Civilizations and culture in the global political economy: Recent attempts to understand culture in the world system Samuel P. Huntington The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996 367 pp. + index; $26.00 hb. Stephen K. Sanderson, ed. Civilizatio...

Review of Radical Political Economics, 31(3): 1 1 0 - 1 2 2 All rights of r e p r o d u c t i o n in a n y form reserved. © 1999 b y URPE ISSN: 0 4 8 6 - 6 1 3 4 Book Reviews Essay C i v i l i z a t i o n s a n d C u l t u r e in t h e Global P o l i t i c a l E c o n o m y : R e c e n t A t t e m p t s to Understand Culture in t h e World S y s t e m S a m u e l P. H u n t i n g t o n The Clash o f C i v i l i z a t i o n s a n d the R e m a k i n g o f World Order N e w York: S i m o n a n d S c h u s t e r , 1 9 9 6 3 6 7 pp. + index; $ 2 6 . 0 0 hb. S t e p h e n K. S a n d e r s o n , ed. C i v i l i z a t i o n s a n d World S y s t e m s : S t u d y i n g WorldH i s t o r i c a l Change W a l n u t Creek, California: Alta Mira Press, 1 9 9 5 3 2 4 pp. + index; $ 2 4 . 9 5 pb., $ 4 6 . 0 0 hb. B a r r i e Ax~ford The Global S y s t e m : Economics, Politics, a n d Culture N e w York: St. Martin's Press, 1 9 9 5 2 5 0 pp. + index; $ 1 8 . 9 5 pb., $ 5 5 . 0 0 pb. R e f l e c t i n g o n h i s m o t i v e s for w r i t i n g h i s Theory of the Novel j u s t a s t h e F i r s t W o r l d W a r b r o k e o u t , G e o r g L u k & c s w r o t e : W h e n I t r i e d a t t h i s t i m e to p u t m y e m o t i o n a l a t t i t u d e into conscious terms, I arrived at more or less the following formulation: the Central Powers would p r o b a b l y d e f e a t R u s s i a ; t h i s m i g h t l e a d to t h e d o w n f a l l o f T s a r i s m ; I h a d n o o b j e c t i o n to t h a t . T h e r e w a s a l s o s o m e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e W e s t w o u l d d e f e a t G e r m a n y ; if this led to the downfall of the Hohenzollerns and the Hapsburgs, I was once again in favour. But then the I w o u l d like to a c k n o w l e d g e t h e t h o u g h t f u l c o m m e n t s a n d c r i t i c i s m s of Gigi H e r b e r t , Chris G u n n , a n d David A n d r e w s . I am, of course, r e s p o n s i b l e for a n y errors in fact or interpretation in this review. Book Reviews Essay q u e s t i o n a r o s e : w h o w a s to s a v e u s civilization? (Luk&cs 1 9 7 1 : 1 1 ) from Western Now, in t h i s fin de siecle d e c a d e , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n h a s c o l l a p s e d , and the market has become a practically irresistible "common s e n s e " f o r c e for o r d e r i n g v i r t u a l l y all s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d . W h i l e few m o u r n t h e p a s s i n g of r e p r e s s i v e b u r e a u c r a c i e s and command economies, these global historical changes have given n e w r e l e v a n c e to L u k ~ c s ' s q u e s t i o n . To a d d r e s s t h e c h a n g e s i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s y s t e m , a r e m a r k a b l e g l a s n o s t i n t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s of t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s h a s occurred. Formerly marginalized critical perspectives, such as p o s t m o d e r n i s m , f e m i n i s m , e v e n a n a p p r o a c h to t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l political economy inspired by Gramsci have gained institutional f o o t h o l d s . I n a d d i t i o n , for w e l l o v e r a g e n e r a t i o n i n s i g h t s a n d m e t h o d s d e v e l o p e d for a r a d i c a l p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m i c s h a v e b e e n b r o u g h t to b e a r o n p r o b l e m s of c u l t u r e . S c h o l a r s a n d a c t i v i s t s such as Harold Innis, Herbert Schiller, Armand and Michele M a t t e l a r t , N i c h o l a s G a r n h a m - - t h e list c o u l d go o n - - h a v e m a d e t h e c r i t i q u e of p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y c e n t r a l to t h e i r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t o c u l t u r e a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n . Similarly, t h e initial efforts to d e v e l o p a M a r x i s t c u l t u r a l m a t e r i a l i s m in t h e w o r k of R a y m o n d W i l l i a m s , E.P. T h o m p s o n , S t u a r t Hall, a n d o t h e r s d r e w t h e i r i m p e t u s f r o m t h e h i s t o r i c a l m a t e r i a l i s t c r i t i q u e of p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y . W i t h t h e q u a n t i t y of f r u i t f u l w o r k p r o d u c e d in t h i s a r e a , it m i g h t s e e m n a t u r a l to b e g i n to l o o k b a c k in t h e o t h e r d i r e c t i o n , to a s k if i n s i g h t s f o u n d i n t h e s t u d y of c u l t u r e c o u l d b e b r o u g h t to t h e s t u d y , or c r i t i q u e , of p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y . A p r o l i f e r a t i o n of b o o k s a n d a r t i c l e s , w r i t t e n in i d i o m s d e r i v e d f r o m d i v e r s e t h e o r e t i c a l a n d p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n s , e x p l o r e p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y , a s c u l t u r e or a s c i v i l i z a t i o n (for s o m e i n t e r e s t i n g e x a m p l e s , s e e S t r a n g e 1990, C o x 1 9 9 5 a n d 1 9 9 6 , a n d Gill 1995). H o w e v e r , m a n y of t h e p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m i s t s o r s p e c i a l i s t s in i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s w h o e x a m i n e c u l t u r e do so in a m o r e c o m f o r t a b l e i d i o m t h a n t h a t d e v e l o p e d for t h e c r i t i q u e of c u l t u r a l i m p e r i a l i s m or for c u l t u r a l m a t e r i a l i s m , a n i d i o m m o r e s u i t e d to d e s c r i p t i o n t h a n to c r i t i q u e , m o r e likely to reify s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l r e l a t i o n s t h a n to t r a n s f o r m t h e m . T y p i c a l of t h i s reifying a p p r o a c h is S a m u e l H u n t i n g t o n ' s b o o k The Clash o f Civilizations a n d the Remaking o f World Order. The Clash o f Civilizations e x p a n d s o n a w i d e l y d i s c u