%), and 3 = don’t know (7.57%).
Student-counselor contact for financial aid counseling in 12th grade. This variable
was measured by a categorical item asking whether 12th graders had met with their high school
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
15
counselor about financial aid in their senior year coded into three categories: 1 = yes (48.30%;
reference category), 2 = no (45.52%), and 3 = don’t know (6.17%).
College application rates or number of college applications. Students’ college
application rates or the number of colleges that student applied to during their senior year (M =
2.6, SD = 2.8). We recoded this variable into an ordinal variable with 4 levels: 1 = students did
not apply to any colleges (13.78%; baseline category); 2 = applied to one college (32.51%); 3 =
applied to two to four colleges (32.51%); 4 = applied to five colleges or more (18.68%).
College enrollment. To assess college enrollment, we created a new variable, by
combining two items: (1) students’ reported degree program level and (2) whether students were
taking postsecondary education (PSE) classes in the fall immediately after graduating high
school. College enrollment had five categories: 1 = enrolled in a bachelor’s degree program
(35.72%; reference category); 2 = enrolled in an associate degree program (22.03%); 3 =
enrolled in other postsecondary education (PSE) programs (8.49%); 4 = No PSE enrollment/not
enrolled in any PSE programs at all (18.50%, reference category); and 5 = don't know/uncertain
about whether enrolled in PSE (15.25%).
Independent Variables: School Counseling College-Going Culture
Counselors’ expectations and priorities. Counselors’ expectations and priorities was
measured with three variables. The first variable, counselors’ expectations, was a standardized
composite scale (M = 0, SD = 1) derived by NCES, consisting of six items (alpha = 0.78):
“Counselors in this school set high standards for students' learning”, “Counselors in this school
believe all students can do well”, “Counselors in this school work hard to make sure all students
learn”, “Counselors in this school have given up on some students”, “Counselors in this school
care only about smart students” and “Counselors in this school expect very little from students.”
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
16
Higher composite scores indicated more positive expectations of students by counselors. The
second variable, a nominal variable, describes the school counseling program's primary or most
emphasized goal and comprised four categories: 1 = “Help students prepare for postsecondary
schooling” (52.79%; reference category); 2 = “Help students w/ personal growth/development”
(13.63%); 3 = “Help students prepare for work roles after high school” (2.6%); 4 = “Help
students improve achievement in high school” (30.98%). The third variable measured
counselor’s use of time or the percentage of time counselors spend on college readiness
counseling coded into four categories: 1 = more than 50% (reference category); 2 = 21%-50%; 3
= 11%-20%; and 4 = 10% or less (combined two categories 6%-10% and 5% or less). In the
sample, 10.14% of the counselors spend more than 50% of their time on college readiness
counseling; 37.78% of counselors spend 21-50%; 33.68% spend 11%-20% of their time; and
18.49% of counselors spend 10% or less of their time on college readiness counseling.
Student-counselor contact for college-career counseling (earlier contact prior to 12th
grade). Two dichotomous variables (yes/no) measure (a) whether the student had talked to
school counselor about going to college during 9th grade (yes = 17.57%; no = 82.43%, reference
category); (b) whether the student had talked with the school counselor about options after high
school in 11th grade (yes = 63.76%; no = 36.24%).
College and career readiness activities. College and career readiness activities was
measured by 10 dichotomous items (yes/no) comprising college-specific services that school
counselors typically coordinate or deliver in schools such as college fairs, college visits, and
college and FAFSA information sessions. A categorical (nonlinear) principal components
analysis (CATPCA) of the 10 dichotomous variables created 4 components of college and career
readiness activities. Similar to traditional principal components analysis (which assumes linear
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
17
relationships among continuous or interval variables), CATPCA is suitable for analyzing
categorial variables with nonlinear relationships (Hahs-Vaughn, 2017). First, we quantified the
items through an optimal scaling process in CATPCA; then, we rotated the matrix to improve the
interpretability, last, we created composite variables using a linear combination of the items
loading on each dimension. Checking the scree plot and eigenvalues (greater than 1), we selected
a four-component model that was conceptually meaningful with factor loadings ranging from .48
to .74 (total Cronbach’s alpha = .89). The four college and career readiness components are: (a)
Assistance with application and financial aid process in 9th grade and 11th grade (4 items; named
APPLICATION & FINANCIAL AID HELP); (b) Holds/participates in college fairs in 9th and
11th grade (2 items; named COLLEGE FAIRS); (c) Provides college information and help to
select colleges in 11th grade (2 items; named COLLEGE INFORMATION & SELECTION
HELP); and (d) Holds meetings/sessions to provide college information in 11th grade (2 items;
named COLLEGE INFORMATION & FAFSA MEETINGS).
Constraints. Constraints comprised three variables: counselor caseload, number of fulltime counselors, and designated counselor for college counseling. Counselor caseload was
measured by student-to-counselor ratio or the average number of students per counselor (M =
347.37, SD = 129.92) was categorized into three categories: 1 = below 250 students (18.66% of
the sample; reference category); 2 = 250-449 students (60.85%); and 3 = 450 or above (20.49%).
Number of full-time school counselors in a school was a continuous variable (M = 3.84, SD =
2.34). The third constraint was a dichotomous variable measured whether the school has one or
more counselors whose primary responsibility is assisting students with college
readiness/selection/application, coded as 1 = yes (61.74%) and 2 =no (38.26%; reference
category).
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
18
Control Variables
We included several covariates to better isolate the effects of independent variables as
previous research has identified them as important predictors of students’ college choice process,
that is, parent involvement, academic performance and aspirations, and student demographics.
Parent involvement. Parent involvement comprised two dichotomous variables
(Yes/No) from the base year (9th grade) survey. The first variable asked whether family members
met with school counselors generally when students were in 9th grade (yes = 43.54% of parents,
no = 56.46%); the other variable indicated whether any family member talked with a school
counselor or teacher specifically about the academic requirements for postsecondary admission
(yes = 43.77%, no = 56.23%). Both variables were coded as 1 = yes and 2 = no (reference
category).
Academic performance and aspirations. To control for academic performance and
aspirations, we measured students’ math score, Advanced Placement (AP) course-taking, and
students’ educational expectations. Math score was measured by an NCES-created standardized
T score on a 9th grade mathematics assessment (M = 51.11, SD = 10.08). AP course-taking was
coded into three categories: 1 = no (59.09%; reference category); 2 = yes (36.02%); and 3 =
don’t know = 4.89%). Students’ educational expectations or aspirations was a categorical
variable with five levels: 1 = Bachelor’s degree (26.67% of the sample, reference category); 2 =
high school or below (8.94%); 3 = some college (16.45%); 4 = graduate/professional degree
(37.72%); and 5 = don’t know (10.23%).
