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Human Paleodiet at Grand Bay,
Carriacou, Lesser Antilles
a
b
John Krigbaum , Scot t M. Fit zpat rick & Jamie Bankait is
c
a
Depart ment of Ant hropology , Universit y of Florida , Gainesville ,
Florida , USA
b
Depart ment of Ant hropology , Universit y of Oregon , Eugene ,
Oregon , USA
c
Depart ment of Ant hropology , Universit y of Mont ana , Missoula ,
Mont ana , USA
Published online: 17 Jul 2013.
To cite this article: John Krigbaum , Scot t M. Fit zpat rick & Jamie Bankait is (2013) Human Paleodiet
at Grand Bay, Carriacou, Lesser Ant illes, The Journal of Island and Coast al Archaeology, 8:2, 210-227,
DOI: 10.1080/ 15564894.2012.756082
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ISSN: 1556-4894 print / 1556-1828 online
DOI: 10.1080/15564894.2012.756082
Human Paleodiet at Grand
Bay, Carriacou, Lesser
Antilles
John Krigbaum,1 Scott M. Fitzpatrick,2 and Jamie Bankaitis3
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1
Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
Department of Anthropology, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, USA
3
Department of Anthropology, University of Montana, Missoula, Montana, USA
2
ABSTRACT
The island of Carriacou in the southern Grenadines, Lesser Antilles, has
been the focus of interdisciplinary archaeological research since 2003,
focused on ceramic-associated assemblages dating between c. AD 400
and 1300. Amerindians here exploited marine foods, but patterned
subsistence has not been inferred directly from recovered human remains. Here, we present the first stable isotope data from bone collagen
and bone apatite of individuals (n = 14) from the Grand Bay site
that date to post–AD 1000. Average δ 13Cco (−12.8), δ 15N (11.1),
δ 13Cap (−8.6), and 13Cap-co (4.1) values substantiate a marinebased diet. No significant differences are observed between males and
females; however, one subadult is an isotopic outlier based on its δ 13Cco
and 13Cap-co values. Bone collagen values suggest high marine protein at Carriacou, different from data reported for contemporaneous
groups in the Greater Antilles, broadly similar to the northern Lesser
Antilles, and most similar to the Bahamas, where reef-based systems are
ubiquitous. Bone apatite and bone collagen isotope results underscore
the importance of shellfish on Carriacou as previously observed in the
zooarchaeological record. At present, these data do not provide the interpretative power to confirm or refute the presence/absence of maize in
the diet during the mid-Ceramic Saladoid in the southern Lesser Antilles.
Keywords carbon isotopes, nitrogen isotopes, subsistence, Ceramic Age, Caribbean
INTRODUCTION
size, is engaging, in part, because its islands
represented unique adaptive challenges to
Amerindians in the New World (Fitzpatrick
and Keegan 2007; Keegan et al. 2008). How
The circum-Caribbean region, as an oceanic
landscape dotted with islands of varying
Received 22 June 2012; accepted 3 October 2012.
Address correspondence to John Krigbaum, Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, P.O.
Box 117305, 1112 Turlington Hall, Gainesville, FL 32611-7305, USA. E-mail: krigbaum@ufl.edu
210
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Human Paleodiet at Grand Bay, Lesser Antilles
people adapted to the islands they settled,
which islands they chose to settle, and
what they subsisted upon once settled, are
all variables directly affected by available
food resources, proximity to neighboring islands, and proximity to the mainland from
where they originated (Keegan et al. 2008).
The inter-connectedness of people and landscapes with other islands and with the mainland, most notably the lower Orinoco River
basin in South America (e.g., Boomert 2000;
Hofman et al. 2007, 2008a), was clearly
social, but also included the transport of
key economic resources, plants and animals
brought in from elsewhere, and potentially
cultivated, maintained and incorporated into
a local and inter-island economy (Giovas et al.
2012; Newsom and Wing 2004).
With respect to human subsistence in
the region, insular environments are multilayered and ecologically complex, dependent upon myriad marine and terrestrialbased variables (Newsom and Wing 2004).
Such environments and the maritime food
resources they proffer are tangible variables that paleodietary reconstruction can
address using stable isotopes of carbon
(δ 13C) and nitrogen (δ 15N) derived from recovered remains. Marine-based economies
may be surmised from careful analysis of
preserved/recovered vertebrate and invertebrate remains in concert with analyses of
paleobotanical remains and associated material culture. Stable isotope ratio analysis
complements these important efforts and
provides direct, semi-quantitative data that
may inform dietary patterns and subsistence
regimes in prehistory (Katzenberg 2000;
Lee-Thorp 2008; Schwarcz and Schoeninger
1991).
In the Caribbean, a number of disparate
studies have focused on stable isotope proxies using bone to infer Amerindian paleodiet
(e.g., Keegan and DeNiro 1988; Laffoon and
de Vos 2011; Pestle 2010a, 2010b; Pestle
and Colvard 2012; Stokes 1998, 2005; van
Klinken 1991). Recent work in the region has
also applied strontium isotopes (87Sr/86Sr) using tooth enamel to identify local vs. nonlocal individuals to reconstruct patterns of
human migration in prehistory (e.g., Booden
et al. 2008; Hoogland et al. 2010; Laffoon
et al. 2012; Laffoon and de Vos 2011; Laffoon and Hoogland 2012) and protohistory
(e.g., Schroeder et al. 2009; Sparkes 2009;
Varney 2003). These studies are an important complement to circum-Caribbean subsistence studies in that isotopic systems of
human biological tissues not only reflect
what one eats, but from where one originates geographically. Based on isotopic variation in geological bedrock, for example, patterns of human movement may be inferred
based on observed isotopic variation in tooth
enamel of sampled individuals (Laffoon et al.
2012).
