STRATA Bulletin of the Anglo-Israel Archaeological Society Volume 34 2016 The Anglo-Israel Archaeological Society 2nd loor, Supreme House 300 Regents Park Road London N3 2JX The full texts of articles within Strata are available online through Academic Search Premier (EBSCO). This periodical is indexed in the ATLA Religion Database®, published by the American Theological Library Association, 300 S. Wacker Dr., Suite 2100, Chicago IL 60606, Email: atla@atla.com; website: www.atla.com Cover: Beth Alpha synagogue mosaic, NASA image © 2016 The Anglo-Israel Archaeological Society, 2nd loor, Supreme House 300 Regents Park Road London N3 2JX ISSN Series 2042–7867 (Print) Typeset by DMilson, Switzerland Printed and bound in Great Britain by 4word Page & Print Production Ltd. Strata: Bulletin of the Anglo-Israel Archaeological Society Editor: David Milson Reviews Editor: Sandra Jacobs Editorial Advisory Board: Rupert Chapman, Shimon Dar, Yossi Garinkel, Shimon Gibson, Martin Goodman, Sean Kingsley, Amos Kloner, David Milson, Rachael Sparks Please send correspondence and books for review to: The Secretary The Anglo-Israel Archaeological Society 2nd loor, Supreme House 300 Regents Park Road London N3 2JX UK Please format material according to the ‘Notes for Contributors’ found at the back of this volume and submit articles to the editor electronically at: editor@aias.org.uk. Book reviews should be sent to the book reviews editor at strata.reviews@aias.org.uk Strata is published annually. To subscribe, please consult the Society’s website at www.aias.org.uk or use the form at the back of this volume. The Anglo-Israel Archaeological Society HONORARY OFFICERS AND COMMITTEE MEMBERS Honorary Chair Prof. Tessa Rajak Vice-President Prof. Martin Goodman, FBA Mr Mike Sommer Prof. H. G. M. Williamson, DD, FBA Vice-President (Israel) Prof. Amihai Mazar Prof. Ze’ev Weiss Hon. Secretary Dr Nick Slope† Hon. Treasurer Dr Paul Newham Committee Mrs. Barbara Barnett Prof. George Brooke Dr. Rupert Chapman III Dr. Irving Finkel Prof. Shimon Gibson Prof. Martin Goodman Dr. Sandra Jacobs Dr. Sean Kingsley Dr. Mark Merrony Dr. David Milson Mr. Anthony Rabin Dr. Stephen Rosenberg Dr. Rachael Sparks Dr. Guy Steibel Executive Secretary Mrs. Sheila Ford Contents Editorial 5 in MEMoriaM Nick Slope 9 Katharina StrEit The 6th Millennium Cal. BCE Wadi Rabah Culture: Further Excavations at Ein el-Jarba in the Jezreel Valley, Israel (2015–2016) 13 itaMar WEiSSbEin, YoSEf GarfinKEl, MichaEl G. haSEl and Martin G. KlinGbEil Goddesses from Canaanite Lachish 41 Jan GunnEWEG and Marta balla The Provenience of 7th–6th Century BCE Cult Vessels from the Iron Age II Fortress at ‘En Hazeva using Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis (INAA) 57 EGon h.E. laSS Soil Flotation from the Persian Period at Ashkelon, Israel 73 YotaM tEppEr, Jonathan david and MatthEW J. adaMS The Roman VIth Legion Ferrata at Legio (el-Lajjun), Israel: Preliminary Report of the 2013 Excavation 91 tali EricKSon-Gini, dov nahliEli and robErt Kool Mezad Zohar: A Medieval Fort Near the Dead Sea 125 robErt Kool The Coins from the Medieval Fortress at Mezad Zohar 151 orit ShaMir and naaMa SuKEniK 13th Century CE Textiles from Mezad Zohar 155 YoSEf GarfinKEl The Decauville Light Train at Lachish (1933–1938) 165 Eliot braun Observations on the South Levantine EB1 and the Erani C Horizon: A Rejoinder to Gophna and Paz 191 Book Reviews 213 Books Received 245 Lecture Summaries 247 Reports from Jerusalem 251 Student Grant Reports 259 Notes for Contributors 261 7 Book Reviews 8 Claire Clivaz, Andrew Gregory and David Hamidović (eds.), Digital Humanities in Biblical, Early Jewish and Early Christian Studies. (James Aitken) 209 Erin Darby, Interpreting Judean Pillar Figurines: Gender and Empire in Judean Apotropaic Ritual. (Josef Mario Briffa) 212 Hanan Eshel† (Shani Tzoref and Barnea Levi Selavan, eds.), Exploring the Dead Sea Scrolls: Archaeology and Literature of the Qumran Caves. (George J. Brooke) 214 Eric C. Lapp, Sepphoris II: The Clay Oil Lamps of Ancient Sepphoris: Light Use and Regional Interactions. (Shimon Dar) 216 David M. Jacobson, Nikos Kokkinos (eds.), Judaea and Rome in Coins, 65 BCE - 135 CE. Papers Presented at the International Conference Hosted by Spink, 13th - 14th September 2010. (Yoav Farhi) 217 Reinhard G. Kratz, Historical and Biblical Israel: The History, Tradition, and Archives of Israel and Judah. (Lester L. Grabbe) 221 Jacobson, David M., Antioch and Jerusalem: The Seleucids and Maccabees in Coins. (David F. Graf) 224 David T. Sugimoto, ed., Transformation of a Goddess: Ishtar – Astarte – Aphrodite. (Sandra Jacobs) 226 Gil Gambash, Rome and Provincial Resistance. (Tessa Rajak) 231 Astrid Swenson and Peter Mandler (eds.), From Plunder to Preservation: Britain and the Heritage of Empire, c.1800–1940. (Michael Sommer) 233 Rachel Hachlili, Ancient Synagogues - Archaeology and Art: New Discoveries and Current Research. (Joan Taylor) 236 Strata: bullEtin of thE anGlo-iSraEl archaEolocial SociEtY 2016 voluME 34 The 6th Millennium Cal. BCE Wadi Rabah Culture: Further Excavations at Ein el-Jarba in the Jezreel Valley, Israel (2015–2016) Katharina StrEit Martin Buber Society of Fellows in the Humanities, and Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel Ein el-Jarba is a settlement of the Wadi Rabah culture in the Jezreel Valley, dating to the 6th millennium cal BC. The site was under excavation from 2013 to 2016, and the ifth and inal season of ieldwork in 2016 completed a project that aimed to explore this settlement and its transregional interactions with the northern Levant. Remains of rectilinear architecture with loor levels, stone lined pits, and plastered installations were uncovered. Four burials were unearthed within the domestic quarter and have tentatively been dated to a later phase of Wadi Rabah occupation. The