Historic Ships, 5th – 6th December 2018, London, UK AT THE ORIGINS OF SHIPBUILDING TREATISES: JOSEPH FURTTENBACH AND THE ARCHITECTURA NAVALIS M Corradi and C Tacchella, University of Genoa, Italy SUMMARY In the XVII century, when one of the naval culture development center was focused mainly in the Mediterranean area, disciplines such as geometry, mathematics, static and hydrodynamics had not yet been studied and early naval architecture treatises were still influenced by empirical and descriptive knowledge typical of an oral rather than a scientific tradition. Precisely is in this context that, in 1626, that Joseph Furttenbach (1591 - 1667) published Architectura Navalis in Ulm. In his treatise he provides a summary of technical descriptions and a detailed account of the construction of sailing boats, according to the Italian way of building, based on direct observation of shipyards. Furttenbach relies on geometric drawings and a metric system of proportions to describe these techniques. Exactly for this reason, the Architectura Navalis is considered one of the first shipbuilding treaties, and it has been used as a model for many authors of the seventeenth and early eighteenth century. 1. INTRODUCTION It is very hard to trace a history of the treatises origins in naval field, particularly in shipbuilding discipline. This is because it requires a thorough examination of many manuscripts dating back to different eras and written in different languages. The low number of these finds is due to a shipwrights and shipbuilders “jealousyˮ: they preferred to pass on their knowledge to a limited students number in oral or practical way rather than to produce a handwritten or printed documentation. In the Mediterranean area the shipbuilding tradition was in the hands of a few actors and the information transmission took place in the few existing shipyards, both for the most modest transport naos and for the most impressive ships like galleys, galleons or later vessels. The Mediterranean basin, the Spanish and French Atlantic coasts, the North Sea rather than the Baltic were the gyms where these builders showed their expertise as “naval architectsˮ. The vast ocean was still unexplored, and the naval geopolitics concentrated almost entirely in the Mediterranean area, where economic, political and religious interests were met, the latter between the Christian and the Muslim world led by the Turkish Empire. For these reasons the center of the naval culture development was centered in the Mediterranean, where the need for trade and war required the continuous ships construction. 2. AT THE ORIGINS OF SHIPBUILDING TREATISES Galley was the main ship using by all the fleets and its development required technical skills to cope with the Turkish danger. The Nautica mediterranea [1] is one of the first treatises of the time, it was written by Bartolomeo Crescenzio (16th century) and maybe it is the first text that try to explain how to build a ship, in particular the galley. It could be considered an archetype of the treaties published in the following century by Robert Dudley (1574 – 1649) [2], Paul Hoste (1652 – 1700) and Fredrik Henrik af Chapman (1721 – 1808) [3]. © 2018: The Royal Institution of Naval Architects Likewise the coeval treatises remains anchored to the description rather than to the technical illustration: Thomé Cano (c.1580 – post 1618) [4], Ithier Hobier (17th century) [5], Joseph Furttenbach (1591 – 1667) [6], George Fournier (1595 – 1652) [7], Isaac Voss (1618 – 1689) [8] witness it. New horizons were opened to the African coasts thanks to Prince Henry the Navigator (1394 – 1460) and to the West thanks to Cristoforo Colombo (1451 – 1506). The Atlantic was no longer the end of the world or the house of sea monsters, and the shipbuilding opened a new era of its history. The discovery of material resources such as copper, silver and gold caused a rapid movement of people in the new continent and consequently it was necessary to renew the fleets because naos, cogs and carracks were no longer adapted to travel in the Atlantic Ocean. The new routes required larger and more resistant ships, which were equipped with massive sailing armaments and that were able to transport large quantities of goods. These complex ships required not only technical knowledge related to construction, but also scientific skills related to geometry, mathematics, static and hydrodynamics. This is in contrast with a wellestablished tradition of the master carpenters who are not accustomed to sudden changes but they are instead anchored to their knowledge and traditions. In the seventeenth century the bases of these disciplines had not yet been laid and the first naval architecture treatises were influenced by those empirical and descriptive knowledge typical of an oral rather than a scientific tradition. In fact, in the first manuscripts that dealt with this theme we felt the intention to transpose the corpus of empirical knowledge through drawings and descriptive tables of the components of these complex machines that were the vessels [9]. The Construction des Vaisseaux du Roy [10] of 1691, the Description du vaisseau le Royal Louis (Marseille: Charles Brebion, 1677) of the Commissioner of the Port of Toulon Laurent Hayet (17th century) or the Proporciones ... para la Fabrica de