To date, there are no published stable
isotope studies of human remains in the
southern Lesser Antilles. Here, we present
the first light stable isotope ratios from bone
collagen (δ 13Cco and δ 15N) and bone apatite (δ 13Cap ) to examine human paleodiet
at the site of Grand Bay on Carriacou in the
southern Grenadines (Figure 1). Patterned
paleodiet in this context assists in clarifying
prehistoric patterns of subsistence that may
be compared to contemporaneous Late Ceramic Age populations in the Lesser Antilles.
SITE GEOGRAPHY AND CULTURAL
CONTEXT
Sandwiched between the mainland landscapes of South and North America, the
Caribbean islands, also commonly referred
to as the West Indies, generally include the
Bahamas and the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico) to the north,
and the Lesser Antilles to the east and southeast. The Lesser Antilles are further grouped
by the northern Leewards (U.S./British Virgin Islands, St. Thomas, Guadeloupe, etc.)
and the southern Windwards (Martinique,
Barbados, Tobago, St. Lucia, St. Vincent,
Grenada, and the Grenadines), with a scattering of other islands such as Margarita, the
Los Roques archipelago, Aruba, Bonaire, and
Curaçao, situated along the northern coast
of South America (Figure 1). While Trinidad
and Tobago are often grouped as part of the
Windwards, they are geologically and biogeographically distinct and technically not
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John Krigbaum et al.
Figure 1. Map of the Caribbean showing location of Carriacou, inset of the Grenadines, showing
the location of Carriacou in the south and the site of Grand Bay on the east side of the
island.
considered to be in the Lesser Antilles. The
Grenadines, a string of islands just north of
Grenada, are comprised of seven relatively
large, and numerous smaller islands. Carriacou is the largest (32 km2) and southernmost in the archipelago and lies c. 30 km
northeast of Granada and c. 190 km from
the Venezuelan mainland (Fitzpatrick et al.
2009a; Giovas et al. 2012). Since 2003, archaeological research by an interdisciplinary
team on Carriacou has identified over a dozen
Pre-Columbian sites, of which Grand Bay and
Sabazan are the largest and most important
(e.g., Fitzpatrick et al. 2004, 2009a, 2009b,
2010; Kaye et al. 2004, 2005).
An analysis of nearly 40 radiocarbon
dates from Carriacou, most of which derive
from Grand Bay and Sabazan, as well as as-
212
sociated pottery and other artifacts, suggest
that the island was settled sometime during the terminal Saladoid period c. AD 400
(Fitzpatrick et al. 2010). This time frame
corresponds to a late Saladoid and early
Troumassan Troumassoid (AD 600–1000)
occupation as defined by ceramic typologies
developed for the region (Fitzpatrick et al.
2010; Petersen et al. 2004).
THE PROBLEM
Coincident with human colonization of the
region, subsistence was marked by generalist
strategies of food procurement that included
harvesting foods from both marine and terrestrial environments. Amerindians coupled
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Human Paleodiet at Grand Bay, Lesser Antilles
terrestrial tropical hunting and gathering
methods of subsistence with novel maritime
methods based on local conditions (e.g.,
Newsom and Wing 2004; Petersen 1997).
Broad spectrum hunting and gathering continued based in large part on the immediate,
local availability of marine vertebrate and invertebrate food resources. Facets of human
subsistence that occurred in the Caribbean
since the initial Amerindian diaspora some
6,000 years ago were affected by (potential) increased emphasis/reliance on cultivated food crops concomitant with a maritime subsistence base (Newsom and Wing
2004). With the onset of the Ceramic period
c. 500 BC, there is the tacit and/or demonstrated assumption for an increased focus
towards horticulture and gardens (Newsom
and Wing 2004).
The identification of food resources is
fundamental to interpreting the prehistoric
subsistence economy and zooarchaeological
assemblages are important contributions to
the development of a compendium of foods
available or consumed given a host of preservation and other issues (e.g., Newsom and
Wing 2004). Many of the plant foods utilized
by Amerindians in prehistory simply may
not be preserved unless carbonized (e.g.,
root crops). New methods for identifying
patterns of subsistence, such as the identification of plant-based foods through starch
analysis of dental calculus preserved in human remains (e.g., Mickleburgh and PagánJiménez 2012) or residue analysis of ceramic pots associated with the cooking of
food (e.g., VanderVeen 2007), are developing apace in the Caribbean. These and other
approaches (e.g., Fitzpatrick and Ross 2010;
Hofman et al. 2008b; Hofman and van Duijvenbode 2011) offer tremendous potential
to augment and refine site-specific patterns
of human paleodiet reconstruction and address lingering questions that may inform regional trends in circum-Caribbean contexts.
of paleodietary analysis. Preserved bone
collagen and bone apatite are two fractions
well suited to stable isotope ratio analysis
because these tissues collectively reflect the
isotopic composition of foods consumed
(Ambrose 1993; Ambrose and Norr 1993;
Froehle et al. 2010; Jim et al. 2004). Based on
the premise “you are what you eat,” the light
stable isotope ratios of carbon (13C/12C)
and nitrogen (15N/14N) derived from bone
collagen and carbon (13C/12C) derived from
bone apatite help characterize average
individual diet in the past (Ambrose 1993;
Kellner and Schoeninger 2007; Lee-Thorp
2008; Schwarcz and Schoeninger 1991).
Bone is a suitable tissue for analysis because
it incorporates all aspects of diet into its
tissues (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates).
Thus, diet and its constituent parts, as
the substrate or starting point, becomes
incorporated into consumer tissues as the
product following various fractionation
rates or patterns of enrichment or depletion
(Schoeninger 1995). There are systematic
relationships between diet and consumer
tissues, although these may be complicated
by factors such as physiology and preferred
habitat (Koch 2007). Through various fractionation steps that occur between tissues
within and between primary producers
and their consumers, patterns of isotopic
enrichment allow for paleodietary discrimination based on the stable isotope ratios
of consumer tissue compared to baseline
stable isotope ratios of basic food groups.