s s e d a r t i c l e h e w r o t e for Foreign Affairs in 1993. H u n t i n g t o n ' s m a i n p r o p o s i t i o n is t h a t : " c u l t u r e a n d c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t i e s , w h i c h at t h e b r o a d e s t level a r e c i v i l i z a t i o n a l i d e n t i t i e s , a r e s h a p i n g t h e p a t t e r n s of c o h e s i o n , d i s i n t e g r a t i o n , a n d c o n f l i c t in t h e p o s t - C o l d W a r w o r l d " (20). He r e j e c t s F u k u y a m a ' s " e n d of h i s t o r y " t h e s i s t h a t w i t h t h e e n d of t h e Cold War, liberalism has triumphed and no remaining conflicts a r e d e e p or s i g n i f i c a n t e n o u g h to drive h i s t o r y f o r w a r d . T h e r e a r e five c o r o l l a r i e s to H u n t i n g t o n ' s m a i n p r o p o s i t i o n : S e p t e m b e r 1999 111 R e v i e w of Radical Political Economics [First,] for t h e first t i m e in h i s t o r y g l o b a l politics is b o t h m u l t i p o l a r a n d m u l t i c i v i l i z a t i o n a l ; m o d e r n i z a t i o n is d i s t i n c t f r o m W e s t e r n i z a t i o n a n d is p r o d u c i n g n e i t h e r a u n i v e r s a l c i v i l i z a t i o n in a n y m e a n i n g f u l s e n s e n o r t h e W e s t e r n i z a t i o n of n o n - W e s t e r n s o c i e t i e s . [...Second,] t h e b a l a n c e of p o w e r a m o n g c i v i l i z a t i o n s is s h i f t i n g ; t h e W e s t is d e c l i n i n g in relative i n f l u e n c e ; A s i a n civilizations are expanding their economic, military, and political s t r e n g t h ; I s l a m is e x p l o d i n g d e m o g r a p h i c a l l y w i t h d e s t a b i l i z i n g c o n s e q u e n c e s for M u s l i m c o u n t r i e s a n d t h e i r n e i g h b o r s ; a n d n o n - W e s t e r n civilizations g e n e r a l l y a r e r e a f f i r m i n g t h e v a l u e of t h e i r o w n c u l t u r e s . [...Third,] a c i v i l i z a t i o n - b a s e d w o r l d o r d e r is e m e r g i n g : s o c i e t i e s sharing cultural affinities cooperate with each other; efforts to s h i f t s o c i e t i e s f r o m o n e civilization to a n o t h e r are unsuccessful; and countries group themselves a r o u n d t h e l e a d o r c o r e s t a t e s of t h e i r c i v i l i z a t i o n . [...Fourth,] the West's universalist pretensions increasi n g l y b r i n g it i n t o c o n f l i c t w i t h o t h e r civilizations, m o s t s e r i o u s l y w i t h I s l a m a n d C h i n a ; a t t h e local level f a u l t line wars, largely between Muslims and non-Muslims, g e n e r a t e " k i n - c o u n t r y r a l l y i n g , " t h e t h r e a t of b r o a d e r e s c a l a t i o n , a n d h e n c e efforts b y c o r e s t a t e s to h a l t t h e s e w a r s . [...Fifth,] t h e s u r v i v a l of t h e W e s t d e p e n d s o n Americans reaffirming their Western identity and Westerners accepting their civilization as unique, not u n i v e r s a l a n d u n i t i n g to r e n e w a n d p r e s e r v e it a g a i n s t c h a l l e n g e s f r o m n o n - W e s t e r n s o c i e t i e s . A v o i d a n c e of a g l o b a l w a r of c i v i l i z a t i o n s d e p e n d s o n w o r l d l e a d e r s a c c e p t i n g a n d c o o p e r a t i n g to m a i n t a i n t h e m u l t i c i v i l i z a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r of t h e global politics (20-21). Huntington's argument rehashes realpolitik: after the Cold War, t h e b a l a n c e of p o w e r will b e d e t e r m i n e d n o t s o m u c h o n i d e o l o g i c a l g r o u n d s , b u t r a t h e r o n t h e b a s i s of c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t i e s . T h e t h r e a t s to t h e W e s t will c o m e f r o m A s i a n c i v i l i z a t i o n u n d e r C h i n a ' s h e g e m o n y , a n d f r o m I s l a m i c civilization, w h i c h l a c k s a s t a t e s t r o n g e n o u g h to l e a d a c o a l i t i o n of s t a t e s , a n d will t h u s c r e a t e a t h r e a t f r o m l o w - i n t e n s i t y "fault line w a r s . " T h e p o l e s of H u n t i n g t o n ' s b a l a n c e of p o w e r w o r l d a r e deterr~iined by civilization, which he defines as "the broadest c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y , " or "a c u l t u r e w r i t large" (43, 41). A l t h o u g h h e relies o n a p l u r a l i s t n o t i o n of civilization, w h i c h is o n l y to s a y t h a t t h e w o r l d h a s v a r i o u s civilizations, h i s d e f i n i t i o n of t h e t e r m r e s t s o n t h e i d e a of C i v i l i z a t i o n i n t h e s i n g u l a r . T h i s l a t t e r u s e d a t e s from the Enlightenment, and describes both a progressive process a n d a n a c h i e v e d s t a t e of u r b a n i t y , s c i e n c e , a n d a w e l l - o r d e r e d 112 September 1999 Book Reviews Essay civic life. T h i s s e n s e of Civilization in t h e s i n g u l a r is t h e a n t o n y m of b a r b a r i s m or b a r b a r i t y : a l e s s d e v e l o p e d a n d , t h e r e f o r e , a l e s s d e s i r a b l e s t a t u s for a p e o p l e . T h e R o m a n t i c s r e a c t e d a g a i n s t t h i s u s a g e a n d p o s t u l a t e d t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n t w a y s of life of n o n - W e s t e r n p e o p l e w e r e n o l e s s civilized. R a t h e r t h e y c o n s t i t u t e d s e p a r a t e , d i s t i n c t c i v i l i z a t i o n s , g i v i n g t h e t e r m a m o r e n e u t r a l or r e l a t i v e t o n e ( 4 0 - 4 1 ; s e e a l s o W i l l i a m s 1976: 4 8 - 5 0 , a n d B r a u d e l 1980). C i v i l i z a t i o n i n t h e singular t h u s c a r r i e s b o t h t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t f a i t h in t h e i n f i n i t e p e r f e c t i b i l i t y of h u m a n s a n d in o u r c o m m o n h u m a n i t y , a l o n g w i t h t h e r a c i s t s e n s i b i l i t y of t h e " w h i t e m a n ' s b u r d e n . " C i v i l i z a t i o n s in t h e plural c a r r i e s t o l e r a n c e , p l u r a l i s m , and an anti-functionalist outlook on other cultures, along with a m o r a l r e l a t i v i s m t h a t m a k e s it d i f f i c u l t to c r i t i c i z e b a r b a r i c practices. These antimonies haunt