inds indicate that Ein el-Jarba played a key part in an exchange network that extended between the Halaf and the Wadi Rabah cultures, and which brought goods and notions of style and iconography into the southern Levant. Below the Early Chalcolithic remains, inds dating to the Pottery Neolithic Yarmukian and Jericho IX/ Lodian cultural entities have been unearthed, suggesting a continuous occupation at Ein elJarba from the Neolithic to the Early Chalcolithic period. Introduction Ein el-Jarba is located in the southern Jezreel Valley on the lanks of the Menashe Hills, which form the continuation of the Carmel Ridge (Fig. 1). Remains of the Early Chalcolithic period were irst discovered in the late 1950s and 1960s in the ields of Kibbutz Hazorea, and were excavated in several short projects of very limited horizontal exposure (Kaplan 1969; Perrot 1963; Garinkel and Matskevich 2002; Meyerhof 1982; Meyerhof 1988–89; Meyerhof 1991; Anati et al. 1973; Oshri 2000). The site has been ascribed to the ‘classic’ Wadi Rabah culture (Gopher and Gophna 1993: 326; Fig. 15), and yielded notable inds such as a holemouth jar with two applied igures (Kaplan 1969: 16; Garinkel 2003: 32, Fig. 2.3; Streit 2015b; Milevski et al. 2016). Ein el-Jarba has been suggested as a potential ‘mega’ site of this period, based mainly on a postulated overall size of ca. 10 ha (Gopher 2012a: 1552). Large quantities of obsidian fragments have also been uncovered in the ields of the kibbutz, along with a ist-sized obsidian core (currently on display 13 Katharina StrEit Fig. 1. Sites mentioned in the text. in the Wilfried Museum), which implies that the site was involved in a network that connected the Wadi Rabah culture of the southern Levant to the Halaf culture of the northern Levant and northern Mesopotamia (Kaplan 1960; Kirkbride 1971: 287; Garinkel 1999: 150–151; Gopher et al. 2011; Getzov 2011). The site was therefore chosen for renewed excavation, aiming irst to clarify the extent of the site, second to explore the nature of settlement and its domestic architecture in particular, and third to trace contacts with the Halaf culture. Renewed excavations since 2013 The site was excavated over ive seasons between 2013 and 2016 by a team from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem (two seasons in 2013, and one each in 2014, 2015 and 2016). Two main excavation areas (A and G) were opened, as along with 14 thE 6th MillEnniuM cal bcE Wadi rabah culturE: furthEr ExcavationS at Ein El-Jarba Fig. 2. Ein el-Jarba: location of excavation areas (aerial photo kindly provided by the Jezreel Valley Regional Project). additional test trenches (Fig. 2; Streit 2015a). A detailed preliminary report of the results from the 2013–2015 seasons has already been published (Streit 2015a). Area A is situated near the approximate location of Jacob Kaplan’s excavation area in a disused strip of land adjacent to a ield. Six squares (5 × 5 m) were excavated in 2013, which yielded surfaces and assemblages of the Early Chalcolithic period. However, the stratum was heavily disturbed by Early Bronze Age IB oval houses which were cut into the earlier layer. In order to deine the eastern perimeter of the site, a high-resolution survey covering an area of about 16,000 m2 was conducted in Area F in 2014, the ield north of Tell Abu Zureiq. In 2014, a second excavation area (Area G) was opened to the southwest of Tell Abu Zureiq, connecting to a trench (Trench No. 2) that was excavated by Emanuel Anati in the later 1960s (Anati et al. 1973: 56–59), whose aim was to expose the 15 Katharina StrEit Early Chalcolithic stratum that had been identiied in the section. Architectural remains of this period were soon uncovered, and Area G was subsequently excavated for three further seasons, during which architectural remains, a rich ceramic and lint assemblage, and four burials were uncovered, and tentatively ascribed to the Early Chalcolithic period. Early Chalcolithic remains The architectural assemblage of Area G Early Chalcolithic remains were reached in seven squares of Area G. Wall remains were uncovered in all squares (Fig. 3). While substantial architecture is clearly discernible, clear interpretation of discrete domestic units is challenging due to the partial preservation. The fragmentary nature of preservation can be ascribed to the terrain sloping up towards the west, where the bedrock forms steps with a height difference of up to one meter. The archaeological remains were heavily eroded. Building 1 In 2014 and 2015, wall remains of the Early Chalcolithic period were uncovered in Squares 11D and 10D (W4028 and W4023) and have been discussed in greater detail elsewhere (Streit 2015a: 23–24). The wall was about 50 cm wide, wellbuilt of dressed stones, and preserved to the height of one course. It appears to have formed a poorly preserved corner towards the east in Square 10D. A loor associated with these walls, which yielded a complete chalice (B30412), was discovered east of W4023. Building 2 In 2015, a wall (W4066 and W4021), ca. 0.7 m wide, was found running east-west in Squares 8C and 8D. This wall was further exposed in Square 8D (W5016) and could be thus traced for over 8 m. In Square 8C, adjacent to W4066, a complete deep carinated burnished bowl was uncovered, upside down, in 2015 (Streit 2015a: Fig. 11). In the same year, in the same square, a plastered installation (L4061) was uncovered south of W4066. Additional excavation of the feature in 2016 showed that the plastered surface was built on a foundation of mudbrick. The installation is rectangular (nearly square), with a square hole in its centre. Further east, a second feature (L5036) was uncovered, this time built on bedrock. This feature could be interpreted as a foundation of a silo or as a working surface. A continuation of the plastered surface was discerned in 2015, to the north and west of W4066 (as L4071). 