Stable isotope ratios are conventionally
reported in delta notation (δ) in parts per
thousand, or per mil (). Stable isotope ratios of prepared samples are analyzed on an
isotope ratio mass spectrometer and are compared to standards of known isotopic composition. For carbon, the standard is PDB (Craig
1953) and for nitrogen, the standard is AIR
(Mariotti 1983). Measurements are made using the following equations:
STABLE ISOTOPE RATIO ANALYSIS
δ 13 C =
Stable isotope ratios from human bone
provide fresh, independent data that complement both traditional and novel methods
δ 15 N =
13
C/12 Csample −13 C/12 CPDB
× 1000
13 C/12 C
PDB
15
N/14 Nsample −15 N/14 NAIR
× 1000
15 N/14 N
AIR
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John Krigbaum et al.
Bone isotope values are remodeled during life, and therefore measured stable isotope ratios in an individual’s bone tissues
represent an average proxy of consumer diet
for each individual sampled. With bone collagen, stable isotope ratios of carbon (δ 13Cco )
and nitrogen (δ 15N) are known to reflect the
protein component of individual diet (e.g.,
Hedges and van Klinken 2000; Jim et al.
2004), while stable isotope ratios of carbon
(δ 13Cap ) derived from bone apatite, or structural carbonate, reflects ‘total’ diet (Ambrose
and Norr 1993; Jim et al. 2004; Krueger and
Sullivan 1984).
Stable Isotopes of Carbon
Carbon principally resides in the ocean
and is actively exchanged via CO2 between
the atmosphere and terrestrial systems and
surface ocean waters (Peterson and Fry
1987). Isotopes in terrestrial ecosystems
are inherently related to plant physiology
and how plants incorporate CO2 via photosynthesis. C3 plants and C4 plants are
isotopically distinct due to differences in
how these plants have adapted to fix atmospheric CO2 (δ 13C = −7) into their tissues (O’Leary 1988). Plants that follow the
C3 photosynthetic pathway include temperate herbs, shrubs, tubers, and trees, and have
mean δ 13C values of −28.5, whereas C4
plants have mean δ 13C values of −14.0
(Kohn 2010), and include arid-adapted tropical grasses such as maize (Zea mays) which
can be quite enriched, isotopically, with
δ 13C values approaching −10.0. Plants
that follow the CAM photosynthetic pathway are intermediate in δ 13C value and include succulents, epiphytes, and bromeliads.
These isotopic distinctions (δ 13C values) between plants are maintained in foodwebs,
as plants are consumed by primary consumers, secondary consumers, etc. There is
slight trophic enrichment with δ 13C values
c. 1 per trophic level between plants and
subsequent consumers (Schoeninger et al.
1983).
Marine-based systems incorporate carbon through dissolved carbonate in ocean
214
water (δ 13C = 0) rather than atmospheric
CO2 . As a result, marine foodwebs are enriched in 13C relative to terrestrial C3 systems, although not usually as enriched as
C4 systems. The extensive foodweb characteristic of marine ecosystems, and the slight
trophic effect observed with δ 13C, has facilitated distinctions between marine versus
terrestrial-based populations with respect to
their preferred subsistence (e.g., Chisholm
et al. 1982; Richards et al. 2003; Schoeninger
et al. 1983; Tauber 1981). Marine plants such
as seaweed and kelp may be isotopically
more similar to C4 plants and have more
enriched δ 13C values than C3 plants. Similarly, higher trophic level marine fish and
mammals are enriched in 13C and have less
negative δ 13C values as a result (Chisholm
et al. 1982; Schoeninger and DeNiro 1984;
Schoeninger et al. 1983; Tauber 1981).
Stable Isotopes of Nitrogen
Nitrogen resides principally in the atmosphere (N2 ) and is transferred to the biosphere by specialized organisms via bacterial
breakdown of detritus, producing soil nitrates and ammonium that plants then uptake. Plants that fix atmospheric N2 , such as
legumes, tend to have relatively low δ 15N values (∼0) similar to AIR (Mariotti 1983),
compared to plants that do not fix atmospheric N2 , which have more positive δ 15N
values. Although somewhat variable across
systems, and complex due to vagaries of protein input, habitat, and physiological stress,
δ 15N provides a rough measure of protein
consumption (Koch 2007). There is about a
3 trophic effect with δ 15N (Schoeninger
and DeNiro 1984; Schoeninger et al. 1983);
however, this has been shown to be more
varied depending upon particular ecological
contexts.
Trophic enrichment of δ 15N is most
pronounced in marine settings due to
the extreme food web characteristic of
pelagic systems (Minagawa and Wada 1984;
Schoeninger et al. 1983). It is important to
note that there are some important exceptions, including adaptations to arid, desertic
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Human Paleodiet at Grand Bay, Lesser Antilles
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environments affecting animal metabolism
and δ 15N (Koch 2007), and marine coastal areas where blue-green algae fix atmospheric
N2 (Capone and Carpenter 1982). Keegan
and DeNiro (1988) highlight the extensive
fixation of atmospheric N2 in their isotopic
study of food resources in the Bahamas,
emphasizing observations that reef-based
ecosystems will exhibit lower than expected
δ 15N values for consumers of food items in
these environments.