Huntington's uncritical d e p l o y m e n t of t h e c o n c e p t of civilizations. Huntington's understanding of c u l t u r e a s t h e e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t of a civilization is i n a d e q u a t e . He first a s s e r t s t h a t c u l t u r e a n d civilization refer to t h e "overall w a y of life of a people" (41), b u t t h e n g o e s o n to l i m i t h i s c o n c e p t t o o n a r r o w l y : "[the] c e n t r a l e l e m e n t s of a n y c u l t u r e or c i v i l i z a t i o n a r e l a n g u a g e a n d religion" (59). T h i s d e f i n i t i o n m a k e s m a n y of H u n t i n g t o n ' s civilizational groupings somewhat curious and untenable. Islamic civilization p r o v i d e s t h e m o s t o b v i o u s e x a m p l e . Not o n l y a r e t h e l a n g u a g e s of M o r o c c o , I r a n , T u r k e y , a n d I n d o n e s i a t r e m e n d o u s l y d i v e r s e , so a l s o a r e t h e I s l a m i c beliefs a n d p r a c t i c e s . T h e p r o b l e m h e r e d o e s n o t lie p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h a n e m p h a s i s o n l a n g u a g e or religion, b u t rather with treating them as ideal, disembodied forces which construct and drive civilizations, Huntington's idealism obscures t h e m o s t c r u c i a l p a r t of h i s a t t e m p t a t a d e f i n i t i o n of c u l t u r e , a s a n " o v e r a l l w a y of life of a p e o p l e . " S u c h a n o v e r a l l w a y of life d e p e n d s f i r s t a n d f o r e m o s t o n t h e p r a c t i c a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s of t h e p e o p l e w h o live w i t h i n a n d c o n s t r u c t a g i v e n c u l t u r e . U n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e p r a c t i c a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s t h a t c r e a t e s a n d is s h a p e d by culture requires a materialist outlook. H u n t i n g t o n ' s i d e a l i s m p r o d u c e s a n a c c o u n t of t h e p o s t - C o l d W a r w o r l d t h a t is r a c i s t a n d elitist. T h e f o r m e r c r i t i c i s m is n o t made lightly, and Huntington a t t e m p t s to r e b u t it i n h i s d i s c u s s i o n of " f a u l t line w a r s . " F a u l t line w a r s a r e t h o s e conflicts w h i c h t a k e p l a c e a t t h e local level, o n t h e g e o g r a p h i c b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n c i v i l i z a t i o n s . C o n f l i c t s in t h e f o r m e r Y u g o s l a v i a , C h e c h n y a , S u d a n , or W e s t e r n C h i n a h a v e b e e n m a j o r p r e o c c u p a t i o n s for s t a t e s in t h e p o s t - C o l d W a r p e r i o d , a n d H u n t i n g t o n is q u i c k to p o i n t o u t t h a t if a t t h e " m a c r o or global level of w o r l d p o l i t i c s t h e p r i m a r y c l a s h of c i v i l i z a t i o n s is b e t w e e n t h e W e s t a n d t h e rest, at t h e m i c r o o r l o c a l level it is b e t w e e n I s l a m a n d t h e o t h e r s " (Huntington 1 9 9 6 : 2 5 5 ) . He t h u s r e f e r s to " I s l a m ' s b l o o d y b o r d e r s . " H u n t i n g t o n i n s i s t s o n t h e r e l i g i o u s c h a r a c t e r of t h e s e S e p t e m b e r 1999 113 Review of Radical Political Economics wars, dismissing (254). c r i t i c i s m s of h i s p o s i t i o n a s " s e c u l a r m y o p i a " Psychologically, religion provides the most reassuring a n d s u p p o r t i v e j u s t i f i c a t i o n for t h e s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t "godless" forces which are seen as threatening. P r a c t i c a l l y , its r e l i g i o u s o r c i v i l i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i t y is t h e b r o a d e s t c o m m u n i t y to w h i c h t h e l o c a l g r o u p i n v o l v e d in t h e c o n f l i c t c a n a p p e a l for s u p p o r t . If in a local war between two African tribes, one tribe can define itself as Muslim and the other as Christian, the f o r m e r c a n h o p e to be b o l s t e r e d b y S a u d i m o n e y , A f g h a n mujahedeen, a n d Iranian weapons and military a d v i s o r s , w h i l e t h e l a t t e r c a n l o o k for W e s t e r n e c o n o m i c and humanitarian aid and political and diplomatic s u p p o r t f r o m W e s t e r n g o v e r n m e n t s (267-68). Muslims provide money, weapons, and fighters, while the West provides humanitarian aid and diplomacy: evidently Huntington feels t h a t M u s l i m s h a v e a p e c u l i a r p r o p e n s i t y for m i l i t a r i s m , w h i l e h e h a s a t t h e s a m e t i m e a v e r y f o r g i v i n g v i e w of t h e W e s t . In a d d i t i o n , b y l o o k i n g for t h e s o u r c e of c o n f l i c t in t h e c u l t u r e of I s l a m or t h e s t r u c t u r e of I s l a m i c civilization, H u n t i n g t o n o v e r l o o k s the fact that the barbarous atrocities associated with these fault l i n e w a r s a r e n o t c o m m i t t e d b y " I s l a m . " I n d e e d , it is all t o o f r e q u e n t l y M u s l i m s w h o a r e t h e v i c t i m s of a t r o c i t i e s . As E r i c Hobsbawm has argued, atrocities are often committed by young m e n in s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e s t a t e s h a v e d e c a y e d a n d t h e n o r m s of civilized b e h a v i o r h a v e c o l l a p s e d i n t o a n o m i e ; a n d m o r e i m p o r tantly, the atrocities are organized and directed by rulers and elites ( H o b s b a w m 1994). I n c h a p t e r s 4 o n t h e " f a d i n g " of t h e W e s t a n d 5 o n t h e e m e r g e n c e of " c h a l l e n g e r " c i v i l i z a t i o n s , H u n t i n g t o n r e v e a l s h i s e l i t i s m a n d h i s d i s t a s t e for d e m o c r a c y , i n p a r t i c u l a r in h i s a d m i r i n g d i s c u s s i o n s of t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n g o v e r n m e n t s of E a s t Asia. H o w e v e r , it is in h i s p o l i c y r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for t h e W e s t t h a t h i s elitist, a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c views b e c o m e m o s t explicit. In t h e l a s t c h a p t e r H u n t i n g t o n a t t e m p t s to f i n d a r e a l i s t i c c o u r s e for t h e W