Navios, by José Antonio de Gaztañeta e Iturribalzaga (1656 - 1728) [11] are texts still linked to 1 Historic Ships, 5th – 6th December 2018, London, UK practical knowledge of shipbuilding that Giovanni Santi Mazzini (1941 - 2014) calls “the knowledge of the naval anatomyˮ. This is the setting of the naval architectural treatise by Joseph Furttenbach, which will be the forerunner of a renewal of the treatises in the naval field, and which will find its epigones in William Keltridge (17th century) [12], naval carpenter, Edward Battine (17th century) [13], illustrator, le Sr. Dassié (François Dassié, 17th century) [14], Nicolaes Witsen (1641 1717) [15], Johannes Van Keulen (1654 – 1715) [16], Carel Allard (1648 - 1709) [17], Cornelis van Yk (16th17th century) [18], Stefano de Zuanne de Michel (17th century), Viceproto de’ Marangoni at Venice Arsenal [19]. Then again Henri Sbonski de Passebon (1637 1705) [20], that defined himself as “Lieutenant d’une des Galeres du Roy” in the title page of his work, and then the Jesuit and mathematician Paul Hoste, that will give a great impulse to a renewal of the science and techniques of shipbuilding with his treatises Thèorie de la construction des vaisseaux… and L’art des armées navales ou Traité des evolutions navales edited in Lyon by Anisson & Posuel (1697), taking care to indicate and theorize the path for the development of a discipline based on scientific bases: naval architecture. Nevertheless in his treatise Ship Models [21] Brian Lavery writes: «As ships became much larger and more complex, it was necessary to use scale plans in their construction. In building a small coastal vessel it might be possible to carve a model of a hull and scale it up to form the shape of the real vessel. With large ships, from about 1580 onwards, the plan was needed to construct both ship and model … some of the earliest plans were produced in Venice in the sixteenth century. (…) The first known English plans are those in Matthew Baker’s manuscript ‘Fragment of Early English Shipwrightry’ (and) the clearest set of seventeenth century plans comes from Anthony Deane’s ‘Doctrine of Naval Architecture’ of 1670. The ‘Keltridge draughts’, plans of seven ships, drawn by William Keltridge are dated 1684». The eighteenth century will testify to these changes thanks to the contributions of William Sutherland (1668 1740) [22], Pierre Bouguer (1698 - 1758), Henri Louis Duhamel du Monceau (1700 – 1782), Marmaduke Stalkartt (1750 - 1805) [23], Fredrik Henrik af Chapman, Honoré-Sébastien Vial du Clairbois (1733 - 1816) [24], Jorge Juan y Santacilia (1713 - 1773) [25], who were able to understand Hoste’s lesson and develop this new discipline based on mathematics and drawing. These authors will tread the path to the new discipline that thanks to the mathematicians will become Naval Science. For the excellence of their contributions we recall Pierre Bouguer (1698 –1758), Charles Bossut (1730 – 1814), Johann I Bernoulli (1667 – 1748), Leonhard Euler (1707 – 1783). In 1805 David Steel (1763 - 1803) published a synthesis of the experiences of the previous century and mature treatise on the wooden shipbuilding of the past in the text The Elements and Practice of Naval Architecture [26]. 2 3. THE MULTIFACETED SCHOLAR JOSEPH FURTTENBACH GERMAN The German mathematician, architect and engineer, perhaps an alchemist [27] Joseph Furttenbach (1591 1667) [28] was a man with vast speculative horizons [29]. His scientific and practical interests also turned to the field of military architecture, pyrotechnics and scenic (theatre and set design). However, in this note he is remembered for his treatise Architectura Navalis published in Ulm in 1629 [30]. He was born in Leutkirch (Schwaben), near Ulm. Here his father Hieronymus Furttenbach (1539 – 96) was a magistrate, later became an architect of the city of Ulm, then administrator and then senator of the city. Joseph Furttenbach was the twentieth son and he was started as a merchant, which is why he spent a long time in Italy (perhaps from 1607/08 to 1620 or, according to other authors, from 1605 to 1625). Initially he went to Milan to learn Italian, then to Florence, where he attended training courses in mercantile activity with his relatives, and also in Genoa, where he worked on shipbuilding. The stay in Italy stimulated the curiosity of the young Joseph pushing him to take an interest in architecture, theatre and stage technology, but nevertheless of pyrotechnics and artillery (“Arte de la Bombardieri”) with the help of Ambrosio Cusano (17th century) commander of the Bombardiers of the Republic of Genoa [31], of military architecture under the guidance of the architect and military engineer Paolo Rizio (17th century) [32] “Ingenier Maggior del Re di Spagna, & Architecto della Serenissima Republica di Genova” [33]. He also participated in the courses of the Academy of Art of the architect, mathematician, engraver and stage designer, Giulio Parigi (1571 - 1635) in Florence. His interest in Italian architecture is evident from the descriptions of Strada Nuova in Genoa «whose delicate architecture to the modern considers incomparable in Europe» [34]. Among other things, he also came into contact with Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642), from whom he received the model of an endless screw and other