Paleodiet Reconstruction
Stable isotope ratios may identify trends
that are diachronic (e.g., Richards et al. 2003)
or synchronic (e.g., Ambrose et al. 2003)
with respect to changes and/or differences
in prehistoric subsistence regimes. Indeed,
the first studies to use these methods archaeologically focused on the introduction of
maize, a C4 cultigen, into the eastern Woodlands of northeastern North America where
Amerindians subsisted on a diet of C3 plants
and their consumers (van der Merwe and Vogel 1978). Also in the late 1970s, comple-
mentary work examining dietary enrichment
of δ 13C and δ 15N values in animal foodwebs
(DeNiro and Epstein 1978, 1981) allowed
for the method to become firmly established
in paleodietary research (Schoeninger and
DeNiro 1984; Schoeninger et al. 1983). Since
that time, the isotopic ecology of various
foodwebs are becoming better characterized
and the analytical methods using various biological tissues are now well formalized (e.g.,
Ambrose 1993).
Figure 2 provides a modern baseline
of circum-Caribbean dietary items that have
been adjusted by 1.5 due to modern input of 13C to the atmosphere due to burning,
etc. (Norr 2002; Tieszen 1991). This bivariate plot provides a snapshot of major food
groups and how they are isotopically distinct
from other such groups. It should be clear
that the higher the δ 15N value, the higher
the trophic level even in different types of
marine systems. Thus, with reef-based systems, although the extent of δ 15N would be
dampened due to dietary inputs from reefbased food resources (Keegan and DeNiro
1988), diets dependent on marine foods are
still more elevated (or comparable) than
Figure 2. Baseline bivariate plot of isotope data from circum-Caribbean region, based on published
data, δ 13C adjusted by 1.5 following Tieszen (1999). Adapted from Norr (2002).
JOURNAL OF ISLAND & COASTAL ARCHAEOLOGY
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John Krigbaum et al.
diets with significant C3 or C4 terrestrial input. With respect to C3 vs. C4 plants, the potential for maize consumption would be evident with less negative δ 13C values, though
there is clearly an overlap with marine-based
foods and those of C4 plants, such as maize.
Stable isotope ratios have interpretative
power, and this is particularly true with δ 13C
values from both bone collagen and bone apatite fractions (Ambrose and Norr 1993). For
example, since δ 13Cco primarily reflects dietary protein while δ 13Cap reflects total diet
(Ambrose and Norr 1993; Jim et al. 2004;
Krueger and Sullivan 1984), then the spacing between bone apatite δ 13C and bone collagen δ 13C (the absolute difference in stable
isotope ratio—Cap-co ) may be used to estimate the source in the diet. Based on lab
experiments (Ambrose and Norr 1993), that
have since been replicated and/or confirmed
(e.g., Jim et al. 2004; Kellner and Schoeninger
2007), the protein portion of diet, reflected
in δ 13Cco values may be compared to total diet
δ 13Cap values such that the isotopic character of the principle carbohydrate source (C3
vs. C4 ) may be discerned.
CARIBBEAN PALEODIET STUDIES
Several studies in the Caribbean have examined human paleodiet using stable isotope
ratio analysis of human bone. Keegan and
DeNiro (1988; see also Schoeninger et al.
1983) provided the first detailed dietary reconstruction using bone collagen δ 13C and
δ 15N in the Bahamas archipelago focusing
on Lucayan Taino diet. They sampled and
analyzed a wide variety of vertebrate and invertebrate fauna and flora (both endemic and
exotic) and established a solid baseline for interpretation of their human results. Not surprisingly, their conclusions supported the
importance of a marine-based economy. A
critical finding in their study (that extends
beyond the Caribbean) was that depleted
δ 15N values in human bone collagen (i.e.,
lower than expected δ 15N values) were a result of dependence upon food resources collected in shallow-water reef systems, where
blue green algae are known to fix atmospheric N2 (Capone and Carpenter 1982).
216
Comparisons with data from marine system
contexts that lack shallow reef communities
must take such variables into account, particularly when examining variability in δ 15N
values.
Van Klinken (1991) conducted dissertation research focused on materials recovered
from a number of Caribbean sites (Curaçao,
Aruba, St. Eustatius, Saba, Puerto Rico, and
Surinam) with express interest in examining the isotopic analysis of amino acids in
bone collagen for more accurate radiocarbon age estimations. With his methods, he
generated δ 13C and δ 15N values from human bone which allowed him to investigate patterns of human paleodiet (preceramic vs. Ceramic-associated) in the circumCaribbean. He identified broad patterns of
isotopic variation in the region, however,
much of the stable isotope ratios from bone
collagen reported in van Klinken (1991) was
associated with C:N ratios outside of the
acceptable range (2.9–3.6) as outlined by
DeNiro (1985), which limits their utility in
comparative analysis.
Building upon van Klinken’s (1991)
regional approach, Stokes (1998) adapted
a similar circum-Caribbean scale, sampling
baseline fauna and flora and human remains
from a number of sites on islands in the
Bahamas, the Greater Antilles, and the Lesser
Antilles. Stokes (1998) outlined basic temporal and spatial patterns between sites and
highlighted the importance of island context, size, and ecology to the isotopic variation observed. Essentially, the data demonstrated that larger islands suggested greater
terrestrial-based resources in the human diet,
whereas smaller island-based populations
tended to exhibit a greater maritime-based
diet. Her study emphasizes the various factors that influence foods available to resident
populations. One useful case study by Norr
(2002) presented data from early and late
Ceramic Age–associated individuals recovered from the site of Tutu on St. Thomas, US
Virgin Islands. On this relatively small island
(80 km2), a mixed dietary regime was identified based on isotopic analysis of both bone
collagen and bone apatite isotopic data.
Most recently, Pestle (2010a, 2010b;
Pestle and Colvard 2012) conducted a
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Human Paleodiet at Grand Bay, Lesser Antilles
thorough analysis of several ceramicassociated sites in Puerto Rico including
Punta Candelero, Tibes, and Paso del Indio,
the latter also sampled by Stokes (1998,
2005). Results from these studies, support
the isotopic findings from larger islands
in the Caribbean, albeit with significant
intra- and intersite variation (Pestle 2010a).