e s t , a n d in p a r t i c u l a r for t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , to follow: o n e t h a t a c c e p t s t h e r e a l i t i e s of t h e d e c l i n i n g p o w e r of t h e W e s t a n d t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y of c r e a t i n g a g l o b a l e m p i r e , w h i l e a t t h e s a m e t i m e p r e s e r v e s w h a t h e calls, following A r t h u r S c h l e s i n g e r , t h e " u n i q u e " c i v i l i z a t i o n a l a t t r i b u t e s of t h e W e s t : " i d e a s of i n d i v i d u a l liberty, p o l i t i c a l d e m o c r a c y , t h e r u l e of law, h u m a n r i g h t s , a n d c u l t u r a l f r e e d o m " (311). T h e t w o m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t t h r e a t s to W e s t e r n civilization, in H u n t i n g t o n ' s view, a r e t h e t e n d e n c y to i n t e r v e n e in t h e affairs of o t h e r civilizations a n d t h e m o r a l d e c l i n e of t h e W e s t , including: 114 September 1999 Book Reviews E s s a y I. i n c r e a s e s in a n t i s o c i a l b e h a v i o r , s u c h a s c r i m e , d r u g u s e , a n d v i o l e n c e g e n e r a l l y ; 2. f a m i l y d e c a y , i n c l u d i n g i n c r e a s e d r a t e s of d i v o r c e , i l l e g i t i m a c y , t e e n - a g e p r e g n a n c y , a n d s i n g l e - p a r e n t f a m i l i e s ; 3. a t l e a s t in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , a d e c l i n e in " s o c i a l c a p i t a l , " t h a t is, membership in voluntary associations and the interp e r s o n a l t r u s t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s u c h m e m b e r s h i p ; 4. g e n e r a l w e a k e n i n g of t h e " w o r k ethic" a n d a rise of t h e c u l t of p e r s o n a l i n d u l g e n c e ; 5. d e c r e a s i n g c o m m i t m e n t to l e a r n i n g a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l activity, m a n i f e s t e d in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s in l o w e r levels of s c h o l a s t i c a c h i e v e m e n t (304). H u n t i n g t o n g o e s o n to a s s o c i a t e t h i s m o r a l d e c l i n e w i t h m u l t i culturalism, whose advocates he describes, again after S c h l e s i n g e r , a s " e t h n o c e n t r i c s e p a r a t i s t s w h o s e e little in t h e W e s t e r n h e r i t a g e o t h e r t h a n W e s t e r n c r i m e s " (305). C o u p l e d w i t h h i s f o r e i g n p o l i c y r e c o m m e n d a t i o n for i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h E u r o p e to p r e s e r v e e c o n o m i c s e c u r i t y a n d civilizational v a l u e s , t h i s i n d i c a t e s for H u n t i n g t o n w h a t h e feels m u s t not b e d o n e : S o m e A m e r i c a n s h a v e p r o m o t e d m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m at home; some have promoted universalism abroad; and some have done both. Multiculturalism at home threatens the United States and the West; universalism a b r o a d t h r e a t e n s the West a n d the world. Both deny the uniqueness of W e s t e r n c u l t u r e . T h e g l o b a l m o n o c u l t u r a l i s t s w a n t to m a k e t h e w o r l d like A m e r i c a . T h e d o m e s t i c m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s t s w a n t to m a k e A m e r i c a like the world. A multicultural A m e r i c a is i m p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e a n o n - W e s t e r n A m e r i c a is n o t A m e r i c a n . A multicultural w o r l d is u n a v o i d a b l e b e c a u s e g l o b a l e m p i r e is i m p o s s i b l e . T h e p r e s e r v a t i o n of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d t h e W e s t r e q u i r e s t h e r e n e w a l of W e s t e r n i d e n t i t y . T h e s e c u r i t y of t h e w o r l d r e q u i r e s a c c e p t a n c e of g l o b a l m u l t i c u l t u r a l i t y (318). W h a t w o u l d b e t h e p o l i t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s of H u n t i n g t o n ' s vision? Monoculturalism at home would require the suppression of d i f f e r e n c e s a n d t h e r e p r e s s i o n of d i s s e n t . " M u l t i c u l t u r a l i t y " in t h e w o r l d gives u p t h e n o t i o n t h a t s o m e o n e s h o u l d i n t e r v e n e w h e n a t r o c i t i e s a n d a c t s of b a r b a r i s m a r e c o m m i t t e d , as, for e x a m p l e , when human rights are violated, and thus would require r e n o u n c i n g t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t s e n s e of o u r s h a r e d h u m a n i t y . In H u n t i n g t o n ' s h a n d s , t h e n o t i o n of c i v i l i z a t i o n y i e l d s b o t h p o o r a n a l y t i c a l r e s u l t s a n d d e p l o r a b l e political c o n s e q u e n c e s . T h e n o t i o n g e t s a m o r e p r o m i s i n g t r e a t m e n t in t h e e s s a y s c o l l e c t e d in t h e v o l u m e e d i t e d b y S t e p h e n K. S a n d e r s o n . T h e s e S e p t e m b e r 1999 115 R e v i e w o f Radical Political Economics e s s a y s are c o n t r i b u t i o n s to a dialog b e t w e e n h i s t o r i a n s i n t e r e s t e d in civilizations a n d world s y s t e m theorists. Both g r o u p s s h a r e a n i n t e r e s t in a v e r y long t e r m h i s t o r i c a l c h a n g e over large scale s o c i o c u l t u r a l s y s t e m s , typically t a k i n g t h e last 5,000 y e a r s as t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l frame. The b o o k is divided into four parts, e a c h with a n i n t r o d u c t i o n by S a n d e r s o n or S a n d e r s o n a n d T h o m a s D. Hall. P a r t I of t h e book, on civilizational a p p r o a c h e s to worldhistorical c h a n g e , h a s e s s a y s by M a t t h e w Melko, David Wilkinson, a n d William E c k h a r d t . Melko a n d E c k h a r d t ' s pieces in p a r t i c u l a r p r o v i d e a w e l c o m e c o r r e c t i v e to H u n t i n g t o n ' s a p p r o a c h to civilization, be i ng m o r e sensitive b o t h to th e intellectual tradition from w h i c h s t u d i e s come a n d to the normative problems raised by t he c o n c e p t . For e x a m p l e , w h e r e H u n t i n g t o n calls for c u l t u r a l h o m o g e n e i t y