16 thE 6th MillEnniuM cal bcE Wadi rabah culturE: furthEr ExcavationS at Ein El-Jarba Fig. 3. Early Chalcolithic remains in Area G. 17 Katharina StrEit W4021 appears to continue as W5016, and might form a corner with W5057 in Square 8D. The poor preservation of W5016 could be ascribed to a possible pit of a later phase of the Wadi Rabah period (L5007), which also disconnected W4064, a wall that seems to have originally abutted W5016 from the north. This possible pit might also have cut the connection of W5050 to W4021/W5016, which appears to have been abutting the wall from the south. However, the outlines of this possible pit were not deined, and this interpretation should be considered tentative. It remains unclear whether W4064 continued into Square 9D, but if so then it might even continue as W4023/W4028, which would connect the wall remains into one building. W5016 might form a corner with W5057 in Square 8D, but is partly covered by the eastern baulk of the square and is thus unclear. If this interpretation is correct, W5016, W5057 and W5050 would form a room. The interior was covered by a rubble loor L5049, which has been disturbed by roots. West of W5050, a patch of a plastered loor (L5055) was uncovered. Although this loor does not abut W5050, it appears to belong to the same phase. W4066/W4021/W5016 follows the sloping terrain towards the east, and no attempts to level out the topography of the site were undertaken. Other wall remains Additional wall remains were uncovered in Square 7C (W5042, W5063, W5062). It appears that W5042 and W5062 create the corner of a room and deine loor level L5037, which contained two restorable vessels (B50389 and B50418). No stratigraphic connection to Building 2 is evident and any ascription to the same phase remains tentative (Fig. 3). Further, a fragmentary wall (W4047) was excavated in 2015 in Square 9C. Its orientation suggests that it was unrelated to W4066, and instead formed a separate structure. Pit In Square 8D, W4021 appears to have been cut by a pit, likely dating to a Wadi Rabah phase that post-dated the wall. The pit was irst identiied in 2015 (L4032) and was further excavated as L5021/L5028 in 8D, and as L5047 when the eastern baulk of 8C was dismantled. The pit was rich in stone tools and its bottom was lined with a ring of stones. Notable finds included an in situ basalt mortar (B50461). Architectural remains, as well as comparable stone-built features, stone-lined pits and the remains of plastered loors have been uncovered at several sites identiied with the Wadi Rabah culture, such as Wadi Rabah itself (Kaplan 1958a: 153), Munhata Level 2A (Garinkel 1992: Pl. 1:1; Fig. 8), Nahal Zehora II, Stratum IIA and IIB (Gopher 2012b: 279–82, 284), Tabaqat al-Bûma Level 3 (Banning 18 thE 6th MillEnniuM cal bcE Wadi rabah culturE: furthEr ExcavationS at Ein El-Jarba 1996: 31–37; Banning 1996: 31–37), Hagoshrim IV (Getzov 2011: 1–5), elsewhere at Ein el-Jarba (Kaplan 1969: 5; Meyerhof 1982: 79–80), Telulyot Batashi (Kaplan 1958b: 11, Fig. 5), Nahal Yarmut (Khalaily 2011: 2*–5*), Tel Te’o VIII (Eisenberg et al. 2001: 23–27), Tel Qiri (Baruch 1987: 275–276), Abu Zureiq (Garinkel and Matskevich 2002: 131), Ahiud (Paz and Vardi 2014), and Horbat Uza 18 (Getzov 2009: 9–11). The rectangular plastered platform is however unique among Early Chalcolithic remains. Pottery The ceramic assemblage of Ein el-Jarba falls into the ‘classic’ Wadi Rabah style. The pottery uncovered at Area G is consistent with that of Area A, as well as the assemblage uncovered by Kaplan (Streit et al. in press). The dominant shapes are deep bowls (Fig. 4:1; 5:1), shallow bowls (Fig. 5:3,4), holemouth jars (Fig. 4:2– 5,8,9; 5:2,5,6), basins (Fig. 4:10; 5:7,9), pithoi (Fig. 4:11,12; 5:8,10), necked jars with bow rims (Fig. 4:6) and laring or everted rims (Fig. 4:7), and chalices (Fig. 4:14; 5:14). Bases are predominantly lat (Fig. 4:13; 5:12,13). The predominant decoration style is red and black slip-and-burnish, with painted and applied decoration being very rare. The high quality red and black ired vessels indicate the use of pottery kilns in this period. Ceramic sherds were frequently reworked into circular pottery discs (Fig. 4:16), and were commonly pierced (Fig. 4:17,19). Flint The lint industry is lake oriented with little standardization. The sickle blades of the Early Chalcolithic are rectangular, inely denticulated, and truncated with thick triangular or trapezoidal sections and abruptly retouched backs (Fig. 4:20–22; 6:17–19; Type C; Gopher 1989b: 95). This Type C sickle blade can be considered a fossil directeur of the Wadi Rabah cultural entity. Bifacially retouched tools such as axes and chisels continue from the Pottery Neolithic period (Fig. 6:20–22). Sling stones: Biconical sling projectiles appear in large numbers at most Wadi Rabah sites (Rosenberg 2009), and are particularly frequent at Ein el-Jarba (Fig. 4:15; Streit 2015a: Fig. 6). They are carved of limestone into a biconical shape, and typically range in size between 4 and 7 cm. Obsidian Eighteen pieces of obsidian were uncovered during the 2016 excavation season, and a total of 56 fragments were found at the site during the ive seasons there (Fig. 7). The majority of the obsidian found this year (n=16) were blades, or fragments of blades. One blade (Fig. 7:18) was particularly well preserved, and another (Fig. 7:7) appears to have been retouched. Three fragments of obsidian debris (Fig. 7:1, 4, 6) suggest that the material was worked on-site. This is 19 Katharina StrEit Fig. 4. Representative selection of inds from L5030. consistent with the presence of the ist-sized obsidian core that was uncovered in the ields of Kibbutz Hazorea decades ago. The obsidian represented in this assemblage shows a wide variety of colour and translucency, ranging from green, brown, black, and grey to nearly glasslike. Chemical ingerprinting of material from earlier seasons is currently being undertaken, which will allow the sources of the fragments to be identiied. 