Human populations adapt more readily to
terrestrial conditions on larger islands, while
incorporating, to various degrees components of a maritime subsistence economy.
There is also the added complexity that
based on isotopic evidence, populations inhabiting larger islands, such as Puerto Rico,
may have utilized C4 crops such as maize
(e.g., Pestle 2010a, 2010b; Stokes 2005).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
To examine paleodiet for prehistoric Carriacouans, 15 human bone samples recovered
from 14 discrete burials at Grand Bay were
selected for study and processed in the Bone
Chemistry Lab, Department of Anthropology, University of Florida. Individual burials
sampled are estimated to date to post–AD
1000 (Fitzpatrick et al. 2009a), during the
later stages of occupation on Carriacou. It is
important to note that while only two burials
at Grand Bay have been directly dated thus
far, there is a possibility that some may date
slightly earlier based on their context within
both midden and household deposits. Nonpathological phalanges or ribs were targeted
for isotopic analysis, although one fibula fragment and one cranial fragment were also sampled (Table 1).
Cortical bone for all samples was mechanically scraped of debris and whole
bone samples were sonicated in distilleddeionized water (DI-H2 0) prior to being
crushed with mortar and pestle. Ground
bone was then sieved into different size fractions for bone collagen (0.25–0.5 mm) and
bone apatite (<0.25 mm) analysis.
The 0.25–0.5 mm bone collagen fraction was weighed (c. 1 gm) and added to
a fritted disk funnel with silver wool outfitted with a Teflon stopcock. About 40 ml of
0.1 M hydrochloric acid (HCl) was added to
each sample, and refreshed with new HCl
every 24 hrs until samples were thoroughly
demineralized (c. 4–7 days). Samples were
then rinsed with DI-H2 0 to neutral pH and c.
40 ml of 0.125 M sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
was added to remove organic contaminants
and humic acids. Samples were then solubilized in 10−3 M HCl at 95◦ C, spiked with
10 μl of 1 M HCl, and then transferred to a
20 ml scintillation vial and reduced at 60◦ C to
c. 2 ml. Purified bone collagen samples were
then lyophilized (freeze-dried) for 72 hours,
and percent carbon and nitrogen was determined prior to mass spectrometry using a
Carlo Erba elemental CHN analyzer with results converted to atomic ratios using the formula (%C/%N) × 1.16667. All bone collagen
samples had good C:N ratios, and were subsequently weighed and loaded in tin capsules
and analyzed on a Finnigan MAT DeltaPlus
isotope ratio mass spectrometer in the Stable
Isotope Lab, Department of Geological Sciences, University of Florida. δ 13C and δ 15N
were measured against PDB and AIR standards, respectively, and precision for both
was >0.2.
Bone apatite samples, the finer fraction
<0.25 mm, were weighed (c. 50 mg) into
a 15 ml centrifuge tube and chemically oxidized in a 50:50 solution of DI-H2 0 and
sodium hypochlorite, or bleach (NaOHCl).
Samples were then rinsed to neutral pH with
DI-H2 0 neutralized and c. 12 ml of 0.1 M
acetic acid (CH3 COOH) was added to the
sample for 16 hours to strip the apatite of
adsorbed secondary carbonates. Excess solution was removed, and samples were rinsed
to neutral pH with DI-H2 0 and lyophilized for
72 hrs. Pretreated bone apatite sample was
weighed and loaded into a Kiel device connected to a Finnigan 252 mass spectrometer
in the Department of Geological Sciences,
University of Florida for δ 13C determination
against the PDB standard.
RESULTS
Individual isotopic results and summary
statistics are presented in Table 1. Fifteen
samples in total were assayed (14 individuals) and all produced good bone collagen
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Table 1. Stable isotope data for 14 individuals sampled from Grand Bay, Carriacou, Lesser Antilles.
Find no.
03CAR000095
04CGB000025
04CGB000022
04CGB000388
04CGB000390
05CGB001024
06CGB001121
06CGB001145
07CGB001230
07CGB001307
07CGB001375
07CGB001419
07CGB001444
08CGB001660
08CGB001616
Feature Trench
no.
no.
F0001
F0001
F0003
F0083
F0084
F0088
F0123
F0124
F0131
F0130
F0093
F0128
F0132
F0164
F0164
625
625
865
835
417
865
776
865
805
925
476
865
415
563
563
Sex,
age
F, Adult
“
?M, 10–14 yrs
M, Adult
F, 20–25 yrs
M, 25–35 yrs
M, Adult
F, Adult
?, 10–14 yrs∗
F, mid-Adult
M, 14–15 yrs
?F, ?Adult
F, Adult
?M, Adult
?M, Adult
Bone
sampled
%N
Phalange
Rib frag.
Fibula frag.
Phalange
Rib frag.
Phalange
Rib frag.
Rib frag.
Phalange
Rib frag.
Rib frag.
Rib frag.
Rib frag.
Cranial frag.