w i t h i n a civilization if it is to survive, Melko's h i s t o r i c a l a n a l y s i s s h o w s s u c h h o m o g e n e i t y to be fatal to c i v i l i z a t i o n s ( S a n d e r s o n 1995: 43). E c k h a r d t f i n d s s t r o n g c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n empires, wars, a n d civilizations, b u t he finds t h i s to be m o r a l l y t r o u b l i n g . W i l k i n s o n ' s e s s a y is i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e his a p p r o a c h to civilization b o rro w s explicitly from th e world s y s t e m s a p p r o a c h , a n d t h u s provides a bridge to p a r t II, on world s y s t e m a p p r o a c h e s to world historical change. The e s s a y s in p a r t II provide a useful s u m m a r y of the r e c e n t d e b a t e s a m o n g w or l d s y s t e m t h e o r i s t s a b o u t th e evolution of a world e c o n o m y over very long h i s t o r i c a l periods. In p a r t i c u l a r , Albert B e r g e s e n ' s article provides a good overview of this r e c e n t literature. The e s s a y by C h r i s t o p h e r C h a s e - D u n n a n d T h o m a s D. Hall l a y s o u t t h e t h e o r e t i c a l g r o u n d a n d t h e t a s k s for a c o m p a r a t i v e a p p r o a c h to w or ld s y s t e m s . T h e e s s a y s by Andre G u n d e r F r a n k a n d by B a r r y Gills s u m m a r i z e t h e i r r e c e n t w o r k together. Their c e n t r a l thesis is t h a t world history h a s b e e n driven by a m o r e or less c o n t i n u o u s p ro ces s of capital a c c u m u l a t i o n for the last 5,000 years. They s e e m to have t a k e n B r e n n e r ' s critique of d e p e n d e n c y a n d world s y s t e m s t h e o r y a n d stood it on its h e a d , i n s i s t i n g t h a t e x c h a n g e r e l a t i o n s do i n d e e d drive h i s t o r i c a l c h a n g e : t h e y see a s y s t e m of e x p a n d i n g c o m m e r c i a l t r a d e as a p e r e n n i a l f e a t u r e of the world history. The section closes with a n e s s a y by A n d r e w Bosworth w h i c h t e s t s Gills a n d F r a n k ' s h y p o t h e s i s t h a t very long, 500 year, economic cycles have driven the world e c o n o m y for the last 5,000 years. Part III c o n t a i n s four e s s a y s w h i c h are i n t e n d e d to p r o m o t e t he dialog b e t w e e n t h e two a p p r o a c h e s . W i l k i n s o n writes ag ain h e r e , d e s c r i b i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of his o w n a p p r o a c h a n d insisting t h a t "civilizations are world systems." Immanuel W a l l e r s t e i n q u e s t i o n s t he utility of e i t h e r a p p r o a c h , fnding t h a t b o t h h a v e a t e n d e n c y to c o m m i t n o m o t h e t i c , idiographic, or reifying errors. S a n d e r s o n ' s e s say in this section c o m e s closest to a c t u a l l y p r o m o t i n g a dialog, a n d also begins to a c k n o w l e d g e th e i m p o r t a n c e of w a y s of life in t h e d i s t i n c t i o n h e d r a w s b e t w e e n 116 September 1999 Book Reviews Essay growth a n d evolution. Victor R o u d o m e t o f a n d Roland Robertson's e s s a y , d e r i v i n g f r o m R o b e r t s o n ' s w o r k on globalization, also a t t e m p t s to find s t r o n g e r t h e o r e t i c a l g r o u n d by c o n s i d e r i n g h o w q u e s t i o n s of c u l t u r e a n d a g e n c y c a n s h a p e t h e d e b a t e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e c r i t i c i s m s r a i s e d by W a l l e r s t e i n a n d by R o u d o m e t o f a n d R o b e r t s o n are n o t a n s w e r e d in this book. W h e n W a l l e r s t e i n a s k s w h e t h e r C h i n a since 1945 h a s m o r e in c o m m o n w i t h Brazil s i n c e 1945 t h a n it d o e s w i t h C h i n a of t h e H a n D y n a s t y , it p o s e s a p a r t i c u l a r l y difficult p r o b l e m for t h e w h o le e n t e r p r i s e of t he civilizational a p p r o a c h , a problem w h i c h is n ev er a d d r e s s e d . The book's epilogue is a n essay by William H. McNeiU, r e c o n s i d e r i n g his signal book on civilization, The Rise of the West. T a k e n as a whole, t he essays collected in this book provide a u s e f u l i n t r o d u c t i o n to the historical literature in civilizations a n d to t he c o n t e m p o r a r y d e b a t e s a m o n g world s y s t e m theorists. The d i s c u s s i o n s of t h e i m p o r t a n c e of Asia in the longue dur~e of world h i s t o r y c o u l d also prove u s e f u l in efforts to o v e r c o m e E u r o c e n t r i s m in t h e s e disciplines. The fact t h a t t h e s e two a p p r o a c h e s h a v e f o u n d a c o m m o n g r o u n d for dialog in t h e n o t i o n of civilization is also a p r o m i s i n g sign for a n y o n e i n t e r e s t e d in i n t e g r a t i n g c u l t u r e a n d a g e n c y into political e c o n o m i c a n a l y s e s . However, b o t h t h e civilizational a n d the world s y s t e m a p p r o a c h e s have se ri ous s h o r t c o m i n g s for the t a s k of working o u t c o n c e p t i o n s of c u l t u r e t h a t c a n m a k e i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s to political economy. The p r o b l e m s s t e m from taking the longue dur~e as the u n i t of analysis. This perspective t e n d s to o b s cu re agency from the a n a l y s i s , a n d a t its w o r s t it p r o m o t e s a n e a r l y ahistorical idealism--an idealism more sophisticated than Huntington's, but with similar analytical consequences, treating abstract, disembodied forces as driving h u m a n society. F r o m t he world s y s t e m s perspective, the essays of F r a n k a n d Gills i l l u s t r a t e t h i s p o i n t . To av o id t h e c o n u n d r u m s of c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g m o d e s of p r o d u c t i o n a c r o s s very different social f o r m a t i o n s , t h e y leave p r o d u c t i o n a s i d e in favor of e x c h a n g e . H o w e v e r , n o t h i n g is g a i n e d a n a l y t i c a l l y by c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g c a p i t a l i s m solely in t e r m s of trade, c o m m e r c e , or exchange. Their 5 , 0 0 0 y e a r old w o r l d s y s t e m b e c o m e s iroflically