20 thE 6th MillEnniuM cal bcE Wadi rabah culturE: furthEr ExcavationS at Ein El-Jarba No. Basket Description Decoration No. Basket Description Decoration 1 50268 Deep bowl (A1/2) Red burnish band inside, red burnish outside 12 50219 Pithos (D) 2 50395 Holemouth jar (E) Black burnish outside 13 50459 Base - 14 50268 Chalice (C1) Red slip inside/ outside 15 50391 Biconical sling stone 16 50247 Pottery disc 17 50263 Pierced pottery disc 18 50408 Pierced pottery disc 19 50260 Stone bead 20 50289 Sickle blade 21 50289 Sickle blade 50396 Sickle blade 3 50247 Holemouth jar (E) - 4 50268 Holemouth jar (E) Red slip band along rim inside, red slip bands outside 5 50428 Holemouth jar (E) Red slip outside 6 50247 Bow rim jar (F1) Red slip outside 7 50247 Everted rim jar (F3) Red slip outside 8 50395 Holemouth jar (E) Red slip band along rim inside/ outside 9 50268 Holemouth jar (E) - 22 10 50428 Basin (B4) - 23 50396 Sickle blade 11 50428 Pithos (D) - 24 50395 Notched blade Red slip band along rim inside/ outside Animal igurine A small igurine of a quadruped made of baked clay (L5029, B50206; Fig. 8) was uncovered during sifting of material from Square 7C, from a Wadi Rabah loor or the ill above it. The animal is about 2 cm long and 1 cm high and shows completely preserved legs, tail and head, with only the horns/ears broken off. Anatomical details such as the eyes are clearly visible. The species of the animal is ambiguous. While it appears to be herbivore, such as a sheep, other interpretations have been brought forward for similar animal igurines. Zoomorphic igurines of baked clay have been uncovered at Abu Zureiq (Garinkel and Matskevich 2002: Fig. 18:2), Munhata, Stratum 2A (Garinkel 1995: Fig. 38:1, 2) and at Nahal Zehora II, Stratum II (Gopher and Eyal 2012: Fig. 29.7:1–3). In most cases, the limbs and the head are fragmentary, making it dificult to identify the species. In one case, from Munhata, Stratum 2A (Garinkel 1995: 120, Fig. 38:2), there are visible marks of horns attached to the head, and other examples from Munhata have been identiied as sheep based on the shape of their tails (Garinkel 1995: 120). The example from Abu Zureiq has tentatively been identiied as a dog (Garinkel and Matskevich 2002: 162). The igurine of Ein el-Jarba is the best-preserved example if this type of animal igurine yet found. 21 Katharina StrEit Fig. 5. Representative selection of inds from L5031. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Basket Description 50220 Deep bowl (A1/2) 50220 Holemouth jar (E) 50269 Shallow bowl (B) 50220 Shallow bowl (B) 50248 Holemouth jar (E) 50269 Holemouth jar (E) 50220 Large basin (B4) 50249 Pithos (D) 50220 Large basin (B4) 50220 Pithos (D) Decoration Black burnish inside/outside Black burnish inside/outside Red slip band along rim inside, red slip outside - 11 12 13 14 15 16 50220 50220 50269 50269 50248 50220 Red slip outside Incised herringbone pattern and red slip Incised herringbone pattern and red slip 22 *Jericho jar (D2) Base Base Chalice (C) *Rimsherd with spout? *Body sherd thE 6th MillEnniuM cal bcE Wadi rabah culturE: furthEr ExcavationS at Ein El-Jarba Fig. 6. Representative selection of diagnostic lithic objects from different contexts. Description No. Locus Basket 1 5013 50172 Haparsa arrowhead (A7) 13 5018 50137 Lodian sickle blade (B) 2 5018 50167 Haparsa arrowhead (A7) 14 5040 50306 Yarmukian sickle blade (A) 3 5009 50035 Haparsa arrowhead (A7) 15 5033 50290 Yarmukian sickle blade (A) 4 5029 50207 Haparsa arrowhead (A7) 16 5006 50210 Yarmukian sickle blade (A) 17 5018 50111 Wadi Rabah sickle blade (C) 18 5038 50274 Wadi Rabah sickle blade (C) 19 5038 50276 Wadi Rabah sickle blade (C) No. Locus Basket Description 5 5005 50117 Haparsa arrowhead (A7) 6 5049 50390 Haparsa arrowhead (A7) 7 5006 50028 Haparsa arrowhead (A7) 8 5009 50016 Nizzanim arrowhead (A8) 9 4017 50333 Nizzanim arrowhead (A8) 10 5006 50018 Nizzanim arrowhead (A8) 20 5019 50116 Bifacial axe 11 5007 50090 Lodian sickle blade (B) 21 5002 50131 Bifacial axe 12 5018 50186 Lodian sickle blade (B) 22 5009 50102 Bifacial chisel 23 Katharina StrEit Fig. 7. Obsidian fragments uncovered in the 2016 excavation season. Description No. Locus Basket 1 4069 50385 Chips 10 5022 50166 Blade fragment 2 5031 50251 Blade fragment 11 5047 50384 Blade fragment 3 5031 50244 Notched item 12 5013 50086 Blade fragment 4 5009 50049 Chips 13 5019 50218 Blade fragment 5 5009 50045 Blade fragment 14 5022 50161 Blade fragment 6 5030 50275 Chips 50327 Blade fragment, retouched? 50409/ 50414 Blade 4017 15/ 16 5030 7 8 5031 50280 Blade fragment 17 5019 50233 Blade fragment 18 5024 50182 Blade fragment No. Locus Basket 9 24 5014 50051 Blade fragment Description thE 6th MillEnniuM cal bcE Wadi rabah culturE: furthEr ExcavationS at Ein El-Jarba Fig. 8. Animal igurine made of clay (L5029, B50206). Fig. 9. Horned igurine carved of stone (L5030, B50261). Horned igurine A fragment of a stone-carved horned igurine was found in Square 7D (L5030, B50261; Fig. 9). The ind belongs to a group of igurines that have recently been deined (Streit and Garinkel 2015) as consisting of a three-dimensional depiction of the head of a horned animal, likely a ram or goat, which range in size between 3 and 8 cm across the horns, and 2 and 5 cm in height. The igurines were carved predominantly of locally available stone, most commonly limestone, and then carefully smoothed. Four similar examples are known from the southern Levant, three being from the Early Chalcolithic Stratum IV at Hagoshrim (Getzov 2011: Fig. 9:40–42). Two of these are very naturalistic, depicting anatomical details such as spiralling horns