Rib
15.2
12.6
13.3
14.8
14.6
14.2
13.2
12.0
14.3
12.1
9.1
12.3
13.7
13.1
11.0
%C
41.6
35.9
37.7
41.7
41.1
38.8
37.5
34.5
39.7
35.3
27.1
35.3
38.4
37.3
32.1
Mean:
Standard deviation:
C:N δ 13Cco δ 13Cco δ 15Nco δ 15Nco δ 13Cap δ 13Cap 13Cap-co 13Cap-co
3.3
3.2
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.2
3.4
3.5
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.4
−13.3
−13.8
−12.9
−11.7
−11.8
−12.7
−12.5
−15.2
−13.2
−12.9
−12.4
−12.0
−12.4
−11.9
−12.8
0.9
N = 6 (F & ?F)
N = 7 (M & ?M)
N = 1 (? Sex)∗ Outlier for δ 13Cco & 13Cap-co
N = 14 (N = 13 less “outlier”)
Mean (less “outlier”): −12.6
Standard deviation (less “outlier”):
0.6
−13.4
11.9
−13.3
11.6
11.7
10.4
10.6
11.6
11.4
10.8
11.0
10.8
11.3
10.4
11.1
10.8
11.1
0.5
11.1
0.5
11.8
12.0
−8.9
−8.5
−9.3
4.4
−8.5
−9.8
−8.4
−8.6
−8.1
−8.2
−8.0
−8.5
−9.8
−8.2
−7.7
−8.8
−9.0
−8.6
0.6
5.2
3.1
3.3
3.1
4.6
4.2
7.2
4.7
3.0
4.2
4.3
3.6
3.0
4.1
1.1
−8.7
0.6
3.9
0.8
4.9
3.9
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Human Paleodiet at Grand Bay, Lesser Antilles
yields with acceptable C:N ratios between
2.9–3.6 (mean 3.3) suggesting the data are
suitable for paleodietary inference (DeNiro
1985). One individual (F0001) was analyzed
two times (phalange, rib fragment) and its
results are averaged. With respect to Carriacou bone collagen, δ 13Cco values averaged
−12.8 ( ± 0.9), ranging from −15.2 to
−11.7 while δ 15N values averaged 11.1
( ± 0.5), ranging from 10.4 to 12.0.
Bone apatite δ 13Cap values averaged −8.6
( ± 0.6), ranging from −9.3 to −7.7,
while 13Cap-co spacing averaged 4.1
( ± 1.1), ranging from 3.0 to 7.2.
There are no significant isotopic differences
between male/?male and female/?female individuals sampled, suggesting that diet did
not vary by biological sex.
The one unsexed subadult sampled,
F0131, is an isotopic “outlier” with a δ 13Cco
value of −15.2 and 13Cap-co spacing of
7.2, although its δ 15N value (10.8) and
δ 13Cap value (−8.0) are broadly comparable. Removing this individual from the rest of
the sample provides a more accurate average
of the Carriacou population, lowering the
average δ 13Cco value to −12.6 ( ± 0.6),
while the δ 15N mean 11.2 ( ± 0.5) and
δ 13Cap mean −8.6 ( ± 0.6) remain essentially the same. The lower δ 13Cco value
associated with F0131 increases its observed
13Cap-co spacing (7.2), compared to the
rest of the sample. Excluding this outlier individual lowers the Carriacou 13Cap-co average to 3.9 ( ± 0.8). This individual’s protein source was substantially different from
other individuals analyzed at Grand Bay, and
although an unsexed subadult, its juvenile
status (10–14 years) would not normally influence the observed lower δ 13Cco value.
DISCUSSION
The Grand Bay stable isotope data permit
important intersite comparisons with similar
studies in the circum-Caribbean. Although
this study does not include baseline isotopic
data derived from the local Carriacou
foodweb, it can be constructive to assess
isotopic variation between islands and island
populations that are near contemporaneous
(i.e., Terminal Saladoid and Troumassoid
periods).
Comparative Sites
The study by Keegan and DeNiro (1988)
provides important human data from various
islands in the Bahamas archipelago [Grand
Bahama (n = 2), Abaco (n = 1), Eleuthera
(n = 3), Rum Cay (n = 1), San Salvador
(n = 2), Long Island (n = 1), Crooked Island
(n = 4), Providenciales, Turks, and Caicos
Islands (n = 2)]. In total, they sampled 18
individuals identified archaeologically as Lucayan Taino, plus one individual for comparison from Puerto Rico. Keegan and DeNiro
(1988) focused on bone collagen and reported δ 13C and δ 15N data only. Individuals
were sampled from diverse contexts across
the Bahamas and data were not surprisingly
varied, but, with the important observation
that δ 15N values tended to be lower than expected for people inferred to receive the bulk
of their protein from marine-based food resources. Stokes (1998) re-analyzed 6 of the
original 18 samples [Abaco (n = 1), Eleuthera
(n = 2), Long Island (n = 1), and Crooked Island (n = 2)] and sampled two additional individuals not sampled by Keegan and DeNiro
(1988), one from Crooked Island and another
from Rum Cay.
Norr (2002) presented data from the
site of Tutu, St. Thomas, US Virgin Islands
in the northern Lesser Antilles (Leeward Islands). Although her samples were divided
temporally into early period AD 450–960
(n = 8) and late period AD 1170–1535 (n =
17) groups (Sandford et al. 2002), no significant isotopic differences were observed between the two groups, and thus the site sample was treated as a single unit (Norr 2002).
Like Stokes (1998), Norr (2002) sampled and
analyzed both bone collagen and bone apatite fractions. In Figures 3–5 and Table 2,
two burials are excluded from the Tutu site
mean, one (#13A) due to low yields and a second (#26) identified as an outlier based on its
δ 13Cap value and large 13Cap-co spacing.
Laffoon and de Vos (2011) present new
stable isotope data building on data reported
in Stokes (1998) for Anse à la Gourde,
Guadaloupe. Combining these two data sets
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John Krigbaum et al.
Figure 3. Bivariate plot of bone collagen δ 13Cco and δ 15N values for Carriacou samples. Mean values
for Carriacou (X) and comparative sites plotted ± 1 standard deviation (color figure
available online).
Figure 4. Bivariate plot of bone collagen δ 13Cco vs. bone apatite δ 13Cap values for Carriacou samples.
Mean values for Carriacou (X) and comparative sites plotted ± 1 standard deviation
(color figure available online).