ahistorical, b e c a u s e t h e y i n s i s t on t h e c o n t i n u i t i e s of th e p r o c e s s of capital a c c u m u l a t i o n over this long term. I m p o r t a n t c h a n g e s in o u r w a y s of life, w h i c h o u g h t to be self-evident over s u c h a s p a n of time, are b r u s h e d aside in this account. World s y s t e m s t h e o r y ' s focus on very long e c o n o m i c cycles also p r e s e n t s p r o b l e m s , specifically a h i g h l y reified n o t i o n of history. However c o n v i n c i n g the d a t a m a r s h a l e d in favor of long historical cycles, t h e y e n d u p w i t h a n agent-less mo d el of history: if t he long cycles drive the d e v e l o p m e n t of capitalism, w h a t drives the cycles? September 1999 117 Review o f Radical Political Economics From the civilizational perspective, the boundaries of civilizations are almost certainly determined by elites. The p e r s p e c t i v e of civilization is a l w a y s r e m o t e f r o m p a r t i c u l a r w a y s of life, w h i c h i n a g i v e n , h i s t o r i c a l l y s p e c i f i e d s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n , will j u s t a s l i k e l y b e a t o d d s w i t h t h e "civilizing" f o r c e s of t h e s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n a s to b e s u b s u m e d b y t h e m . Civilization, e v e n in t h e h a n d s of t h e s k i l l e d t h e o r i s t s in t h i s v o l u m e , i n e v i t a b l y a p p e a r s a s t h e " b e s t " of a c u l t u r e , t h a t w h i c h n e e d s to b e p r e s e r v e d a n d s p r e a d . T h e p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e s u b a l t e r n a l m o s t i n e v i t a b l y l o o k s like t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e b a r b a r i a n s . Yet t h i s is e x a c t l y t h e p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t is n e e d e d in o r d e r to give a n a d e q u a t e a c c o u n t of c u l t u r e a n d a g e n c y for p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y , for it is in t h e e v e r y d a y p r a c t i c e of t h e a g e n t s living in a s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n t h a t t h e v a r i o u s social s t r u c t u r e s , e v e n t h o s e of t h e l o n g u e dur~e, are realized. P r o d u c i n g a n a g e n t - c e n t e r e d a c c o u n t of t h e global s y s t e m is t h e goal of B a r r i e A x f o r d ' s b o o k o n T h e Global S y s t e m : Economics, Politics, a n d Culture. In t h e first t h r e e c h a p t e r s , A x f o r d l a y s o u t b o t h t h e n e e d for a n d t h e c o n c e p t u a l f o u n d a t i o n s for a s o c i a l t h e o r y of t h e g l o b a l s y s t e m . C h a p t e r 1 d e s c r i b e s t h e " g l o b a l c o n d i t i o n " in t e r m s d e r i v e d f r o m A n t h o n y G i d d e n s ' s s o c i a l t h e o r y : modernity and post-modernity, structuration, reflexivity, and g l o b a l i z a t i o n . C h a p t e r 2 c r i t i q u e s o t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t w a y s of thinking about the world as a system, from modernization theory to t h e o r i e s of i m p e r i a l i s m , d e p e n d e n c y , a n d W a l l e r s t e i n i a n w o r l d s y s t e m a n a l y s i s . C h a p t e r 3 r e v i s i t s t h e c o n c e p t of " s y s t e m " a n d i n t r o d u c e s a c o n c e p t of c u l t u r e h e l p f u l for f i n d i n g w a y s of r e u n i t i n g s t r u c t u r e a n d a c t i o n c o n c e p t u a l l y , n o t o n l y in t e r m s of h o w a c t o r s e n a c t s t r u c t u r e s , b u t a l s o r e g a r d i n g " t h e w a y s in w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l i d e n t i t i e s a n d s t r u c t u r e s a s c o n t e x t s for a c t i o n a r e t r a n s f o r m e d t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r r u p t i o n of r o u t i n e r e p r o d u c t i o n by more knowledgeable, more insecure, more demanding and reflexive a g e n t s " (Axford 1995: 69). T h e k e y p o i n t is w h e t h e r a n d h o w a g e n c y u s e s a v a i l a b l e r u l e s a n d r e s o u r c e s , or s t r u c t u r a l p r o p e r t i e s , to r e p r o duce itself and the contexts which supply meaning. The part played by agency in the reproduction and t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of s t r u c t u r e c a n n o w b e s e e n in t h e w a y s in w h i c h s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , a s f r a m e w o r k s for a c t i o n , a r e i n i t i a t e d , l e g i t i m a t e d , a n d d i f f u s e d by t h e p r a c t i c e of s i t u a t e d a c t o r s in t r a n s m i t t i n g c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s b o t h in t h e i r e v e r y d a y p r a c t i c e s a n d t h r o u g h m o r e c o n s c i o u s or " d i s t a n c e d " i n t e r v e n t i o n s , for e x a m p l e a s m e m b e r s of transnational networks. Seen in this light, the i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n of r e f l e x i v i t y , so c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of modernity, must also be dealt with as a constructed c u l t u r a l r e a l i t y or f r a m e w o r k , w i t h its r e p r o d u c t i o n increasingly problematic given radically changing 118 September 1999 Book Reviews E s s a y c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d t he vitality of alternative world views. G i v e n t h e w e i g h t a t t a c h e d to t h e c o n c e p t , a n y m o d i f i c a t i o n or t r a n s f o r m a t i o n will h a v e i m p o r t a n t c o n s e q u e n c e s for t h e d e m e a n o r of th e m o d e r n global s y s t e m (91). Axford t h e n goes on to a t t e m p t to s h o w h o w to deploy this d y n a m i c a n d p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d c o n c e p t i o n of a g e n c y in t h e a n a l y s i s of global s y s t e m s . T h e n e x t t h r e e c h a p t e r s e x a m i n e p a r t i c u l a r bodies of l i t e r a t u r e r e g a r d i n g the world economy, states in t he global s y s t e m , a n d c u l t u r e in th e global sy stem. In e a c h case, Axford d i s c u s s e s h o w g l o b a l i z a t i o n - - t h a t is, th e i n