Student demographics. The student demographic variables were gender (male/female,
race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic status (SES). Race/ethnicity was a categorical variable with
six categories: 1 = White (reference group); 2 = Black/African American; 3 = Asian; 4 =
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
19
Hispanic; 5 = more than one race (multiracial); and 6 = Indigenous (i.e., American Indian/Alaska
Native and Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander). SES was measured by a continuous composite
score created by NCES using parent/guardians’ education, occupation, and family income.
Data Analysis
Considering the complex survey design of HSLS 2009, we used the appropriate sample
weights to produce estimates that were representative of the target population (Bryan et al., 2010,
2017). We used the Balanced Repeated Replication (BRR) method for variance estimation as
these replication weights takes into account the reduction in variance due to weight adjustments
(Ingels et al., 2015). All analyses were performed using STATA 15. We employed ordinal
logistic regression for the ordinal dependent variable, number of college applications. For the
other three dependent variables, student-counselor contact for college admissions counseling,
student-counselor contact for financial aid counseling in 12th grade, and college enrollment, we
employed multinomial logistic regression. In this study, we performed complete case analysis for
each dependent variable; therefore, the sample sizes for each analysis varied. For each analysis,
we entered the school counseling college-going culture variables in the first step and the control
variables in the second step. We examined the regression model estimates (i.e., logged odds (B),
standard errors (SE), odds ratios (ORs), and t values for each independent variable to determine
their significance. When direct interpretation of ORs was not straightforward, to improve
interpretation, we reported inverted ORs (i.e., 1/OR). As this is the first test of the school
counseling college-going culture framework, we use regression analysis rather than structural
equation modeling (SEM) and report p-values at both .05 and .10 levels.
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
20
Results
Correlation analyses indicated low to moderate intercorrelations among independent
variables and control variables, ranging from |0.08| to |0.44| at the 0.05 level of significance,
evidence that multicollinearity is not likely a problem. Relationships among the dependent
variables ranged from |0.15| to |0.47| The Wald F statistics showed good model fit for all the
multinomial and ordinal logistic regression models predicting college admissions counseling (F
= 5.39, p < 0.001), financial aid counseling (F = 6.55, p < 0.001), the number of college
applications (F = 22.76, p < 0.001), and college enrollment (F = 16.63, p < 0.001). For the
ordinal logistic regression (predicting the number of college applications), the test for the key
assumption of proportional odds (also called parallel lines assumption) is often rejected when the
number of predictors (Brant,1990) and the sample size (Allison, 1999) are large, or there are
continuous explanatory variables in the model (Allison, 1999). When this happens, as it does in
this case, an alternate strategy for examining the parallel assumption is using a set of separate
logistic regression models to determine whether the effects of the predictors are stable across
different thresholds (O’Connell, 2006). The comparison of variable effects across the separate
logistic regression models showed that the effects of the predictors were relative stable indicating
that the parallel assumption held reasonably for the ordinal logistic regression analysis. Selected
regression results for the dependent variables, student-counselor contact for college information,
number of college applications, and college enrollment are presented in Tables 1 and 2.
Effects of School Counseling College-Going Culture
Counselors’ expectations and priorities. Higher counselor expectations were associated
with higher odds of submitting more college applications (OR = 1.11, p = 0.016) and of enrolling
in a bachelor’s program compared to not enrolling in any PSE at all (OR = 1.12, p = 0.10).
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
21
When counselors’ most emphasized or priority goal was helping students prepare for
postsecondary schooling as opposed to helping students improve academic achievement,
students had higher odds of contacting the counselor for college admissions counseling in 12th
grade (OR = 1.34, p = 0.042). When school counselors spent over 50% of their time on college
readiness, students had higher odds of receiving college admissions counseling (compared to
counselors who devoted 11-20% of their time; OR = 1.66) and of submitting greater numbers of
applications (compared to all other use of time categories; ORs = 1.64; 1.69; 1.37); students were
also more likely to enroll in a bachelor’s degree (rather than associate degree programs or in
other PSE programs or not enroll at all). Alternately, when school counselors spent 10% or less
of their time on college readiness (compared to over 50% of their time), students were more
likely to enroll in an associate degree (OR = 1.64); when they spent 20% or less of their time,
students were more likely to enroll in other PSE programs (OR = 1.91, 1.98) or not enroll in PSE
at all (OR = 1.84, 2.10); when they spent 50% or less of their time, students were more likely to
express uncertainty about their PSE status (OR = 2.15, 2.51, 3.53).
Student-counselor contact for college-career counseling (earlier contact prior to 12th
grade). Students who talked with school counselors about going to college early, in both 9th
and11th grades, had higher odds of receiving college admissions counseling (OR9th gr. = 1.32, p =
0.069; OR11th gr. = 1.85, p < 0.001) and financial aid counseling in 12th grade (OR9th gr. = 1.25, p
= 0.029; OR11th gr. = 1.49, p < 0.001). Compared to 11th graders who did not contact counselors,
student-counselor contact for college-career counseling in 11th grade predicted 16% higher odds
of submitting a greater number of college applications (OR = 1.16, p = 0.05). Regarding college
enrollment, students who talked to counselors in 9th grade for college-career counseling had
higher odds of enrolling in a bachelor’s programs (compared to enrolling in other PSE programs;
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
22
OR = 1.37, p = 0.076), while students who talked to counselors in 11th grade were more likely to
enroll in a bachelor’s program (relative to no enrollment in PSE at all; OR = 1.30, p = 0.034).
College and career readiness activities. Application and financial aid help activities in
9th grade through 11th grade were associated with higher odds of student-counselor contact for
financial aid counseling in 12th grade (OR = 1.52, p = 0.002) while college information and
FAFSA meetings in 11th grade were associated with higher odds of enrolling in other PSE
programs (OR = 1.89, p = 0.045) as opposed to enrolling in bachelor’s degree programs.
Constraints. When caseload in school counseling programs exceeded 450 students per
counselor, student-counselor contact for college admissions counseling in 12th grade was less
likely to take place (compared to programs with a caseload of 250 or less.; OR = 0.58, p =
0.024). Similarly, students had lower odds of submitting greater numbers of college applications
when school counselors’ caseloads were between 250-449 students (OR = 0.64, p = 0.006,) and
450 or more students (OR = 0.60, p = 0.003) compared to the caseload of 250 or less. Further,
the higher the caseload, the lower students’ odds were of enrolling in bachelor’s degree
programs. When counselors had a caseload of 450 or more (compared to counselors with a
caseload of 250 or less,), their students had higher odds of enrolling in associate degree programs
(OR = 2.09, p < 0.001), enrolling other PSE programs (OR = 2.11, p = 0.002) not enrolling in
PSE at all (OR = 2.31, p < 0.001), or of not knowing whether they enrolled in college (OR =
2.26, p = 0.022) relative to enrolling in bachelor’s degree programs. As the number of full-time
high school counselors increased, students had lower odds of receiving student-counselor contact
for financial aid counseling in 12th grade (OR = 0.96, p = 0.025) and higher odds of submitting a
greater number of college applications (OR = 1.04, p = 0.059).