and an elongated head, while the third example is very stylized, only indicating the head through spiralling horns on a shaped pebble. One additional horned igurine was discovered as a surface ind at Kabri (Brimer and Amiran 1996: Fig. 1) and was identiied as belonging to the Early Chalcolithic period there. A slightly later example is known from Gilat (Commenge 2006: 814, Fig. 15.26). Notably, this type of igurine has also been uncovered at sites of the Halaf culture (or Halaf-related Amuq C phase) of northern Mesopotamia, the northern Levant, and the Mediterranean coast. Examples are known from Domuztepe (two igurines: Carter 2012: Fig. 12a-c; Carter 2012: Fig. 12d-e), Mersin (Garstang 1953: Fig. 61), Tell Kurdu (Edens and Yener 2000: Fig. 17.8), and Ras Shamra (three igurines: De Contenson 1992: Fig. 146.7; Schaeffer 1962: Fig. 21.I; Schaeffer 1962: Fig. 21.A). Based on the morphology of the horns, the species depicted in these igurines have been identiied as Ovisaries orientalis and Capra falconeri (Streit and Garinkel 2015: 43–45). Their stylistic homogeneity 25 Katharina StrEit and near-synchronous appearance over much of the Near East in the 6th millennium cal BCE has been ascribed to a shared iconographic language across the Levant during the adoption of an agricultural lifestyle, as well as a shift in iconographic language that highlights male progenitors of domesticated species as new symbols of power (Streit and Garinkel 2015: 46–47). Chlorite vessel A fragment of a delicately carved and meticulously polished stone bowl, made of a dark green-grey translucent stone (L5003, B50003), was uncovered in Square 8C. The object is only about 2 mm thick and, upon visual examination, appears to be made of chlorite, which is not locally available but might have been imported, probably from the northern Levant (Rosenberg et al. 2010: 286). Around 30 fragments of chlorite vessels have been found at the Early Chalcolithic site of Hagoshrim, of which several examples resemble the morphology of the fragment uncovered at Ein el-Jarba (Rosenberg et al. 2010: Fig. 5). The import of chlorite to Hagoshrim is believed to have been associated with the active obsidian trade in this period (Rosenberg et al. 2010: 291). While the identiication of the raw material as chlorite has yet to be conirmed chemically, the frequency of obsidian at the site (see above) indicates the likelihood of a connection between Ein elJarba and the northern Levant and northern Mesopotamia. The Burials Four burials have been uncovered in Area G, which are tentatively dated to the Early Chalcolithic period. Burial L4080 In 2015, the interment of an infant (L4080) was uncovered in Square 9C, north of W4047 (Streit 2015a: 27–28, Fig. 12). The infant was interred on its left side, in a foetal position, orientated southeast to northwest, with the head towards the northwest. The hands were contracted in front of the face. No burial goods were observed. Burial L5039 The burial of an adult individual was uncovered in Square 8C in 2016, north of wall W4066 (Fig. 10). As a stone of this wall seems to have collapsed into/onto the burial, trapping the foot of the deceased, it appears that the burial postdates the wall, and that the burial pit weakened the stones of the wall, causing them to collapse. While no burial goods have been uncovered, a preliminary analysis of the ceramics from the ill and the layer covering the burial suggest that the it should be dated to the Early Chalcolithic (Wadi Rabah) phase. The individual 26 thE 6th MillEnniuM cal bcE Wadi rabah culturE: furthEr ExcavationS at Ein El-Jarba Fig. 10. Adult burial L5039. was positioned on its left side in a foetal position, oriented broadly east-west, with the head to the west. Burial L5033 This burial of an adult was found in the southern part of Square 7C in 2016. Consequently, the square was expanded in a restricted probe into Square 6C, so that the burial could be fully excavated. The individual was buried in a foetal position on its left side, orientated southeast to northwest, with the head towards the southeast. No deined burial pit was discernible. The interment appears to postdate W5062. A preliminary analysis of the ceramics from the ill associated with the burial (as well as those above and below), suggest an Early Chalcolithic date. Burial L5053 Very poorly preserved remains of a young infant or neonate were uncovered while dismantling the eastern baulk of Square 8C in 2016, within the ill south of W4066. The burial consisted of poorly preserved leg bones, ribs, and several teeth. Orientation and position were unclear. The burial was dug into the Early 27 Katharina StrEit Chalcolithic ill, and appears to postdate the use of W4066, yet its exact date could not be established in the ield. All articulated burials uncovered in Area G were in a foetal position on the left side, without a deinable burial pit and devoid of burial goods. Such simple pit burials are also known from the close vicinity of Area G (Kaplan 1969: 16; Oshri 2000: 35–36; Anati et al. 1973: 59). They have also been found at other sites in the southern Levant, including at Nahal Zehora II, Stratum II A and B (Gopher and Eshed 2012: 1390–1397), Nahal Bezet I (Gopher 1989a: 83*–84*), Neve Yam (Galili et al. 2009: 36–37), Telulyot Batashi, Stratum III (Kaplan 1958b: 11–12), Tabaqat al-Bûma, and En Esur VI (Banning et al. 1996: 36). The predominant burial practice of the Early Chalcolithic was of such simple pit interments, but cist burials, burials with grave goods, burials showing post-mortem manipulations, and burials both inside settlements and in separate burial grounds have been observed (for a summary see Gopher and Orrelle 1995; Banning 1996: 36). While it is evident that these burials were within the settlement, it remains unclear whether they were inside houses or in open areas