c r e a s i n g i m p o r t a n c e of global social s y s t e m s - - c o n t r i b u t e s to th e crisis of m o d e r n i t y . Axford does e x a m i n e th e i m p o r t a n t caveats ag ain s t the n o t i o n of globalization: it is n o t a smo o th , well-ordered process, and truly global corporate actors remain relatively rare. G l o b a l i z a t i o n is b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d as a s t r a t e g y of i m p o r t a n t actors w i t h p a r t i c u l a r effects for global social systems, r a t h e r t h a n as a n a c h i e v e d s t a t e of t h i n g s : "the w o rld e c o n o m y is b e i n g s y s t e m a t i c a l l y globalized, b u t by a p r o c e s s w h i c h is n e i t h e r h o m o g e n i z i n g n o r s y m m e t r i c a l " (111). In the final t h r e e c h a p t e r s , Axford e x a m i n e s p a r t i c u l a r problems a n d d eb ates a b o u t the global system: t he "new world order" a n d th e h e g e m o n i c decline; multil a t e r a l i s m a n d "global civil society"; a critique of H u n t i n g t o n ' s c l a s h of civilizations a r g u m e n t ; a n d a d i s c u s s i o n of the crisis of m o d e r n i t y a n d p o s t - m o d e r n i t y . He closes by revisiting th e i d e a t h a t " a c t i o n - c e n t e r e d c o n c e p t s like s t r u c t u r a t i o n c a n be u s e d in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h f o r m s of i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t a n a l y s i s s t r o n g l y i n f u e n c e d by social c o n s t r u c t i o n i s m to c o m e to t e r m s w i t h th e idea of global s y s t e m n e s s " (214). The p r e m i s e t h a t c u l t u r e is i m p o r t a n t for u n d e r s t a n d i n g the world s y s t e m , c o u p l e d w i t h t h e s t r u c t u r a t i o n perspective, promises m o r e t h a n it delivers in Axford's book. The p r o b l e m s t e m s from a n overly passive, s t r u c t u r a l definition of c u l t u r e inconsist e n t w i t h h i s i n s i s t e n c e on a d y n a m i c , p r a c t i c e - o r i e n t e d c o n c e p t i o n of agency. For Axford, c u l t u r e is "the realm of m e a n i n g a n d i d e n t i t y formation" (153). His p u r p o s e is to u n d e r s t a n d h o w globalization m a k e s c u l t u r e less a n a t t r i b u t e of place, a n d m o r e a n a t t r i b u t e of n e t w o r k s w h i c h are b o t h local a n d global. The t a s k of t he c h a p t e r on c u l t u r e a n d th e global s y s t e m is t h u s to s h o w how globalization produces both fragmentation and homogenization. Axford a r g u e s t h a t globalization h a s m a d e th e n a t i o n a l i s t p r o j e c t - - u n d e r s t o o d as a n elite effort to align polity a n d c u l t u r e w i t h e a c h o t h e r - - m o r e difficult. Global n e t w o r k s of c o m m u n i cation a n d t r a n s n a t i o n a l m a r k e t i n g have m a d e it difficult for local a g e n t s "to k n o w w h o t h e y are j u s t by dint of local or even n a t i o n a l c u l t u r a l scripts" (160). B u t t he o u t c o m e s of t h e s e p r e s s u r e s are September 1999 119 Review of Radical Political Economics ambiguous. Globalization swamps local differences, but at the s a m e t i m e v i g o r o u s l o c a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n of g l o b a l c u l t u r a l g o o d s c a n s e c u r e l o c a l s e l f - r e p r o d u c t i o n in t h e f r a m e of g l o b a l c u l t u r a l scripts. Under these circumstances, "pathological and fundam e n t a l i s t f o r m s o f i d e n t i t y p o l i t i c s " (163) i n t h e f o r m s of n a t i o n a l i s m a n d e t h n i c i d e n t i t i e s a r i s e to r e s i s t t h e g l o b a l flows of cultural change. A x f o r d ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e r e - e m e r g e n c e of n a t i o n a l i s m a n d e t h n i c c o n f l i c t d i f f e r s m a r k e d l y f r o m t h a t of H u n t i n g t o n . Huntington takes a much more essentialist stance, one which t r e a t s c u l t u r e a s a p r o p e r t y of p l a c e s , w h i l e A x f o r d t a k e s a m o r e fluid view. H o w e v e r , d e s p i t e h i s efforts to criticize reified n o t i o n s of c u l t u r e , A x f o r d still t r e a t s c u l t u r e a s o n t o l o g i c a l l y p r i o r to s o c i a l a g e n t s : a n a t t r i b u t e n o t of p l a c e b u t of n e t w o r k s t h a t exist p r i o r a n d e x t e r n a l l y to t h e a g e n t s t h a t , in fact, p r o d u c e t h e m . A x f o r d b o r r o w s f r o m p o s t - m o d e r n i s m , i d e n t i t y politics, a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l business management literature too uncritically, and unwittingly d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e i r c o n v e r g e n c e . His a c c o u n t of g l o b a l c u l t u r e l o s e s its c r i t i c a l b i t e w h e n t h e c a p a c i t i e s of a g e n t s a r e r e d u c e d to a c t i n g o u t p r e d e t e r m i n e d r o l e s . By s e r i o u s l y e n g a g i n g w i t h a n h i s t o r i c a l m a t e r i a l i s t a c c o u n t of c u l t u r e - - t h a t is, c u l t u r e a s n o t m e r e l y t h e s c r i p t w h i c h a g e n t s a c t out, b u t a s p r o d u c e d by s o c i a l a g e n t s in t h e i r w h o l e w a y s of life--Axford w o u l d h a v e s t r e n g t h e n e d h i s e f f o r t to e l a b o r a t e a n a g e n t o r a c t i o n - c e n t e r e d a c c o u n t of global s o c i a l life. W h i l e H u n t i n g t o n a n d t h e c o n t r i b u t o r s to t h e v o l u m e e d i t e d b y S a n d e r s o n a r e m o s t explicit in t h e i r a n t i - m a t e r i a l i s m , A x f o r d a t t i m e s t a k e s a s i m i l a r s t a n c e implicitly. F o r e x a m p l e , Axford s e e m s to a c c e p t s o m e o f t h e m o r e q u e s t i o n a b l e a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t g l o b a l i z a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y t h a t it s o m e h o w b r i n g s a b o u t a " p o s t c a p i t a l i s t " e c o n o m y . C i t i n g P e t e r D r u c k e r , A x f o r d w r i t e s : "If ' m a r k e t ' is a n a c c e p t a b l e s u b