Control variables.
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
23
Parent involvement. Students whose family member talked to counselors or teachers
specifically about postsecondary admission requirements had higher odds of submitting greater
numbers of college applications (OR = 1.19, p = 0.024) and higher odds of enroll in a bachelor’s
degree and lower odds of enrolling in other PSE programs (OR = 0.74, p = 0.038) or reporting
not knowing (OR = 0.75, p = 0.066)). On the other hand, 9th grade students whose parents met
with school counselors generally had lower odds of enrolling in a bachelor’s degree and higher
odds of enrolling in other PSE programs (OR = 1.32, p = 0.067)), not enrolling in any PSE (OR
= 1.29, p = 0.068)), or reporting not knowing whether they were enrolled (OR = 1.48, p =
0.004)).
Academic performance and aspirations. Taking AP courses was positively associated
with contacting school counselors for college admission counseling (OR = 1.20, p = 0.095) and
for financial aid counseling (OR = 1.19, p = 0.034) in 12th grade. Also, both AP course-taking
and math achievement were positively associated with college application rates, with students
who took AP courses and who had higher math scores reporting higher odds of submitting more
college applications (ORAP = 1.73, ORMath = 1.03, p < 0.001) and of enrolling in a bachelor’s
degree (vs. all other options; OR = 1.04-1.08). Alternately, those with lower math scores have
lower odds of enrolling in a bachelor’s degree (ORMath = 0.93 – 0.96, p < 0.001) vs. all other
options; Similarly, those who took AP courses have higher odds of enrolling in a bachelor’s
degree (and lower odds of enrolling in all other options, ORAP = 0.47 – 0.73, p < 0.05). Students’
educational expectations (or aspirations) of completing high school or less (vs. college) were
negatively associated with contacting school counselors for college admissions counseling (OR =
0.31, p < 0.001) and for financial aid counseling (OR = 0.44, p < 0.001) in 12th grade. In general,
students’ PSE expectations were positively associated with both college application numbers and
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
24
four-year college enrollment. Students’ expectations of completing high school or less (OR =
0.22, p < 0.001) and some college (OR = 0.48, p < 0.001) were negatively associated with the
number of college applications (vs. college) while students’ expectations of earning a graduate or
professional degree (OR = 1.27, p = 0.004) were positively associated with the number of
college applications. The higher students’ PSE expectations were, the higher their odds of
submitting greater numbers of college applications and of selecting a bachelor’s degree (relative
to all other postsecondary options).
Student demographics. Female students had higher odds of contacting school counselors
for financial aid counseling (OR = 1.25, p = 0.001) in 12th grade as well as higher odds of
submitting a greater number of college applications (OR = 1.35, p < 0.001) and enrolling in a
bachelor’s degree (vs. other PSE: OR = 1.27, p = 0.081; vs. not enrolled: OR = 1.54, p < 0.001).
Concerning race/ethnicity, Hispanic students had higher odds of receiving financial aid
counseling (OR = 1.35, p = 0.045) and college admissions counseling (OR = 1.49, p = 0.035) in
12th grade as well as higher odds of submitting greater numbers of college applications (OR =
1.38, p = 0.006) and lower odds of enrolling in a bachelor’s degree (vs. Associates: OR = 0.66, p
= 0.020). Black students had higher odds of contact with counselors for financial aid counseling
(OR = 2.27, p < 0.001) and college admission counseling (OR = 1.52, p = 0.073) in 12th grade as
well as higher odds of submitting greater numbers of college applications (OR = 1.97, p <
0.001). Asian students had higher odds of submitting a greater number of college applications
(OR = 2.28, p < 0.001) and of enrolling in a bachelor’s degree (vs. other PSE: OR = 2.38, p =
0.052). Multiracial (OR = 1.69, p = 0.021) and indigenous (i.e., American Indian/Alaskan Native
and Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander) students (OR = 4.87, p = 0.019) had higher odds of
reporting that they did not know or were uncertain of whether they enrolled in college. SES was
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
25
negatively associated with receiving financial aid counseling (OR = 0.68, p < 0.001) and
positively associated with seniors’ receiving college admission counseling (OR = 1.23, p =
0.003) in 12th grade as well as with college application rates (OR = 1.39, p < 0.001). As SES
increased, students had increasingly higher odds of enrolling in a bachelor’s degree (vs. all other
options, i.e., Associate, other PSE, not enrolled at all, don't know; ORs = 1.79 - 3.45).
Discussion
This study proposed and tested the conceptual framework of school counseling collegegoing culture and its effects on students’ college-going decisions using the HSLS:09. Most of the
hypotheses appear to be borne out by the findings. More specifically, counselors’ expectations
and priorities (especially percentage of time devoted to college readiness), student-counselor
contact for college counseling/information in earlier grades, and caseload appear to be the most
salient predictors of students’ college-going decisions. Earlier student-counselor contact for
college-career counseling appears to affect more proximal decisions such as whether students
received college admissions and financial aid counseling in 12th grade and the numbers of
college applications they submit. On the other hand, counselors’ use of time, and caseload appear
to affect students’ more distal decisions namely students’ postsecondary enrollment as well as
the more proximal decisions. Two types of college and career activities, that is, application and
financial aid assistance and college information and FAFSA meetings, predicted seniors
seeking/receiving financial aid counseling and college enrollment.
Counselors’ expectations and priorities. Whether implicit or explicit, counselors’
beliefs about students as well as their goals and priorities appear to affect students’ college
decisions. Previous studies have supported the salience of counselors’ PSE expectations to
student-counselor contact for college admissions counseling and college enrollment (Bryan,
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
26
2009, 2017). However, this study examined counselors’ general beliefs or expectations of their
students indicating that these matter just as much when it comes to number of students’ college
applications they submit and their enrollment in a bachelor’s degree. While school counselors’
prioritizing of college readiness (i.e., their most emphasized goal) appears to increase high
school seniors’ contact with counselors for college admissions counseling, how counselors use
their time plays an even more important role in almost every other college-going decision that
students make (except receiving financial aid counseling in 12th grade). Counselors’ use of time
appears to affect the number of college applications students submit and their likelihood of
enrolling in bachelor’s degree programs as is consistent with prior findings (Bryan et al., 2011,
2017; Engberg & Gilbert, 2014; Poyton & Lapan, 2017). In general, school counseling programs
in which counselors commit 50% or more of their time to college-going appear to have
significant benefits for seniors in terms of whether they receive college-career counseling,
submit applications to college, and enroll in college. On the other hand, not prioritizing college
readiness (20% or less of their time) has negative effects on students’ college-going decisions
(except in the case of financial aid counseling). These findings are consistent with ASCA’s
(2019) recommendations that school counselors spend at least 80% of their time on direct and
indirect services. However, these findings provide more specificity regarding how to use their
time to meet their goals of supporting increased college-going rates in schools.