mechanical instruments [35]. He returned to Leutkirch in 1620 and the following year he moved to Ulm where he worked in a merchant company. In 1623 he married Anna Katharina Strauss (1598 1680). In 1627 he published the diary of his trip to Italy entitled Newes Itinerarium Italiae (Ulm, 1627), which was one of the most widespread and read travel journals in seventeenth-century Germany. In 1631 he was appointed Architect of the Town Hall of Ulm and took care of the maintenance of city fortifications and public buildings. As a municipal architect, he designed and built a hospital, a bathhouse and a water supply elevator, an Italian-style theater, fortifications, bridges, gardens, various school buildings, housing for the military and plans to expand the town. Thanks to his project for the fortification of Ulm was built one of the fortresses that was never conquered during the Thirty Years War [36]. © 2018: The Royal Institution of Naval Architects Historic Ships, 5th – 6th December 2018, London, UK Surely the stay in Liguria has left a very strong trace in the memory of the young Furttenbach, in fact his text of 1663 shows examples of the Ligurian coast during the explanation of the trilateration in geometry and for the use of the compass in navigation. During his stay in Italy, he visited Genoa [37] where he learned of “l’arte di costruire navigliˮ as Rondelet [38] would say. Beginning with the study of shipbuilding in Genoa, as an observer and skilled in design, on the basis of his observations and the elements gathered in the Genoa construction sites, he published the Architectura Navalis [39], which was the first compendium on the art of shipbuilding based on the direct experience of the shipyard. This was the occasion to write one of the first modern treatises on shipbuilding used in Italy. In fact, his book is one of the first “modern” works on shipbuilding, especially on ships built and used in Italy, especially in the area of the Genoese in the late 16th century [40], and it is also the first document in which the word “naval architecture” appears. transmission tool of the knowledge and also a way to translate the ancient knowledge in “recipes” useful to develop the shipbuilding art. This paper represents one of the largest compendiums of naval technique through the scale drawings of sections and longitudinal, transversal and perspective views and thanks to the constructive and descriptive details. It is interesting to note the use of Italian words to describes ships or part of them. This is the testimony that many words of shipbuilding did not have a translation in German yet. The shipbuilding treatise is him most famous and widespread opera. It was imitated and copied, especially in the Netherlands, by numerous coeval authors as the Dutch cartographer and engraver Nicolaes Witsen [41], the scion of a family of naval carpenters in Amsterdam Cornelis van Yk [42], and the Dutch art dealer, cartographer and engraver Carel Allard [43]. In 1719 the paper L’art de bâtir les vaisseaux et d’en perfectionner la construction was published in Amsterdam by David Mortier, and it summarizes in a single text the Witsen Van Eyk (Yk) e Allard treaties [44]. 4. JOSEPH FURTTENBACH GENOESE SHIPBUILDING AND THE During his stay in Italy, especially in Genoa, Furttenbach studied the Mediterranean ships, particularly galleys and galleons, but also brigantines, feluccas, frigates, etc. (Figure 1, 2) These studies stimulated his technical and mathematical skills so that he elaborated his idea of naval architecture basing on the Genoese ships. In his shipbuilding treatise Furttenbach gives many technical descriptions about the Italian sailboat constructions. The treaty also has several illustrations with a pleasant graphic style that will make school. As we have already said, the shipbuilding art was in the hands of few shipwrights, whom kept their secrets with jealousy. Furttenbach observes and analyzes their methods and then he describes these techniques with the geometric drawing using a metric system of proportions. For these reasons the Architectura Navalis is considered one of the first shipbuilding treatises and it was used as a reference model by many later authors in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries [45]. Furthermore, Furttenbach writes that in his treatise are shown “méthodes infaillibles et certainesˮ that he learned during visits to the Italian shipyards. He also writes that the contact with shipwrights helped him to find the ships right proportions. The geometry becomes a interpretation and © 2018: The Royal Institution of Naval Architects Figure 1, 2: in the Newes Itinerarium Italiae Furttenbach describes ships built in the Genoese arsenal: ship, vessel, galley, brigantine, feluccas, frigate, polacre and rowboat [pp. 210-211]. In the figures we can see a “barchetta” (Furttenbach: figure 23 and 24) with the ship and oar main dimensions measured in Genoese palms. 