220
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Human Paleodiet at Grand Bay, Lesser Antilles
Figure 5. Scatterplot of bone collagen δ 15N vs. 13Cap-co spacings for Carriacou samples. Mean values
for Carriacou (X) and comparative sites plotted ± 1 standard deviation (color figure
available online).
makes intuitive sense, although they acknowledge concerns regarding the comparability of δ 15N values between the two studies. Omitting samples outside of the 2.9–3.6
C:N range (DeNiro, 1985), Laffoon and de
Vos (2011) list 23 samples suitable for comparison (less one duplicate run, #350), plus
two from Stokes (1998), less one individual
run twice and averaged here. Thus, a total of
n = 42 samples are available for comparison
for bone collagen δ 13C and δ 15N. Combining
their data, Laffoon and de Vos (2011) report
a mean δ 13Cco value of −14.9 ( ± 0.8,
n = 23) that is not significantly different from
the δ 13Cco mean of −14.6 ( ± 0.9, n =
20) reported by Stokes (1998). Laffoon and
de Vos (2011) report a mean δ 15N value of
11.2 ( ± 0.5, n = 23) which is significantly
different from Stoke’s (1998) δ 15N mean of
10.5 ( ± 0.5, n = 20). Laffoon and de Vos
(2011) do note this trend or offset does not
affect their intrasite analysis; however, intersite comparisons using δ 15N data may be affected. As discussed below, δ 15N variability
is significant depending upon the ecological
context of Caribbean islands and associated
exploitation of reef-based food resources.
Both Stokes (1998, 2005) and Pestle
(2010a, 2010b; Pestle and Colvard 2012) report isotopic data from prehistoric sites on
Puerto Rico. Stokes (1998, 2005) isotopically
analyzed bone associated with burials from
Maisabel (n = 18) and Paso del Indio (n = 11),
while Pestle (2010b) analyzed burial bone
from Paso del Indio (n = 85), Punta Candelero (n = 50) and Tibes (n = 46). These
sites are all Ceramic Age, and broadly similar. Indeed, a principle reason these sites are
included as comparison to the Carriacou data
is that people inhabiting large islands are isotopically influenced more by the terrestrial
component of the foodweb, even if there
is compelling evidence for a marine component. There is also the potential input into
the diet of C4 food resources such as maize,
rather than dependence upon marine food
resources. This is in contrast to people inhabiting smaller islands, such as Carriacou,
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222
Table 2. Descriptive statistics for the Carriacou sample (less “outlier” F0131) and comparative sites in The Bahamas, Greater Antilles,
northern Lesser Antilles (Leeward Islands) and southern Lesser Antilles (Windward Islands).
Island (Site)
N
δ 13Cco (‰, PDB) δ 15Nco (‰, AIR) δ 13Cap (‰, PDB) 13Cap-co (‰, PDB)
Bahamas
Misc. Islands/Sites
19
−13.2 ± 1.6
(−15.9 to −9.6)
−13.5 ± 1.2
(−15.3 to −12.3)
9.8 ± 1.2
(6.5 to 11.3)
10.2 ± 1.0
(8.3 to 11.3)
−10.2 ± 1.4
(−11.4 to −7.7)
3.0 ± 1.3
(1.4 to 4.5)
−18.1 ± 1.0
(−19.5 to −15.7)
50
−17.5 ± 1.0
(−19.1 to −15.3)
85
−19.1 ± 0.5
(−20.5 to −17.4)
46
−17.6 ± 0.6
(−18.7 to −16.1)
9.6 ± 0.8
(7.3 to 11.3)
9.9 ± 0.9
(8.3 to 11.9)
9.8 ± 0.9
(7.8 to 12.0)
9.5 ± 0.7
(7.9 to 10.6)
−10 ± 0.9
(−11.7 to −8.6)
−8.3 ± 1.2
(−10.7 to −4.7)
−9.4 ± 1.1
(−12.4 to −6.7)
−8.6 ± 1.0
(−10.7 to −6.8)
8.1 ± 1.0
(6.5 to 9.7)
9.16 ± 1.6
(4.9 to 12.8)
9.7 ± 1.3
(6.6 to 12.3)
9.0 ± 1.2
(6.7 to 11.5)
23∗
12.1 ± 0.9
(10.1 to 13.4)
10.9 ± 0.7
(9.6 to 12.1)
10.4 ± 0.5
(9.5 to 11.9)
−10.5 ± 0.8
(−11.8 to −8.4)
5.0 ± 1.2
(2.1 to 7.5)
−8.2 ± 1.4
(−11.0 to −5.8)
6.4 ± 1.5
(2.8 to 8.5)
11.1 ± 0.5
(10.4 to 11.9)
−8.7 ± 0.6
(−9.8 to −7.7)
3.9 ± 0.8
(3.0 to 5.2)
7∗
Greater Antilles
Puerto Rico (Maisabel)
Puerto Rico (Punta Candelero)
Puerto Rico (Paso del Indio)
Puerto Rico (Tibes)
Lesser Antilles
Leeward Islands
St. Thomas (Tutu)
18
−15.4 ± 0.8
(−17.3 to −12.9)
Guadaloupe (Anse à la Gourde) 42
−14.8 ± 0.8
(−16.8 to −12.6)
20
−14.6 ± 0.9
(−16.7 to −12.6)
Windward Islands
−12.6 ± 0.6
Carriacou (Grand Bay)
13∗
(−13.8 to −11.7)
Date
Reference
A.D. 700–1513
1, 2
2
A.D. 450–1100
2, 3
A.D. 400–600
4
A.D. 900–1200
4
A.D. 400–1200
4
A.D. 450–960;
A.D. 1170–1535
A.D. 450–1350
5
6, 2
2
Post–AD 1000
References: 1: Keegan and DeNiro (1988); 2: Stokes (1998); 3: Stokes (2005); 4: Pestle (2010b); 5: Norr (2002); Sandford et al. (2002);
6: Laffoon and de Vos (2011). Data from Refs 2, 3, and 4 rounded to first decimal space. ∗ Outlier not included in these summary statistics.