Student-counselor contact for college-career counseling (earlier contact prior to 12th
grade). This study supports the importance of student-counselor contact for college counseling
in high school as is consistent with other studies’ findings (Bryan, 2011; Belasco, 2013; Poynton
& Lapan, 2017). However, contrary to prior studies, this study indicates the important role
multiple points of contact with school counselors throughout high school plays in determining
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
27
whether 12th grade students receive the assistance they need from counselors regarding college
admissions and financial aid. In contrast, only one point of student contact with counselors was
linked to number of college applications (in 11th grade) and college enrollment (as early as 9th
grade). The finding that 11th grade student-counselor contact predicts college applications
contradicts earlier findings (Bryan, 2011) that contact before 10th grade was more beneficial in
increasing number of college applications. Perhaps student-counselor contact in 12th grade may
serve as a mediator between earlier student-counselor contact about college and numbers of
college applications and college enrollment. Further research will be needed to examine the
direct and indirect effects of student-counselor contact in earlier grades on the range of college
decisions that students make.
College and career readiness activities. Previous research (e.g., Conley & McGaughy,
2012; Goodwin, et al., 2016; McDonough, 2005) suggests that college and career readiness
activities, such as college fairs, are important counseling supports and resources that promote
seniors’ college enrollment rates. In this study, two college and career readiness activities
emerged as important. Ninth grade college and career readiness activities, specifically college
applications and financial aid assistance, were linked to high school seniors receiving financial
aid counseling, while college information and FAFSA meetings offered later in 11th grade, seem
to help students make the decision to enroll in other PSE options, other than Bachelor and
Associate degree programs. The fact that college fairs was not linked to students’ college-going
decisions highlights the fact that even more effective than college and career readiness activities
in the college-going process may be the one-to-one direct contact that students have with school
counselors for college information and counseling. Also, in some schools these activities are not
coordinated by school counselors and in those cases these college and career readiness activities
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
28
may be better measures of school-wide college going culture (McDonough, 2005; McClafferty et
al., 2003). Perhaps, it is counselors’ involvement in and coordination of the college and career
readiness activities in schools that help determine the effectiveness of these activities in
facilitating students’ college-going.
Constraints. Counselor caseload affects the entire range of students’ college-going
decisions, seeking college admissions and financial aid counseling, applying to college and
enrolling in college. The negative relationship of caseload to these college-going decisions is
supported in previous studies (Bryan et al., 2011; Fitzpatrick & Schneider, 2016) attesting to the
gravity of counselor caseload in supporting students and enhancing college-going. Furthermore,
it is likely that caseload is related to whether or how much student-counselor contact takes place
and whether or not college and career readiness activities are provided. The fact that number of
counselors enhance college application rates suggests that there needs to be an optimal
number/critical mass of school counselors in a school in order to increase students’ college
applications rates as borne out by recent economic research (Hurwitz & Howell, 2014).
However, the surprisingly contradictory negative relationship of number of counselors to
student-counselor contact for financial aid counseling may be because having more counselors in
a school allows students to have more one-to-one direct contact with students for college-career
counseling in general rather than for financial aid counseling. However, this result needs to be
further explored.
Parent involvement, academic performance and aspirations, and students’
demographics. Parent involvement, academic performance and aspirations, and students’
demographics have been found to significantly predict students’ college-going decisions in
numerous previous studies (e.g., Bryan et al., 2011, 2017; Perna, 2006; Perna & Titus, 2005).
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
29
Consistent with previous studies about the influential role parents play in their children’s college
decisions, parents’ engagement with school counselors appear beneficial in promoting numbers
of college applications and enroll in a bachelor’s degree. In addition to their parents’
involvement, students’ own PSE expectations is of importance. In other words, counselors must
pay attention to students who have lower expectations of attending college, those with lower
academic performance, and who are less likely to take rigorous courses. Similarly, this study
confirms the gender, racial, and socioeconomic disparities in students’ college-going outcomes
and highlights the importance of school counselors making extra efforts to support male students,
students of color, and lower income students in the college going process. Male students receive
less financial aid counseling, submit less college applications, and are less likely to enroll in
bachelor’s degree program. Interestingly, they were also equally likely to receive college
admissions counseling from the school counselor. Hispanic and Black students were more likely
to receive financial aid and college admissions help from school counselors. This is consistent
with previous research that indicates that these students are more likely to rely on school
counselors for help in the college going process (Bryan, 2009). However, while Hispanic
students were more likely to submit more college applications, they were also less likely to enroll
in a bachelor’s degree. Concerning is the fact that multiracial and indigenous students expressed
uncertainty about whether they were enrolled in any postsecondary classes, pointing to their lack
of college knowledge and need for assistance with the college-going process. Not surprisingly,
lower income students relied on school counselors for financial aid counseling; however, higher
income students were more likely to receive college admissions counseling, apply to more
colleges, and enroll in a bachelor’s degree.
Implications for Practice, Training, and Policy
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
30
The most important contribution of this study is that it provides a comprehensive
evidence-supported model that guides school counselors in how to craft a culture in their
programs or departments that promotes college-going, regardless of the wider culture in their
schools. The model provides a frame that draws counselors’ and counselor educators’ attention
to factors they might overlook; in contrast to the disparate studies, the framework guides
counselors, counselor educators, and policy-makers to draw holistically focused conclusions
concerning improvement of school counseling programs and generating positive student
outcomes. The framework points to ways in which school counselors can build a culture that
enhances college-going by focusing on the four malleable factors of school counseling collegegoing culture identified in this study (i.e., counselor expectations and priorities, studentcounselor contact for college-career counseling and advising, college and career readiness
activities, and constraints). Policymakers, education administrators, and researchers often funnel
numerous practices and interventions to schools and school counselors without any focus on the
culture in school counseling programs, which can often derail change. As noted by Kaplan and
Owings (2013), subcultures in a school can be resistant to change from the outside. Indeed,
counselors need to examine carefully how well these dimensions support or hinder college going,
then challenge and replace their expectations, contact and interactions with students, and college
and career readiness practices that directly help students’ college going. School counselors
should examine and integrate the four dimensions into comprehensive counseling programs,
strategically focusing on each dimension to make it a norm of the department culture. Key to
changing culture is making beliefs, assumptions and expectations explicit and challenging them.