5. THE JOSEPH ARCHITECTURA NAVALIS FURTTENBACHʼS Furttenbach has an encyclopaedic and descriptive intent as we can understand by the first general considerations that he makes about the ship categories and by the detailed description of some of them. The first distinction concerns the types of ships (probably those that he saw during his stay in Italy): ships with oars «these are 3 Historic Ships, 5th – 6th December 2018, London, UK galleys, galeazze, galeotte, brigs, feluccas, frigates, leudi, small boats, flat boats, ships that can be moved even without wind by the men power». These ship also had masts and sails. The other type of ship is formed by those moved only by the propulsion of the wind: «galley, brigantine, feluccas, frigate, polacre, tartans, etc.» [46]. They are all typically Mediterranean and Ligurian ships. The first treaty part and the first seven engravings are dedicated to the galley description. When Furttenbach wrote the treatise, there were no texts that spoke of the galleys construction. The two principal works are: De la construction d’une gallaire… (Paris: Denis Langloys, 1622) wrote by Ithier Hobier, and Orbis Maritimi (1643) wrote by Claudio Bartholomeo Morisoto (1592 - 1661), in which it is written about “Nova Triremis, quam dicimus, Galere” [47]. There were also a few other shipbuilding treaties written in Italy at the end of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth century [48]; among all, the Furttenbachʼs treatise is the most interesting because of the study of the techniques to trace the ship shapes used the beginning of the seventeenth century. Both from Furttenbach and its peers, the galley was considered one of the most important rowing boats because it was possible to use it in the best conditions both in case of peace and war. Because of its value, Furttenbach painstakingly describes the exact dimensions of a wooden hull that he saw during construction and then underway with excellent results. The galley was not only a versatile ship, useful for both military and mercantile purposes, but it was also a majestic and dignified ship, it was a castle in the sea that witnessed the maritime power of the fleet. For this reason, in addition to flames and banners, the galley rose up the Captain flag and the Kingʼs or Princeʼs Weapons [49]. When Furttenbach wrote this treatise, the cannon was already part of the war potential of the galley that was armed with a cannon forward in a central position, flanked by two pieces of artillery called moiane firing a 10-pound iron ball and two other pieces called petrieri firing a 9pound stone ball. Below each battery cannon were two rectangular openings each containing a wheel on which ran a cable that was used to relocate the gun in the correct position. Overall there were twenty-seven thwarts for rowers: on each wall, there were five men for oars. The 54 oars were moved by 270 men. Likewise, an ordinary galley had 25 oars on the left and 26 on the right, that is, 51 oars and 255 oarsmen, and it was sometimes possible to see 6 oarsmen, as the author says in the text. The Captain was assisted by a Counselor, an elderly and experienced pilot, a scribe, a doctor and a chaplain. At the Captain command there were six sailors assigned to the foreman manoeuvres, while another ten sailors guarded the prisoners. In addition, 10-15 young adventurers were embarked to begin their sea practice. Then again in the galley there were a carpenter, two coopers, two caulkers for caulking the boat and plug any leaks or water infiltrations, two hubs or prisoners in 4 charge of bringing objects from the bottom of the cove onto the upper deck, two cooks, two hubs, a barber and four shipwrights. In the event of a battle, a corporal and 50 soldiers must be on board for the ordinary guard, and other 100 fighting soldiers; during the navigation they had to remain crouched among the oars, taking care not to intrude the rowing. The crew was generally composed half by Turkish or Moorish slaves, and half by Christian prisoners condemned by the courts. To ensure orderliness, there were two Comes forward and aft the central gangway; they controlled the rowers using a whistle and sometimes a long whip with which they hit those who did not row in time. Because of the hard conditions of life on board, many convicts died during the navigation. The detailed description of the galley shows the attention that the author had, writing this important work. Generally the length of a galley was 180 palms (about 44.64 meters) [50]; the galley had a tapered shape like a fish and according to the most experienced shipwrights, it had to imitated the dolphin shape: the bow represented the head while the stern was the tail, the ribs formed the body, the rudder was the moving part of the tail and the oars were the fins. The galley had two masts with theirs yards to rise up sails in windy conditions. Five types of wood were used for construction: oak, elm, fir, beech and walnut. Observing the tables that illustrate the text we can learn interesting information such as the exact point from which the ship body can be defined as bow or stern, where are the points of greatest hull size and still the position of the various ribs. Every single constructive element is described and accompanied by the metric referring to the Genoese time measurement units. In the text it is also shown where the mast can be placed in order to be able to completely disappear from view during combat, i.e. in correspondence with the central gangway. The gangway was simply a long, very sturdy wooden box, the front of which was reserved for the gangway cannon; the latter was a culverin or a cannon, placed on a carriage without wheels