s t i t u t e for ' c a p i t a l i s t ' t h e n t h e e c o n o m y is still c a p i t a l i s t b u t t h a t e p i t h e t n o w d i s g u i s e s its m o s t o b v i o u s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , w h i c h is, in t h e c l u m s y n e o l o g i s m , t h a t it has become 'informatized' or transformed by information and communications t e c h n o l o g y " (113). B u t if " m a r k e t " is n o t a synonym for capitalist, then does "informatization" signify a q u a l i t a t i v e c h a n g e ? Or is it m e r e l y a n o t h e r q u a n t i t a t i v e c h a n g e in t h e o r g a n i c c o m p o s i t i o n of c a p i t a l , p a r t of t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of communication and transportation technologies that has been c e n t r a l to t h e c a p i t a l a c c u m u l a t i o n p r o c e s s at l e a s t s i n c e t h e I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n ? T h e n o t i o n of a n i n f o r m a t i o n b a s e d e c o n o m y b e i n g s o m e h o w p o s t - c a p i t a l i s t s e e m s to r e l y o n t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e l a b o r o f i n f o r m a t i o n w o r k e r s or o t h e r s e r v i c e p r o v i d e r s is s o m e h o w n o n - m a t e r i a l (if n o t m a t e r i a l , t h e n w h a t ? ) , a n d a l s o s e e m s to d e n y a m a t e r i a l i s t a c c o u n t of e x p l o i t a t i o n . F o r a g e n t c e n t e r e d c o n c e p t s of c u l t u r e a n d c i v i l i z a t i o n to r e a l i z e t h e i r p r o m i s e in o v e r c o m i n g reified, i d e a l i s t a n a l y s e s of 120 September 1999 Book Reviews Essay global s y s t e m s , a fully m a t e r i a l i s t a p p r o a c h m u s t be developed. W a l t e r B e n j a m i n p r o v i d e d a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l s i g n p o s t for b o t h political e c o n o m y a n d t he critique of c u l t u r e in his "l'heses on the Philosophy of History": W h o e v e r h a s e m e r g e d victorious participates to this day in t h e t r i u m p h a l p r o c e s s i o n in w h i c h th e p r e s e n t r u l e r s step over t h o s e w h o a r e lying p r o s t r a t e . A c c o r d i n g to t r a d i t i o n a l practice, t he spoils are c a r r i e d along in th e p r o c e s s i o n . T h e s e are called c u l t u r a l t r e a s u r e s , a n d a h i s t o r i c a l m a t e r i a l i s t views t h e m w i t h c a u t i o u s d e t a c h m e n t . For w i t h o u t exception th e c u l t u r a l t r e a s u r e s h e s u r v e y s h a v e a n o r i g i n w h i c h h e [sic] c a n n o t c o n t e m p l a t e w i t h o u t hor r o r. T h e y owe t h e i r e x i s t e n c e n o t only to t h e efforts of th e g reat m i n d s a n d t a l e n t s w h o h a v e c r e a t e d t he m , b u t also to the a n o n y m o u s toils of t h e i r c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . T h e r e is no d o c u m e n t of civilization w h i c h is not at th e s a m e time a d o c u m e n t of b a r b a r i s m . A nd j u s t as s u c h a d o c u m e n t is n o t free of b a r b a r i s m , b a r b a r i s m also taints th e m a n n e r in w h i c h it w a s t r a n s m i t t e d from one o w n e r to a n o t h e r . A historical m a t e r i a l i s t therefore dissociates h i m s e l f from it as far as pos s i bl e . He r e g a r d s it as his t a s k to b r u s h h i s t o r y a gai ns t the grain (Benjamin 1969: 256-57). H u n t i n g t o n ' s reified a p p r o a c h c a n n o t recognize this dialectical u n i t y of civilization a n d b a r b a r i s m . T h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s to t h e v o l u m e edited by S a n d e r s o n come closer, b u t by d i s m i s s i n g th e i m p o r t a n c e of p r o d u c t i o n in world s y s t e m s a n d civilization, t h e s e a p p r o a c h e s o b s c u r e t h e i m p o r t a n c e of creativity a n d a g e n c y in historical c h a n g e . Axford c o m e s closest to recognizing t h a t global s y s t e m s , i n c l u d i n g c u l t u r e s a n d civilizations, are p r o d u c e d by historically s i t u a t e d , creative ag en ts, a n d t h a t as s u c h t h e y are s u b j e c t to m o d i f i c a t i o n a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . Coupled w i t h Benjam i n ' s s e n s i t i v i t y to t h e " a n o n y m o u s toil" t h a t p r o d u c e s o u r civilizations a n d c u l t u r e a n d th e b a r b a r i s m of t h e r e l a t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n u n d e r l y i n g t h e m , Axford's a p p r o a c h to t h e global s y s t e m as a social s y s t e m at least provides methodological clu es for strategic analyses. REFERENCES B e n j a m i n , Walter. 1969. T h e s e s on th e Philosophy of History. In Illuminations. H a n n a h Arendt (ed.). Pp. 2 5 3 - 6 4 . New York: S c h o c k e n Books. September 1999 121 Review of Radical Political Economics Braudel, F e r n a n d . 1980. The History of Civilizations: The Past Explains t he Present. In On History. Pp. 177-218. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Cox, Robert. 1995. Civilizations: E n c o u n t e r s a n d Transformations. Studies in Political Economy 47 (Summer): 7-31. 1996. Civilizations in World Political E c o n o m y . New Political Economy 1 (2): 141-56. Gill, S t e p h e n . 1995. Globalization, Market Civilization, a n d Discip l i n a r y N e o l i b e r a l i s m . Millennium: Journal o f International Studies 24 (3): 399-423. Hobsba w m , Eric. 1994. B a r b a r i s m : A User's Guide. N e w Left Review 206 (July-August): 44--54. Luk~cs, Georg. 1971. The Theory o f the Novel. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. S t r a n g e , S u s a n . 1990. The Name of the Game. In S e a - C h a n g e s : American Foreign Policy in a World Transformed. Nicholas X. Rizopolous (ed.). Pp. 2 3 8 - 7 3 . New York a n d London: Council on Foreign Relations Press. Williams, R a y m o n d . 1976. Keywords: A Vocabulary o f Culture and Society. New York: Oxford University Press. Matt Davies D e p a r t m e n t of Political Science P e n n s y l v a n i a State University-Erie The B e h r e n d College Erie, PA 16563-1501 jmd22@psu.edu 122 September 1999