School counselors may have implicit or explicit biases and deficit mindsets that may lead them
to form low expectations toward certain students, especially those from traditionally
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
31
disadvantaged/marginalized backgrounds such as male students, students of color, and lowincome students. Hence, school counselors need to be sensitive to the negative impact of low
expectations on students’ college decisions and take action to challenge and rethink their own
beliefs about students and to attend professional development workshops regularly that help
them explore their biases and maintain high expectations toward students. School counselors
should examine and disaggregate data about students’ college going behaviors and patterns by
their race, gender, income, and academic achievement to challenge whether inequities exist
among them in college going. Data can help counselors change their beliefs, expectations,
priorities, and practices. The findings also highlight the need for school counselors and counselor
educators to prioritize college readiness in their practice and training. School counselors should
use at least 50% of their time on college readiness counseling. Given the numerous demands on
their time, self-advocacy and annual/weekly calendars and school-family-community
partnerships are useful strategies to secure and prioritize this amount of time and to gain
resources to provide college readiness, application, and financial aid services and programs
(Bryan et al., 2016, 2019).
Direct student-counselor contact is important and earlier and multiple points throughout
high school. Yet, in some schools with high caseloads, students may only see counselors once for
college-related information. Prior research suggests that male students, students of color, and
lower income students may be the ones least likely to have early and multiple points of contact
and the ones most exposed to large counselor-student caseloads (Bryan, 2009, 2011). Counselors
should create a comprehensive college readiness program plan to make sure that all students
especially male students, students of color, and lower income ones have multiple contacts,
ideally at each grade level, concerning the various aspects of the college search and information
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
32
process. This study also suggests that counselors need to build students’ knowledge about
college applications and financial aid as early as 9th grade and throughout high school and
provide college information and support with FAFSA in 11th grade. Given the incredible
importance of understanding and completing financial aid application in the college-going
process (Goodwin et al., 2016; Fitzpatrick & Schneider, 2016), it is critical that financial aid is
not an afterthought, but a central focus in the counseling program. Counselors may partner with
college representatives and community stakeholders to facilitate the college application and
admission process and partner with parent and community volunteers and mentors to help
students and their families with the financial aid application process (Bryan et al., 2016, 2021).
Yet, caseload constraints can hinder school counselors’ efforts to change culture in their
departments so that their expectations, priorities, use of time, and activities can enhance collegegoing (Bryan et al., 2016, 2019). This study’s findings highlight and support ASCA’s (2019)
recommendation that counselors have a caseload of no more than 250 students. If the national
education agenda to increase students’ access to college is to be met, school district leaders and
policy makers need to take counselor caseload recommendations seriously and increase the
number of school counselors in schools. Policymakers and district leaders should be cognizant
that it is not effective to designate counselors specifically for college readiness; rather, increasing
the number of counselors in school appears to have more beneficial returns for students when it
comes to increasing college-going outcomes.
Limitations and Future Research
Several important limitations exist in the present study. First, due to the use of the
secondary data, we were limited by the available data in operationalizing the conceptual model
of school counseling college-going culture. For instance, the variable student-counselor contact
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
33
does not capture the complexity and depth of interactions such as the quality and type of
interactions and relationships. Further, based on considerable debates about the technique and
appropriateness of imputation of missing data (e.g., Schafer & Graham, 2002), we decided not to
replace missing data; thus, it is possible that missing data bias may limit the generalizability of
the findings.
This research raises questions for future exploration such as whether there are different
types of school counseling college-going culture; whether and how this culture works differently
for different types of students, such as low income students and students of color, and types of
schools, such as urban, rural, and high poverty schools; and which school counseling collegegoing culture variables have direct and indirect effects on students’ college-going decisions or
which ones act as moderators or mediators. It would be important to examine how and what type
of school counseling college-going culture helps to eliminate racial inequities and barriers in
college-going for students of color. Future research could consider including an index of the
school’s wider college-going culture in the model. Advanced statistical approaches such as
structural equation modeling, latent class analysis, and other multivariate analyses might be
useful to answer those questions. Moreover, ethnographic research and grounded theory would
provide more understanding of school counseling college-going culture and what it looks like in
various schools and across various groups.
This comprehensive, holistic model offers a logical ground/foundation on which
empirical indicators and hypotheses could be further identified and tested to verify the theory.
The model also provides counselors with a frame to look holistically at and respond to college
and career readiness and college-going in schools and to enhance college-going outcomes.
Finally, the study highlights the importance of education policy and systemic change (e.g.,
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
34
increasing school counselor numbers, reducing counselor caseload), so that counselors may more
effectively create and maintain a school counseling college-going culture that enhances students’
college-going outcomes.
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
35
References
Allison, P. D. (1999). Multiple regression: A primer. Pine Forge Press.
American School Counselor Association. (2019). The ASCA national model: A framework for
school counseling programs (4th ed.). Alexandria, VA. Author.
Belasco, A.S. (2013). Creating college opportunity: School counselors and their influence on
postsecondary enrollment. Research in Higher Education, 54(7), 781-804. doi:
10.1007/s11162-013-9297-4
Bell, A. D., Rowan-Kenyon, H. T., & Perna, L. W. (2009). College knowledge of 9th and 11th
grade students: Variation by school and state context. The Journal of Higher
Education, 80(6), 663-685.
Bellou, V. (2008). Identifying organizational culture and subcultures within Greek public
hospitals. Journal of health organization and management.
Boser, U., Wilhelm, M., & Hanna, R. (2014). The power of the pygmalion effect: Teachers'
expectations strongly predict college completion. Center for American Progress.
Brant, R. (1990). Assessing proportionality in the proportional odds model for ordinal logistic
regression. Biometrics, 1171-1178.
Bryan, J., Day-Vines, N., Holcomb-McCoy, C., & Moore-Thomas, C. (2010). Using national
education longitudinal datasets in school counseling research. Counselor Education and
Supervision, 49, 266-279.
Bryan, J., Farmer-Hinton, R., Rawls, A., & Woods, C. S. (2017). Social capital and collegegoing culture in high schools: The effects of college expectations and college talk on
students’ postsecondary attendance. Professional School Counseling, 21, 95-107.
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
36
Bryan, J., Griffin, D., Henry, L., & Gilfillan, E. (2019). Building culturally relevant schoolfamily-community partnerships that promote college readiness and access. In NACAC
(Ed.), Fundamentals of College Admission Counseling (5th ed., pp.467-488). Arlington,
VA: National Association of College Admission Counseling.
Bryan, J., Griffin, D., Kim, J., Griffin, D. M., & Young, A. (2019). School counselor leadership
in school-family-community partnerships: An equity-focused partnership process model
for moving the field forward. In S. Sheldon, and T. Turner-Vorbeck (Eds.), The Wiley
Handbook on Family, School, and Community Relationships in Education (pp. 265287). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119083054.ch13
Bryan, J., & Henry, L. (2012). A model for building school-family-community partnerships:
Principles and process. Journal of Counseling and Development, 90, 408-420.