and resting on slides equipped with grooved guides. The gangway was the place reserved for the Comes and could also serve as a walk for the slaves. Moreover, during the night it served as a guard post that had to control the prisoners and avert any attempts to escape. Finally, among the many advantages that the central gangway offered, one was the deposit of the tent, a thick canvas that was used to cover the prison and protect the crew from the sun and rain. The galley description is enriched with symbols that indicate the precise position of nine openings, which in order starting from stern, indicated: the scagnielo (lockers, or extreme aft part), the Great Cabin, the lagusa (gunners’ store), two store rooms (with provisions, supplies…), powder magazine and the other three openings were sails, cables, spare parts and other equipment rooms. These openings were closed by doors so that the waves would not penetrate inside the galley in case of rough seas. © 2018: The Royal Institution of Naval Architects Historic Ships, 5th – 6th December 2018, London, UK The Author then describes the individual parts that form the structural members of the galley: the mast step, the main beam (that is a oak curved nailed and caulked board positioned almost in the middle of a ship on which the deck was placed) followed by always smaller beams towards the stern and towards the bow; the stern giogo (yokes: two wooden beam, placed one forward and the other aft of a galley, with the lower shape dug as an arch to lean perfectly against the deck and they form the width of the whole galley); the bow giogo (with the same shape as the previous one); the first garida (it is a wooden arch necessary to enter the stern and it is placed on the giogo), and the second garida that is fixed on the dragante (wing-transom: a wooden beam with a central height greater than the sides). The two garide were joint with a joist previously arranged between them and with another eight arches fixed on the stern walls. Later, on these bows were placed on flexible latte (broad thin beams which support the deck of a galley) that were going to form a kind of perforated canopy that could be covered with a strong canvas to protect from the rain. The Author divides the galley body in three parts: the stem with a somewhat rounded shape, the central part or keel; the stern post. The keel is a large oak beam composed of several pieces joined together; it is placed on two pegs stuck in the ground and it is the first piece that was made in the galley construction. At its ends were fixed the stern post and stem. The latter are described in the treatise in a precise way, both through their dimensions and geometrically, even indicating the method of tracking. The stamenali (ribs) did not have all the same width: the forward part of the galley had to bear a greater weight than the stern because of the cannons and the anchors, and the hull had to be a little more prominent in the bow than aft to cleave the waves better, ensuring greater stability in navigation. Nevertheless, as Furttenbach underlines, an excess of forward width made the galley heavy for rowing. At the far end, there was an element that connected the spur to the stem, it was the cutwater; as the name says, its function was that of cut the waves to make the ship go faster. The first rib was the largest and it was made by three pieces of wood: the bottom was placed on the keel, and it was called madiere or matera (floor-timber) and it is extends to its ends with two curved wooden beams called scalmi. Like the other ribs also the matere and the forcacci (fourcats: bow and stern ribs with fork shape) change and become smaller and closer to their base moving away from the centre of the galley. In a galley there were 162 ribs: 32 aft fourcats, 34 aft matere, 26 aft ribs, 26 bow ribs, 29 bow matere and 15 bow fourcats. The rising of the aft floor timbers is called in Italian stella verso poppa and similarly the rising of the bow floor timbers is called in Italian stella di prua. These ribs had a base to rise up on the keel; this base was a piece of wood fixed to the ribʼs bottom. The floor timber of the last matera was called in Italian dente di poppa (literally: stern tooth). The fourcats had a “Yˮ shape and it was recommended to extract them from a piece of single wood cut from carefully selected trees. If © 2018: The Royal Institution of Naval Architects the piece with the desired dimensions was not found in nature, the carpenters resigned themselves to building them in the workshop. The 32nd fourcat was fixed to the Inner sternpost and in Italian it was called bastardella or culatta (breech), expressions that indicate well how the galley actually terminated at this point. The fourcats were positioned on the keel after the 34th matera. The sternpost was fixed to the keel and it had this shape: a inner sternpost was placed on the keel and on the sternpost; it was solidly joined to these two pieces and kept them tightly tied head to head. The inner sternpost was a bent pieces of wood fixed with a robust nailing. The fourcats are very sharp near the base and they were filled with wooden blocks that then went to support the plank. The contro-ruota di prua (inner stem) was divided in 15 parts, each of which had to be occupied by one bow fourcats (without base). On