between structures. They were cut into the Early Chalcolithic or Pottery Neolithic ill, but seem to postdate the architecture. It is therefore likely that the burials date to a later phase within the Early Chalcolithic occupation, which includes the possibility that they were buried after the structures observed in Area G had been abandoned, and which would in turn indicate the presence of further domestic structures nearby. The ‘Massebah’ A cluster of three stones was uncovered in the southwestern part of Square 7D, (L5061, Fig. 11). All three were lat stone slabs, one of which was standing upright, while two additional, smaller stones appeared to have partially collapsed. The standing stone faced towards the east, and the (partly restorable) ceramics associated with this feature date to the Wadi Rabah period. An interpretation as structure of cultic or ritual use is possible. This is supported by a similar ind in Area B, the extension of Trench 2 excavated by Emanuel Anati, now located in Square 10E–10F of the grid of Area G (Streit 2015a: Fig. 8). Anati uncovered a standing stone in Level T16 (Stratum IV), which he ascribed to the Late Coastal Neolithic-Wadi Rabah culture (Anati et al. 1973: 89). This ind was not described as evidence of cultic behaviour, but a closer examination might allow for such an interpretation. An oval, worked stone slab was inserted into the ground and was discovered in situ, free standing and associated with a loor or surface. The orientation of the standing stone was not recorded, but based in the published photograph it is most likely that it faced southeast. This object should be considered ritual or cultic for 28 thE 6th MillEnniuM cal bcE Wadi rabah culturE: furthEr ExcavationS at Ein El-Jarba Fig. 11. Standing stone (L5041). several reasons. First, the standing stone has no apparent architectural function. Second, the stone was deliberately shaped and smoothed on one side, which is not common for stones used in Early Chalcolithic constructions. Third, red paint was applied to the smoothed side of the stone slab. No special inds, or unusual pottery densities or shapes, were reported in association with this ind (Anati et al. 1973: 96–98), but the excavated area around the standing stone was rather small, at only 2 × 2 m, so the chance to determine its context was lost. The standing stone from the 2016 excavation season did not show signs of red paint, but otherwise resembles Anati’s ind. Standing stones, the Biblical ‘Masseboth’, were a key element of the ritual and cult of the southern Levant in the Bronze and Iron Ages. Their prehistoric origin has not been explored, but Uzi Avner suggested a location in the desert zones of the southern Levant (Avner 1984; Avner 1993), identifying a wide range of Masseboth sites in the Negev and Sinai. Radiocarbon dating of two of such sites suggests that Masseboth sites started to be used in the 5th millennium cal BCE (Avner et al. 1994: 274), but while the predominance of Masseboth sites in the marginal areas pointed out by Avner is doubtlessly valid, the presence of two examples at Ein el-Jarba indicates that the practice of erecting standing stones greatly predates the Biblical era. 29 Katharina StrEit Fig. 12. Yarmukian ‘coffee-bean’ eyed igurines (A: L4069, B50374; B: L5054, B50413). Pottery Neolithic Occupation Pottery Sherds from the Pottery Neolithic period were found in the lower layers of the Wadi Rabah ill in all squares. Both the Jericho IX/Lodian and Yarmukian styles are attested, but no architectural remains or deined features have been uncovered that could be ascribed to this phase, nor have any loci been observed that exclusively contained Pottery Neolithic material. The number, size, and state of preservation of these ceramics exclude any interpretation that they could be stray sherds, and it is more likely that they derive from a nearby occupation phase of the Pottery Neolithic period. It ought to be pointed out that both the Jericho IX/Lodian and Yarmukian ceramics (as well as lint) appear together. This is notable because of the ongoing debate about whether these two cultural entities represent different chronological stages in the cultural sequence of the southern Levant, as argued by Avi Gopher (Gopher 2012a: 1532), or whether they should be viewed as geographic variants, coexisting and communicating with one other, as favoured by Garinkel (1999: 102). While the extent to which the assemblage at Ein el-Jarba was inluenced by taphonomic processes remains unclear, the inds appear to support the notion that the two ceramic styles coexisted, as no distinct chronological phases have 30 thE 6th MillEnniuM cal bcE Wadi rabah culturE: furthEr ExcavationS at Ein El-Jarba been observed. Fig. 5 shows a selection of ceramics from L5030, which contained mixed Early Chalcolithic and Pottery Neolithic shapes. The diagnostic Pottery Neolithic ceramics are Jericho jars (Fig. 5:11; Garinkel 1999: 49–50) and ish bone decoration patterns (Fig. 5:15,16; Garinkel 1999: 62). Flint Flint items of the Pottery Neolithic period were found, particularly in the lower Wadi Rabah strata. Ten arrowheads, seven of the Haparsa (A7; Fig. 6:1–7) and three of the Nizzanim types (A8; Fig. 6:8–10), were uncovered (Barkai and Gopher 2012: 782–789). Sickle blades of the Yarmukian (Type A) and the Jericho IX/ Lodian type (Type B) occurred together (Fig. 6:11–16), mirroring the distribution of the ceramic assemblage (Gopher 1989b: 95). Coffee-bean eyed igurines Two fragments of so-called Yarmukian coffee-bean eyed igurines were uncovered in lower Wadi Rabah ills (Fig. 12A and B) during the 2016 season. This type of igurine depicts seated women formed from clay, with elongated heads, ‘coffeebean’ shaped eyes, ears and sometimes earrings, the absence of a neck, small breasts, and an emphasized pelvis and thighs. Clothing, such