Bryan, J., Holcomb-McCoy, C., Moore-Thomas, C., & Day-Vines, N. (2009). Who sees the
school counselor for college information? A national study. Professional School
Counseling, 12, 280-291.
Bryan, J., Kim, J., & Shi, Q. (2017). Identifying and using secondary datasets to answer policy
questions related to school-based counseling: A step-by-step guide. In J. Carey, B. Harris,
S. M. Lee, & O. Aluede (Eds.), International Handbook for Policy Research on SchoolBased Counseling (pp. 153-181). Springer. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-58179-8. Retrieve
from https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-3-319-58179-8_11.pdf
Bryan, J., Moore-Thomas, C., Day-Vines, N., & Holcomb-McCoy, C. (2011). School counselors
as social capital: The effects of high school college counseling on college application
rates. Journal of Counseling and Development, 89, 190-199.
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
37
Bryan, J., Moore-Thomas, C., Gaenzle, S., Kim, J., Lin, C., & Na, G. (2012). The effects of
school bonding on high school seniors’ academic achievement. Journal of Counseling
and Development, 90, 467-480.
Bryan, J., Young, A., Griffin, D., & Henry, L. (2016). Preparing students for higher education:
How school counselors can foster college readiness and access. In J. L. DeVitis, & P.
Sasso (Eds.), Higher Education and Society (pp. 149-172). New York: Peter Lang.
Bryan, J., Williams, J. M., & Griffin, D. (2020). Fostering educational resilience and
opportunities in urban schools through equity-focused school-family-community
partnerships. Professional School Counseling, 23, 1-14. DOI:
10.1177/2156759X19899179
Bunce, C. A., & Willower, D. J. (2001). Counselor subculture in schools. Journal of Educational
Administration, 32, 472-487.
Cabrera, A. F., & La Nasa, S. M. (2000). Understanding the college choice of disadvantaged
students. New Directions for Institutional Research, 107, 5-22. San Francisco: JosseyBass.
Cabrera, A. F., & La Nasa, S. M. (2001). On the path to college: Three critical tasks facing
America’s disadvantaged. Research in Higher Education, 42(2), 119-149.
Conley, D. T., & McGaughy, C. (2012). College and career readiness: Same or
different. Educational Leadership, 69(7), 28-34.
Edwin, M. E., Prescod, D. J., & Bryan, J. (2019). Profiles of high school students’ STEM career
aspirations. Career Development Quarterly, 67, 255-263. DOI: 10.1002/cdq.12194
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
38
Emmons, W. R., Kent, A. H., & Ricketts, L. (2019). Is college still worth it? The new calculus of
falling returns. The New Calculus of Falling Returns, 297-329. Federal Reserve Bank of
St. Louis 2019, Volume 101, Number 4, pp. 297–329, stlouisfed.org.
Engberg, M. E., & Gilbert, A. J. (2014). The counseling opportunity structure: Examining
correlates of four-year college-going rates. Research in Higher Education, 55, 219-244.
doi:10.1007/s11162-013-9309-4
Fitzpatrick, D. (2019). Challenges mitigating a Darwinian application of social capital: How
specific advising activities by high school counselors shift measures of college readiness
but not college-going. Research in Higher Education, 1-27.
Fitzpatrick, D., & Schneider, B. (2016). Linking counselor activities and students’ college
readiness: How they matter for disadvantaged students. Society for Research on
Educational Effectiveness Spring 2016 Conference.
Friedman, A. A., Galligan, H. T., Albano, C. M., & O’Connor, K. (2009). Teacher subcultures of
democratic practice amidst the oppression of educational reform. Journal of Educational
Change, 10(4), 249-276.
Gearns, R. A., Kelly, A. M., & Bugallo, M. (2018). Professional development for high school
guidance counselors to facilitate pre-college STEM preparation (RTP). Paper presented at
the 2018 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition, Salt Lake City, Utah. Retrieved from
https://www.asee.org/public/conferences/106/papers/23337/view
Goodman‐Scott, E., Sink, C. A., Cholewa, B. E., & Burgess, M. (2018). An ecological view of
school counselor ratios and student academic outcomes: A national investigation. Journal
of Counseling & Development, 96(4), 388-398.
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
39
Goodwin, R. N., Li, W., Broda, M., L. Johnson, H., & Schneider, B. (2016). Improving college
enrollment of at-risk students at the school level. Journal of Education for Students
Placed at Risk, 21(3), 143. https://doi.org/10.1080/10824669.2016.1182027
Grossman, P. L., & Stodolsky, S. S. (1995). Content as context: The role of school subjects in
secondary school teaching. Educational researcher, 24(8), 5-23.
Hahs-Vaughn, D. L. (2017). Applied multivariate statistical concepts. New York: Routledge.
Hossler, D., Schmit, J., & Vesper, N. (1999). Going to college: How social, economic, and
educational factors influence the decisions students make. Baltimore, MD: The Johns
Hopkins University Press.
Hurwitz, M., & Howell, J. (2014). Estimating causal impacts of school counselors with
regression discontinuity designs. Journal of Counseling and Development, 92(3), 316327. doi: 10.1002/j.1556-6676.2014.00159.x
Ingels, S.J., Pratt, D.J., Herget, D., Bryan, M., Fritch, L.B., Ottem, R., Rogers, J.E., and Wilson,
D. (2015). High School Longitudinal Study of 2009 (HSLS:09) 2013 Update and High
School Transcript Data File Documentation (NCES 2015-036). National Center for
Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.
Washington, DC. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch.
Kaplan, L. S., & Owings, W. A. (2013). School culture and change as learning. In Culture reboot: Reinvigorating school culture to improve student outcomes (pp. 1-36). Corwin
Press, https://www.doi.org/10.4135/9781452277974.n1
Kim, J., Geesa, R. L., & McDonald, K. (2020). School principals’ and counselors’ focus on
college-going: The impact of school leader expectations and primary counseling goals on
postsecondary education. Journal of College Access, 5(2), 4.
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
40
McClafferty Jarsky, K., McDonough, P. M., & Núñez, A. M. (2009). Establishing a college
culture in secondary schools through P-20 collaboration: A case study. Journal of
Hispanic Higher Education, 8(4), 357-373.
McDonough, P. M. (1997). Choosing colleges: How social class and schools structure
opportunity. Albany: State University of New York Press.
McDonough, P. M. (2005a). Counseling and college counseling in America’s high schools.
Alexandria, VA: National Association for College Admission Counseling.
McDonough, P. M. (2005b). Counseling matters: Knowledge, assistance, and organizational
commitment in college preparation. In W. G. Tierney, Z. B. Corwin, & J. E. Colyar
(Eds.), Preparing for college: Nine elements of effective outreach (pp. 69–87). Albany:
State University of New York Press.
McKillip, M. E., Rawls, A., & Barry, C. (2012). Improving college access: A review of research
on the role of high school counselors. Professional School Counseling, 16(1),
2156759X1201600106.