the two side, the galley stern had lateral walls called impavesate or muraglie. Then, there was a transversal wall linked to the sternpost and to the fasciame (planks), called dragante (wing-transom); Its purpose was to support the aft part of the hull. Outside there was a balustrade and above the roof or tent. On the side of the wall were generally painted historical fights scenes for decorative purposes. With the term chiavi (struts) were indicated wooden beams that transversely reinforced the bottom of the galley; they joined the two sides of the body and were nailed to the ribs. The fist strut was in front of the main bow rib, and it was a large table against which the heel of the main mast and the bilge rafters passed. Next to each of them there was a small square prop stuck in the contro-chiglia (back of the keel), which served to support the struts themselves as well as the upper middle beams, the gangway and the deck. These beams were contained in the bow part of the galley body forming a large hold without other subdivisions. On the contrary, aft of the mast, there are five struts and as many props, where some walls of boards divided the space into rooms used as lodgings and services. The main mast was the large central shaft with a larger diameter at the base and smaller at the top. The mast was centrally located and had a larger diameter at the base and less at the top. Generally it was obtained from the trunk of a straight and smooth fir, leaving it the natural round shape. Its yard was a long perch to which the sail was attached, and it was composed of two round pieces of wood, joined together towards the center. Even the foremast had a larger diameter at the base than the highest point and it was generally made from a single straight spruce trunk, as well as its yard. The two yard components were joined with elements called trinche (woolding: strong connection of two or more parts by cable or chain, with several dense, parallel and stretched laps). The hull was divided into three parts: the keel, the floortimber and the back of the keel. The upper deck consisted of a planks supported at the center of the ship by a 5 Historic Ships, 5th – 6th December 2018, London, UK longitudinal beam that it was supported by props resting on the back of the keel. Along each side, below the level of the bridge, a wooden beam (a stiffening) of semiround shape ran along the entire side; it was called cordone (cordon: the lowest rail of ribband of a galley or the extreme breadth ribband, and what, in ship, is called the main-channel). In the inner side, in correspondence of the cord, there was the contro-cordone (inner-cordon), of the same dimensions as the previous one, but with a rectangular shape. The galley ribs were firmly tightened between these two elements, thus avoiding any movement. Always on the side, above the coasts, are the baccalari (Mediterranean term to indicate a sort of standing knees on the deck of a galley, projecting of each side above the row-locks) or lattoni (latte of the giogo) that widened the galley like the bow and stern gioghi. For the realization of these elements it was preferable to use pieces of wood with natural curvature, but given the rarity of these shapes, they were generally made by nailing together two or three well-shaped elements. They supported the first and second drapera. The drapera was a longitudinal beam fixed in the lattone side; the first drapera was internal, while the second was external. Between these balustrades and the gangway, the rowers’ thwarts were arranged, with one end indented right in the gangway and the other on a beam fixed in the side of the baccalare. Another little thwart it was placed below and a little farther ahead of the large thwart, and on this the rowers leaned their feet and there were eventually chained convicts or slaves. There was also a long wooden beam on the deck nailed and indented to all the baccalari that ran the full length of the galley. Each baccalare was helped to support the load from some supports called aposticci, placed on the two sides of the galley. Between the aft giogo and the wing-transom there were some straight latte to support the stern. To border externally the galley, The latte necessarily had to be more robust and therefore larger, compared to those used for the internal planks. The oars were made of maple trunks without knots, of round section for more than half of their length; they widened slightly towards the end, flattening on the ends like a shovel to cut the water. The oars were made of maple trunks without knots, of round section for more than half of their length; they widened slightly towards the end, flattening on the ends like a blade to cut the water. The author focuses on describing the bow giogo where the gunnery was arranged; it was equipped with a bow roof useful both to protect the artillery and as a shelter for passengers. During the fight, this roof became a kind of fortified place, protected by the boards that formed a parapet, occupied by the best soldiers armed with muskets. The rudder was the great directional oar that was suspended with two hooks at the galley stern; one hook was fixed on the rudder about halfway up, while the other one was fixed to the stern post, engaged in a ring placed almost on the rudder bottom. The rudder