as garments and possibly scarfs, is depicted in some cases (for a detailed summary of features see Garinkel et al. 2010: 31–38). Figurine A (L.4069, B.50374; Fig. 12A) was uncovered during the dismantling of the eastern baulk of Square 8C, in an Early Chalcolithic fill north of W4066. It depicts a female torso, with folds of fat and/or possibly the remains of a garment depicted on her back, and the right hand raised towards her chest on the front. The figurine shows traces of intensive polishing on the clay of its back. Figurine B (L.5054, B.50413; Fig. 12B) was found while the same baulk was being dismantled, in a floor-like surface that contained flat-lying pottery sherds, south of W4066. Only the buttocks and legs of this figurine have been preserved, with the body broken off above the hip. While upper and lower legs are clearly formed, the feet were not depicted, or possibly were not preserved. Remains of red paint are preserved on the fragment. The two fragments do not appear to belong to the same figurine – Figurine A is somewhat too small to fit Figurine B – but the possibility cannot be excluded because the size difference could be attributed to the high degree of stylization that such figurines exhibit. This type of figurine has been found in large numbers, with 115 discovered at Sha’ar Hagolan alone (Garfinkel et al. 2010: table 4). The core find-area covers sites associated with the Yarmukian culture of the southern Levant, such as Sha’ar Hagolan itself, Munhata (Garfinkel 1995: Figs. 24–26), 31 Katharina StrEit Habashan Street (Kaplan 1959: Pl. 1; Kaplan and Ritter-Kaplan 1993: Kaplan and Ritter-Kaplan 1993: 1451–1452), Horvat Ptora (Milevski and Baumgartel 2008: Fig. 3.17), Nahal Zehora II (Gopher and Eyal 2012: Tables 29.1, 29.2), and more recently at Bet Ḥilqiya (van den Brink et al. 2016) and Nahal Zippori 3 (Barzilai et al. 2016). The two fragments of coffee-bean eyed Yarmukian figurines fit well with the ceramic and flint assemblage, and demonstrate the existence of a substantial Pottery Neolithic occupation below the Early Chalcolithic phase at Ein el-Jarba. Discussion Evidence for seven occupational periods has been uncovered at Ein el-Jarba: Pre-Pottery Neolithic B, Pottery Neolithic, Early Chalcolithic, Early Bronze Age IB, Middle Bronze Age II, Persian/Hellenistic, and Byzantine (Streit 2015: Table 1). This highlights the favourable settlement location of the site, which is demonstrated irst by the ecotone at the interface between the Menashe Hills and the Jezreel Valley, and second by the proximity of the Ein Zureiq spring. Considering the substantial architectural remains, loors and installations seen in Area G, Ein el-Jarba appears to have long been a site of enduring occupation. A preliminary analysis of ceramics from the Wadi Rabah strata at Area A and G, as well as the results of the archaeological survey of 2014, suggest that Wadi Rabah occupation was contemporaneous across the whole site, without further chronological subdivision. This does not support the notion of a shifting settlement, as suggested by Avi Gopher (Gopher 2012a: 1552) to explain the large extent of the archaeological remains, which have been observed over approximately 10 ha. Sites of this extent have been regarded as ‘mega’ sites by Gopher (Gopher 2012a: 1552), or ‘conglomerate’ sites by Eli Yannai (Yannai 2006: 280), and the renewed excavations and the survey of Area F both support the notion that Ein el-Jarba was such a ‘mega’ site. However, it remains unclear whether the observed patterns indicate separate farmsteads or dense, urban settlement. The uncovered burials were associated with building complexes, either under loors or within courtyard areas, similar to those observed by Kaplan (Kaplan 1969: 16). It remains unclear whether the individuals were interred while the domestic unit was still occupied, or after it had been abandoned. No distinct treatment has been observed for young infants, so it is possible that they were already considered members of the community at the time of death. The indings from Ein el-Jarba support the notion that intra-settlement mortuary practice was practiced alongside the use of separate burial grounds, a situation also seen at Neve Yam (Galili et al. 2009: 36–37). After ive seasons of excavation at Ein el-Jarba there is abundant evidence to support the hypothesis that there was intensive trade and exchange between the 32 thE 6th MillEnniuM cal bcE Wadi rabah culturE: furthEr ExcavationS at Ein El-Jarba Fig. 13. Trade centres of the 6th millennium BC, based on occurrence of horned igurines, obsidian cores, obsidian mirrors, seals and chlorite vessels. Wadi Rabah culture of the southern Levant, and the Halaf and Amuq C cultures to the north (Fig. 13). Moreover, it is becoming clear that Ein el-Jarba was one of the most important sites to be involved in the obsidian trade of the period, along with Hagoshrim and Tel Kabri. These three sites have yielded varied assemblages that speak to involvement in exchange networks, as opposed to the majority of Wadi Rabah sites, which show little or no direct evidence for long distance trade. It is too early to deine the precise mode of exchange that is represented by the Ein el-Jarba assemblage, but the dominant mechanism at play seems to be Colin Renfrew’s ‘central place mechanism’ (Renfrew 1975). The assemblage at Ein el-Jarba, like those at Hagoshrim and Tel Kabri, relects quantity and variability that are consistent with a site whose population was in direct contact with distant entities, and from where goods would be reworked and redistributed. 