Nikischer, A. B., Weis, L., & Dominguez, R. (2016). Differential Access to High School
Counseling, Postsecondary Destinations, and STEM Careers. Teachers College
Record, 118(11), n11.
O'Connell, A. (2006). Logistic regression models for ordinal response variables. Thousand
Oaks: Sage Publications.
Papageorge, N. W., Gershenson, S., & Kang, K. M. (2020). Teacher expectations matter. Review
of Economics and Statistics, 102(2), 234-251.
Perna, L. W. (2006). Studying college access and choice: A proposed conceptual model. Higher
education: Handbook of theory and research, 21(2004), 99.
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
41
Perna, L. W., & Titus, M. A. (2005). The relationship between parental involvement as social
capital and college enrollment: An examination of racial/ethnic group differences. Journal
of Higher Education, Vol. 76, pp. 485–518.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.2005.11772296
Perna, L. W., Rowan-Kenyon, H. T., Thomas, S. L., Bell, A., Anderson, R., and Li, C. (2008).
The role of college counseling in shaping college opportunity: Variations across high
schools. The Review of Higher Education, 31(2), 131-159.
https://doi.org/10.1353/rhe.2007.0073
Poynton, T. A. & Lapan, R. T. (2017). Aspiration, achievement, and school counselors’
impact on the college transition. Journal of Counseling and Development, 95(4), 369377.
Radford, A. W., & Ifill, N. (2013). Preparing students for college: What high schools are doing
and how their actions influence ninth graders’ college attitudes, aspirations and
plans. Arlington, VA: National Association for College Admission Counseling.
Rangel, V. S., & Ballysingh, T. A. (2020). Counseling opportunity structures: Explaining
college-going using a typology of school-level opportunity structures. Professional
School Counseling, 23(1), 2156759X20927428.
Robinson, K. J., & Roksa, J. (2016). Counselors, information, and high school college-going
culture: Inequalities in the college application process. Research in Higher Education,
57(7), 845-868. doi: 10.1007/s11162-016-9406-2
Roderick, M., Coca, V., & Nagaoka, J. (2011). Potholes on the road to college: High school
effects in shaping urban students’ participation in college application, four-year college
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
42
enrollment, and college match. Sociology of Education, 84(3), 178–211.
doi:10.1177/0038040711411280
Schafer, J. L., & Graham, J. W. (2002). Missing data: Our view of the state of the
art. Psychological Methods, 7(2), 147 - 177.
Shi, Q., & Brown, M. H. (2020). School counselors’ impact on school-level academic
outcomes: Caseload and use of time. Professional School Counseling, 23(1_part_3),
2156759X20904489.
Shillingford, M. A., Oh, S., & Finnell, L. R. (2017). Promoting STEM career development
among students and parents of color: Are school counselors leading the
charge? Professional School Counseling, 21(1b), 2156759X18773599.
Siskin, L. S. (1991). Departments as different worlds: Subject subcultures in secondary
schools. Educational Administration Quarterly, 27(2), 134-160.
Stodolsky, S. S., & Grossman, P. L. (1995). The impact of subject matter on curricular activity:
An analysis of five academic subjects. American educational research journal, 32(2),
227-249.
Velez, E. D. (2016). How can high school counseling shape students’ postsecondary
attendance? Alexandria, VA: National Association for College Admission Counseling.
https://www.nacacnet.org/globalassets/documents/publications/research/hsls-phase-iii.pdf
Williams, J. M., & Bryan, J. (2013). Overcoming adversity: High‐achieving African American
youth's perspectives on educational resilience. Journal of Counseling &
Development, 91(3), 291-300.
Woods, C. S., & Domina, T. (2014). The school counselor caseload and the high school-tocollege pipeline. Teachers College Record, 116(10), 1-30.
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
1
Table 1: Logistic Regression Analyses Predicting Student-Counselor Contact for College Admission and Number of College Applications
Variables
Counselor Expectations and Priorities
Counselor's perceptions
Counseling most emphasized goal a
Help to prep for work after HS
Help w/ personal development
Help to improve achievement
% hours counselors spent on college
readiness/selection/apply a
21%-50%
11%-20%
10% or less
Contact for College-Career Counseling
9th grader talked to counselors about
going to college b
11th grader talked to counselors about
options after high school b
College & Career Readiness Activities
College Related Activities (9th-11th grade)
Application & financial aid help
College fairs
College info & selection help
College info & FAFSA meetings
Constraints
Counselor Caseload a
250-449
450 or more
School has counselor des1ignated for
college readiness b
Multinomial Logistic Regression Predicting StudentCounselor Contact for college admissions in 2012-2013 year
(Yes as reference)
Yes vs. No
Yes vs. Don't Know
Coef
S.E.
OR
Coef
S.E.
OR
School Counselor College-Going Culture Variables
Ordinal Logistic Regression
Predicting Number of College
Applications
(None as baseline)
Coef
S.E.