manoeuvres were reserved to a particular officer called pilot. To move it, the pilot applied the force on a bar that, hooked to the top of the rudder, penetrated the stern, thus connecting it with the 6 inside of the galley. The rudder was made from an oak table and reinforced by forged iron bands. The device to throw the anchor at sea had to be practical and convenient, as these operations could be done both day and night. The hanging anchor was supported by a cable tied to its ring that ran on a pivot, which in turn was embedded in a beam. Connected to the beam, there was a vertical fork whose handle was engaged in the bow roof, and was used to guide the cable on which it is winged. The operation was carried out as follows: the cable was pulled up by the whole crew, and when the anchor ring came into contact with the pin on the corner of the beam, the fork was removed and the anchor immediately went to lay its head in the his definitive position between the two bighe (props). The galley was caulked by spreading the whole hull with hemp soaked in warm pitch, and the opera viva (quick-works) were covered with well-liquefied black pitch. This served to protect the hull and with a well-seasoned wood, the galley could reach nine years of activity as first galley and another 3 or 4 years as ordinary ship. A well built and well maintained galley was an incredible sturdy war machine capable of navigating at speeds of 5-6 or even 7 miles an hour with calm seas; with a good wind the use of rowers was superfluous and using only sail could travel up to 12 miles per hour. In the continuation of the treaty, Furttenbach describes many types of boats; among these he cites: the galleass (pp. 78-79), the galeotta (smaller galley) and the brigantine (p.80), the felucca (p.81), the frigate (pp. 8284), the leudo (is the name given, in Liguria, to a family of Latin sailboats that were used for the cabotage activities (transport of goods) up to the last decades of the twentieth century, throughout the Mediterranean area, p.85), the barchetta (small boat, pp. 86-88), the ship, probably the Flemish fluyt (pp. 89-102), the polacre (pp. 103-104), the tartan (p.105), the barge (p.106), the caramuzzala (a small Turkish vessel with eight oars, pp. 107-110) (see Figure 3), the ordinary rowboat and sail boat (pp. 111-114). In according to Furttenbach [51], “the tartan is little smaller than polacre. Therefore, since a vessel measured between 60 and 70 palms [m 14.68-17.34], the units of lesser measure were called tartans instead of polacres. Ten men are needed to govern it. The tartans were used a lot in the Mediterranean sea because of their agility and their speedˮ [52]. The ‘Carramuzzal’ or ‘Brigandine’ was one of the favourite boats of the Turkish pirates who infested the Mediterranean in the 16th and 17th centuries. Hakluyt [53] states that they were ships similar to the French Gabards, which sailed armed with Latin sails, on the Garonne river in Bordeaux. The boat represented in the Joseph Furttenbachʼs text is devoid of trees and sails in order to show the set of armaments embarked on board. © 2018: The Royal Institution of Naval Architects Historic Ships, 5th – 6th December 2018, London, UK In the second part of his treatise, Furttenbach explains the principles for the construction of a boat typical of the Netherlands, probably the Fluyt. He provides a lot of information and constructional details sufficient for a time carpenter to proceed with the construction of this boat. The text is similar to the work done half a century before him, by the scientist, explorer and shipbuilder Diego García de Palacio (1540 - 1595), who worked in the Virreinato de Nueva España. His book Instrucion nauthica (Instrucción náutica) [54] is perhaps the first naval construction treatise ever published. Finally, the last part of the Furttenbachʼs treatise is dedicated to the description of the Battle of Lepanto that took place on 7 October 1571 [55]. It was the greatest naval battle of the Renaissance, and it was one of the last great galley battles in the Mediterranean Sea. In two plates, the description of the naval battle is associated with the layout of the Christian and Turkish fleet (Plate 19) and with the naval combat and the outcome of the clash (Plate 20) in which we see part of the Turkish fleet moving away from the battle. In this last plate is represented the Turkish commander Uluç Alì Pascià (1519 - 1587), whose name was crippled in Occhialì. He was the only Turkish commander to survive the battle, running away with 40 vessels. then technical manuals. It is for these reasons that Furttenbach can be considered an anticipator, a pioneer of the science and technique of shipbuilding; all these disciplines will then be developed in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries [56]. 7. This publication was written in “Art of building and aesthetics in naval iconography from the Middle Ages to the Modern Ageˮ research area and it was financed with Department of Architecture and Design ‘FRA 2017’ funds of the University of Genoa (UniGE). 8. REFERENCES 1. CRESCENZIO, B., Nautica mediterranea… Roma: Bonfadino, 1607. 2. DUDLEY, R. Dell’Arcano del mare. Tome II, Book IV. Firenze: Onofri, 1646. 3. CHAPMAN, F. H. Architectura Navalis Mercatoria... Holmiæ (Stockholm): [s.n.], 1768. 