Human Paleodiet at Grand Bay, Lesser Antilles
where the subsistence base is assumed to be
exclusively or more heavily marine, based on
recovered zooarchaeological evidence (Fitzpatrick et al. 2009a; Giovas 2009; LeFebvre
2007).
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CARRIACOU AND COMPARATIVE SITES
IN THE CARIBBEAN
Carriacou data points are plotted with comparative site means ( ± 1 SD) in Figures 3–
5, and descriptive statistics of comparative
sites and the Carriacou sample, not including the isotopic “outlier” (F0131), are presented in Table 2. With respect to Figure 3,
all eight Caribbean contexts reflect high to
very high marine protein in their diet. The
Tutu site sample is most enriched in δ 15N,
Anse à la Gourde and Carriacou are similar,
and the Bahamas and Puerto Rico are broadly
similar, isotopically. As illustrated by Keegan
and DeNiro (1988), reef-based ecosystems
are characterized by N2 -fixing blue-green algae, which lowers δ 15N values substantially
compared to those regions that lack reef
environments. Puerto Rico δ 15N values are
moderate but for different reasons compared
to the predominantly marine-based Bahamas
sample. Thus, the δ 13Cco assists in clarifying
that pattern, with the 13C enriched sample
of Bahamas and Carriacou less negative because each lacks a significant terrestrial C3
input, as exemplified by the four Puerto Rico
samples plotted. Tutu and Anse à la Gourde
are intermediate in δ 13Cco value as they are
sites on islands with probable/presumed access to terrestrial C3 resources. Taken collectively, these are C3 -based feeders in a marine
world. The Carriacou sample (less the outlier), however, shows an interesting negative correlation [y = −0.6431x + 3.0514,
R2 = 0.58341]. This strongly suggests dietary input from either maize (which has
been reported for other islands in the Bahamas and Greater Antilles [e.g., Berman and
Pearsall 2008; Lane et al. 2008; Mickleburgh
and Pagán-Jiménez 2012]), or similarly enriched marine invertebrates with low δ 15N
and high δ 13C. Interestingly, Fitzpatrick et al.
(2009a) and Giovas (2009) report the dominant invertebrate recovered at Grand Bay is
the gastropod Nerita spp., which has characteristic isotope signatures (low δ 15N, high
δ 13C) reported by Keegan and DeNiro (1988)
that would be expected to simulate C4 -like
foods in the diet, such as maize (see Norr
1991, 1995).
Figure 4 plots δ 13Cap of Carriacou and
comparative site means ( ± 1 SD). Bone apatite δ 13Cap reflects total diet. Carriacou and
Anse à la Gourde are broadly comparable
and enriched in 13C relative to Tutu and the
Bahamas sample. The Puerto Rico sites show
similar variation with marine input from invertebrate and vertebrate species, but the
observed isotope variation is likely due to
differences including adaptations to greater
proportions of terrestrial foods (including
maize, potentially. For the Lesser Antilles and
Bahamas samples, however, the enriched
sites (higher δ 13Cap values) suggest total dietary input that is both less terrestrial C3 with
increased input of marine molluscs, such as
Nerita spp.
Figure 5 plots δ 15N against 13Cap-co
spacings for the eight sites including the
Carriacou sample. Here, sample sites are
distinguished with C3 terrestrial groups in
the intermediate monoisotopic diets and
the Bahamas, Carriacou, and Tutu samples
positively correlated with one another.
Anse à la Gourde is intermediate between
Puerto Rico terrestrial-based sites and the
reef-based Bahamas and Carriacou samples.
This positive relationship suggests that the
degree of reef-based subsistence varies by
island/archipelago in the Lesser Antilles,
and that Anse à la Gourde is substantially
different from the other sites either with
respect to physical geography and/or diet
of its population. The isotopic outlier at
Carriacou seems to fit most consistently,
with respect to diet, with the Anse à la
Gourde population and thus we concur with
Laffoon and de Vos (2011) that light stable
isotope outliers may be useful in identifying
local and non-local individuals at a given site.
CONCLUSIONS
Overall, the stable isotopic data from Carriacou, the first of its kind in the southern
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John Krigbaum et al.
Lesser Antilles, support the zooarchaeological record from Grand Bay (e.g., LeFebvre
2007) in which there was a heavy focus
on marine resource procurement during the
Late Ceramic Age (post–AD 1000). While it is
presently unclear whether all of the human
burials found at Grand Bay date to this temporal span, our results nonetheless suggest
that paleodietary signatures were consistent
among age and sex grades. Future research
will be dedicated toward building an isotopic
baseline for the southern Lesser Antilles to
see how it compares with the Bahamas and
other circum-Caribbean regions. Work will
also target additional remains recovered both
in previous years and in the 2011 field season,
several of which (Kaye et al. 2011) exhibit
unique mortuary behaviors unseen in earlier
work.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Quetta Kaye and Michiel Kappers, Co-Directors of the Carriacou Archaeological Field Project (CAFP), Scott Burnett (Eckerd College), the Carriacou Historical Society Museum, and the Ministry of
Tourism on Carriacou. Kara Casto (University of South Florida) helped in the
preparation of the samples. Graduate students in the Bone Chemistry Lab, (Anthropology, University of Florida) are gratefully
acknowledged for their assistance, and Jason Curtis (Geological Sciences, University
of Florida) conducted the mass spectrometry. We are grateful to Will Pestle and
Anne Stokes for their permission to use
unpublished data from their dissertations,
and Stanley Ambrose, Susan deFrance, Jason Laffoon, and Michelle LeFebvre for
helpful discussion. Lee Newsom and the
anonymous reviewers made excellent suggestions. Funding was provided by an undergraduate research award at NC State
University to Fitzpatrick and Bankaitis.
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