OR
-0.02
0.06
0.98
-0.09
0.06
0.92
0.10*
0.04
1.11
-0.17
0.11
0.29*
0.35
0.18
0.14
0.85
1.12
1.34
-0.28
-0.17
0.19
1.49
0.29
0.18
0.76
0.84
1.21
0.02
0.01
-0.10
0.27
0.14
0.09
1.02
1.01
0.90
0.32+
0.51*
0.35
0.19
0.22
0.23
1.37
1.66
1.41
0.69*
0.52
0.50
0.34
0.34
0.37
2.00
1.68
1.65
-0.32+
-0.53**
-0.49**
0.17
0.17
0.18
0.73
0.59
0.61
-0.281+
0.15
0.76
0.16
0.24
1.18
0.04
0.09
1.04
-0.61***
0.11
0.54
-0.61***
0.15
0.55
0.15*
0.07
1.16
-0.16
-0.18
-0.10
-0.15
0.21
0.18
0.68
0.25
0.85
0.84
0.91
0.86
-0.13
0.17
-0.11
0.04
0.22
0.25
0.46
0.33
0.88
1.19
0.90
1.04
-0.18
0.14
0.27
-0.09
0.11
0.13
0.34
0.17
0.84
1.15
1.31
0.91
0.29
0.55*
0.23
0.24
1.34
1.73
0.07
0.28
0.24
0.28
1.07
1.33
-0.45**
-0.52**
0.16
0.17
0.64
0.60
0.04
0.12
1.04
-0.13
0.14
0.88
0.002
0.09
1.00
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
Number of full-time counselors
-0.01
Met school counselors in 09-10 b
Talked to counselors about
postsecondary admission b
0.07
2
0.03
0.99
0.00
Parent Involvement Variable
0.10
1.08
0.13
-0.11
1.00
0.04+
0.02
1.04
0.15
1.13
-0.03
0.08
0.97
0.17
0.90
0.18*
0.08
1.19
-0.10
0.10
Math standardized score
Race/ethnicity a
Black/African American
Asian, non-Hispanic
Hispanic
More than one race, non-Hispanic
Others c
Gender a
Female
Socioeconomic Status (SES)
Students' education expectations a
Don't know
HS/less than HS
Some college
Grad/Prof degree
AP courses taking a
Yes
Don't know
-0.003
Control Variables
0.01
1.00
-0.01+
0.01
0.99
0.03***
0.004
1.03
-0.41+
-0.14
-0.40*
-0.11
-0.71
0.23
0.29
0.19
0.19
0.49
0.66
0.87
0.67
0.90
0.49
-0.23
-0.73+
-0.17
0.20
0.60
0.23
0.42
0.19
0.30
2.94
0.80
0.48
0.84
1.23
1.83
0.68***
0.83***
0.32**
0.11
0.02
0.15
0.22
0.12
0.13
0.35
1.97
2.28
1.38
1.12
1.02
-0.10
-0.21**
0.11
0.07
0.91
0.81
0.06
-0.15
0.15
0.10
1.06
0.86
0.30***
0.33***
0.07
0.05
1.35
1.39
0.09
1.17***
0.21
-0.22
0.18
0.21
0.15
0.15
1.09
3.23
1.24
0.80
0.55*
1.41***
0.61**
-0.12
0.27
0.29
0.20
0.19
1.74
4.10
1.85
0.89
-0.58***
-1.52***
-0.74***
0.23**
0.15
0.23
0.11
0.08
0.56
0.22
0.48
1.26
-0.18+
0.20
0.11
0.30
0.83
1.22
-0.35*
0.46
0.16
0.39
0.70
1.59
0.55***
0.07
0.08
0.21
1.73
1.08
Constant
Intercepts/thresholds
No Applications
One Application
Two to Four Applications
-0.35
0.93
0.71
-1.85+
0.94
0.16
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-1.01+
1.24*
3.26***
0.56
0.55
0.57
0.37
3.44
26.11
-
0.91
0.04
Unweighted Sample Size
8,184
8,178
Weighted Sample Size
2,036,851
2,024,343
F-statistic
5.39***
22.76***
a
Reference category for each variable in order: 0-249, More than 50%, Help students prep for postsecondary schooling, White, Male, Complete
Bachelor’s Degree, No. b Variables were dichotomous (Yes/No) with No as reference category. c Amer. Indian/Alaska Native, Native
Hawaiian/Pacific Islander. *** p<0.001, ** p<0.01, * p<0.05, † p<0.
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
1
Table 2: Logistic Regression Analysis Predicting College Enrollment (Bachelor as reference)
Bachelor vs Associate
Variables
Bachelor vs No
Coef
S.E. OR
Coef
School Counselor College-Going Culture Variables
Counselor Expectations and Priorities
Counselor's perceptions
-0.06
0.06 0.95
-0.12+
Counseling most emphasized goal a
Help to prep for work after HS
0.32
0.57 1.38
-0.32
Help w/ personal development
0.10
0.18 1.11
0.11
Help to improve achievement
0.17
0.12 1.18
0.21
% hours counselors spent on college
readiness/selection/apply a
21%-50%
0.06
0.19 1.06
0.44
11%-20%
0.25
0.21 1.29
0.61*
10% or less
0.49*
0.22 1.64
0.74**
Contact for College-Career Counseling
9th grader talked to counselors about -0.03
0.14 0.97
-0.07
going to college b
11th grader talked to counselors
0.02
0.12 1.02
-0.27*
about options for after high school b
College & Career Readiness Activities
College Related Activities (9th-11th grade)
Application & financial aid help
-0.20
0.24 0.82
0.23
College fairs
0.003
0.18 1.00
-0.09
College info & selection help
0.002
0.55 1.00
-1.04
College info & FAFSA meetings
0.29
0.33 1.34
0.38
Constraints
Counselor Caseload a
250-449
0.43*
0.18 1.54
0.53*
450 or more
0.74***
0.19 2.09
0.84***
School has counselor des1ignated for 0.09
0.12 1.10
-0.09
b
college readiness
Number of full-time counselors
-0.05+
0.03 0.95
-0.03
Parent Involvement Variables
Met school counselors in 09-10 b
-0.03
0.10 0.97
0.25+
Talked to counselors about
0.06
0.11 1.06
-0.17
b
postsecondary admission
Control Variables
Math standardized score
-0.05*** 0.01 0.96
-0.06***
Race/ethnicity a
Black/African American
0.02
0.20 1.03
-0.39
Asian, non-Hispanic
-0.06
0.25 0.94
-0.51
Hispanic
0.42*
0.18 1.51
-0.18
More than one race, non-Hispanic
0.21
0.16 1.23
-0.08
Others c
-0.07
0.65 0.93
0.47
Gender a
S.E.
OR
0.07
0.89+
0.57
0.19
0.16
0.73
1.12
1.23
0.27
0.27
0.26
1.54
1.84
2.10
0.18
0.94
0.12
0.77
0.22
0.22
0.78
0.26
1.25
0.92
0.35
1.46
0.22
0.23
0.14
1.70
2.31
0.92
0.03
0.97
0.14
0.13
1.29
0.84
0.01
0.94
0.25
0.40
0.23
0.20
0.65
0.68
0.60
0.84
0.92
1.60
SCHOOL COUNSELING COLLEGE-GOING CULTURE
Female
SES
Students' education expectations a
Don't know
HS/less than HS
Some college
Grad/Prof degree
AP courses taking a
Yes
Don't know
2
-0.09
-0.60***
0.08
0.08
0.92
0.55
-0.42***
-1.07***
0.12
0.09
0.65
0.34
0.20
1.29*
0.89***
-0.20+
0.21
0.62
0.16
0.12
1.22
3.65
2.45
0.82
0.76**
3.51***
1.62***
-0.44*
0.24
0.61
0.19
0.17
2.13
33.49
5.05
0.65
-0.46***
-0.37
0.10
0.38
0.63
0.69
-0.75***
0.58+
0.15
0.32
0.47
1.78
Constant
1.85+
0.95 6.36
2.03+
1.14
7.61
Unweighted Sample Size
8,828
Weighted Sample Size
2,237,063
F-statistic
16.63***
a
Reference category for each variable in order: 0-249, More than 50%, Help students prep for
postsecondary schooling, White, Male, Complete Bachelor’s Degree, No. b Variables were
dichotomous (Yes/No) with No as reference category. c Amer. Indian/Alaska Native, Native
Hawaiian/Pacific Islander.
*** p<0.001, ** p<0.01, * p<0.05, † p<0.10
Figure 1: Conceptual Model of School Counseling College-Going Culture Affecting Students’
College-Going Decisions