33 Katharina StrEit Site Hagoshrim Imported materials Obsidian cores Chlorite vessels Halaf stamp seals Halaf pottery Shared features Trapezoidal igurines Horned igurines References Getzov 2011; Gopher et al. 2011; Rosenberg et al. 2010 Tel Kabri Obsidian core Obsidian mirror Horned igurines Prausnitz 1969; Brimer and Amiran 1996 Ein el-Jarba Obsidian core (small) Chlorite vessel? Halaf pottery Horned igurines Holemouth jar decoration Streit 2015b Table 1. Comparative view of imported goods at Hagoshrim, Tel Kabri and Ein el-Jarba. Conclusion Five seasons of excavation at Ein el-Jarba have helped to shed light on what remains an elusive chapter in the history of the southern Levant. Two excavation areas and one high resolution survey have added to the six areas of restricted size that were examined by earlier researchers (Kaplan 1969; Perrot 1963; Garinkel and Matskevich 2002; Meyerhof 1982; Meyerhof 1988–89; Meyerhof 1991; Anati et al. 1973; Oshri 2000). The project achieved the largest horizontal exposure to date of Wadi Rabah remains at the site, and thus expands knowledge of key topics that have not been studied in detail. The excavation of Area G exposed architectural remains of considerable size, which would be best interpreted as at least partially enclosed compounds, in which an individual house would be surrounded by a perimeter wall that deined an open space. The architecture was rectilinear, and built from a mudbrick superstructure on a foundation of partly dressed stones. Floors were made of beaten earth, rubble or, in some instances, plaster. No attempts to latten the uneven terrain have been observed, and wall foundations followed the topography of the slope. The site was at least partially superimposed on earlier occupation layers from the Pottery Neolithic, which are likely to have been established because of the favourable location. The material culture of the community living at Ein el-Jarba was rich in many aspects. Ceramics were produced using a high degree of technological knowledge, as seen in both vessel construction (thin walled, carinated shapes) and the delicate slip-and-burnish. The red and black ired wares are indirect evidence for the use of pottery kilns in this period, which are be likely to have been near to settled areas, and are thus likely to be discovered in future operations. The lint industry was suited to an agro-pastoral lifestyle, being dominated by sickle blades, adzes and 34 thE 6th MillEnniuM cal bcE Wadi rabah culturE: furthEr ExcavationS at Ein El-Jarba perforators, and nearly devoid of arrowheads. This also applies to the ground stone tool assemblage, which shows mainly grinding and pounding tools, as well as the ubiquitous biconical sling stones. Imagery and bijouterie items are rare, compared to the predating Pottery Neolithic. At least some of the dead, both adults and infants, were interred within the settlement, possibly while the domestic area was still in use. These were simple pit burials, in which the deceased was placed in a foetal position on the left side, their faces turned roughly to the north. No burial goods were included in these graves. Additional symbolic behaviour appears to have been found in the two examples of standing stones (one uncovered by this project, the other by Emanuel Anati) that probably held ritual meaning. They might be the earliest known examples of what later became a key element of southern Levantine cult. Ein el-Jarba was involved in intensive long distance trade with the Halaf and Halaf-related Amuq C cultural entities of northern Mesopotamia and the northern Levant. These trade relations brought obsidian, probably chlorite, and Halaf pottery to the site (Streit in press). Alongside the trade in physical goods, a shared iconographic language emerged, which resulted in comparable zoomorphic depictions of stone horned igurines and clay animal igurines occurring across much of the Middle East. This ‘early internationalism’ is a deining factor of the Wadi Rabah culture, and distinguishes it from the earlier Pottery Neolithic and the following Middle Chalcolithic, as seen most clearly in the frequency of obsidian imports (Garinkel 2011). What caused the onset and the termination of these trade relations is unclear. Further, while no clear continuity into the following Middle and Late Chalcolithic can be observed, it is appropriate to ask whether the increasing social complexity accompanying Early Chalcolithic long distance trade might have formed the background upon which the stratiied societies of the Late Chalcolithic cultures, such as the Ghassulian and the Golan complex, might have been built. The excavations at Ein el-Jarba have revealed a great deal of evidence for a poorly understood chapter of protohistory in the southern Levant, and have thus contributed a more secure foundation for future scholarship. Acknowledgments From 2013 to 2014, this excavation was funded by the Ruth Amiran Research Fund. The Ein el-Jarba Excavation Project also worked in close cooperation with the Jezreel Valley Regional Project, which supported the excavation generously. Since 2015, the project was supported by a research grant from the Fritz Thyssen Stiftung (Az.10.14.2.048), which covers the excavation and the analysis of the inds. 35 Katharina StrEit I am much obliged to OREA (Institute of Oriental and European Archaeology) of the Austrian Academy of Sciences for providing the Total Station used in 2016, and Felix Hölmayer for his measurements and drafting work in the ield. I further thank Hadas Misgav, Alla Rabinovich, Ayelet Segal, Susanne Bergen, Hananel Livneh, Dotan Traubmann and Marina Bekker Shamir for their dedicated work in the ield, and the careful excavation of the material discussed in this paper. I am also grateful for the support of the residents of Kibbutz Hazorea, particularly Menachem Neumark and Leah Peleg, for their help during the excavations seasons. I would further like to thank Gareth Roberts for his editorial work and valuable comments on the manuscript of this paper. 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