4. CANO, T. Arte para fabricar, fortificar y aparejar naos de guerra y merchante… Sevilla: Estupiñan, 1611. 5. HOBIER, I. De la construction d’une gallaire et de son équipage. Paris: Langloys, 1622. 6. FURTTENBACH, J. Architectura navalis. Ulm: Saurn, 1629. 7. FOURNIER, G. Hydrographie... Paris: Soly, 1643. 8. VOSSIUS, I. ‘De Trirerium & Liburnicarum constructione’ in Variarum Observationum Liber. Londini: Scott, 1685; p. 95-139. 9. In 1625, a first English manuscript about the shipbuilding was published with the title A Treatise on Shipbuilding and a Treatise on Rigging, Written about 1620-1625, afterwards printed by W. Salisbury & R.C. Anderson and published by the Society for Nautical Research, Occasional publications, No 6. London: The Society for Nautical Research, 1958. In 1670 the important text Deane’s Doctrine of Naval Architecture was published, subsequently reprinted by Brian Lavery for the Conway Maritime Press (London, 1991). This text anticipates the W. Sutherlandʼs work, entitled The ship-builders assistant ... (London, 1711) and reprinted by Jean Boudriot in 1989 (Rotherfield, 1989). Figure 3: Turkish caramuzzal from Furttenbach (Plate 17). 6. CONCLUSIONS As we can see from this summary synthesis, the description that Furttenbach makes of the galley and of the other vessels mentioned in his work, shows his perfect knowledge of shipbuilding in the seventeenth century. This is the result of a careful study and practice of the shipyards of the time. The importance of this text is therefore in the method used for the treatment of shipbuilding: the text shows a careful analysis of the individual construction elements, of the shape, of the dimensions and of the nomenclature of the parts that contribute to forming a boat. It also shows how the construction of a boat can be described through the use of scale drawing, with an extensive use of geometry. It is a first work that will lead the way to a genre literature that in the following centuries will become treatises and © 2018: The Royal Institution of Naval Architects ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 7 Historic Ships, 5th – 6th December 2018, London, UK 10. Construction des Vaisseaux du Roy, et le nom de toutes les pièces qui y entrent, marquées en la Table par numero. Avec toutes les proportions des rangs, leur explication, & l’exercice du Canon Havre de Grace: (J. Hubault), 1691. 11. GASTAÑETA AND ITURRIBALZAGA, A. de. Proporciones de las medidas … para la Fabrica de Navios, y Fragatas de Guerra… . Madrid: Alonso, 1720. 12. KELTRIDGE, W. Notebook, c. 1675; KELTRIDGE, W. Original drawings of seven hulls of ships. Manuscript, 1684. See: DAVIES, J. D. Pepys’s Navy: Ships, Men and Warfare 1649-89. Barnsley: Seaforth Publishing, 2008; p. 67. 13. 14. BATTINE, E. Method of building, rigging, &c. Ships of warr. Manuscript, dated Dec. 23, 1684. See: COCHRAN, J. A Second Catalogue of Manuscripts, in Different Languages... London: Ibotson & Palmer, 1837; p. 138 and A Catalogue of the Harleian Manuscripts in the British Museum. Vol. IV. (London): The House of Commons of Great Britain, 1812: p. 266. There is also a manuscript published August 3, 1689 and titled The Method of building, rigging, apparelling and furnishing his Majesty’s Ships of War… London: printed by Order of the Trustees, 1839; p. 8. DASSIE, le Sr. L’architecture navale… Paris: de la Caille, 1677. 15. WITSEN, N. Architectura Navalis… Amsterdam: Casparus Commelijn, 1671. 16. VAN KEULEN, J. De nieuwe hollandsche scheepsbouw. Amsterdam: J. van Keulen, 1680; quoted in HOOGENDOORN, K. Bibliography of the Exact Sciences in the Low Countries from ca. 1470 to the Golden Age (1700). Leiden: Brill, 2018; p. 1080. 17. ALLARD, C. Nieuwe Hollandse Scheepsbouw… Carel Allard. Amsteldam: Allard, 1695. 18. VAN IK, C. De Nederlandsche Scheeps-bouw… Delft: Voorstad, 1697. 19. L’architettura Navale di Stefano de Zuanne de Michel Viceproto de’ Marangoni… Venezia: Manuscript, 1686. 20. 8 SBONSKI DE PASSEBON, H. Plan de plusieurs bâtimens de mer... [Marseille]: Brémond, c.1690 or Amsterdam: Mortier, c.1690. 21. LAVERY, B. and S. STEPHENS. Ship Models: Their Purpose and Development from 1650 to the Present London: Zwemmer 1995. 22. SUTHERLAND, W. The Ship-builders Assistant... London: R. Mount, A. Bill and R. Smith, 1711. See: SUTHERLAND, W. Britain’s Glory: or Ship-Building Unvail’d. London: Norris, 1717. 23. STALKARTT, M. Naval architecture… London: printed for the Author, 1781. 24. VIAL DU CLAIRBOIS, H.-S. Traité élémentaire de la construction des vaisseaux… Paris: Clousier, 1787. 25. JUAN Y SANTACILIA, J. Examen maritimo theorico-práctico… Madrid: de Mena, 1771. 26. STEEL, D. The Elements and Practice of Naval Architecture… London: Wittingham, 1805. 27. In his eulogy to Leibnitz, Fontenelle writes that, shortly before his death, the great German scholarly was still wondering how Furttenbach had been able to «changé la moitié d’un clou de fer en or» (See: Eloge de Monsieur Leibnitz, by FONTENELLE [Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle (1657 – 1757)], in Œuvres diverses de M. Fontenelle, Tome 5. La Haye: van Dole, 1736; p. 54). 28. FURTTENBACH, J. S. von, in Joseph Furttenbach, Lebenslauff, 1652-1664, edited by K. VON GREYERZ, K. SIEBENHÜNER and R. ZAUGG. Köln: Böhlau 2013. Often referred to as “the old Furttenbach” to distinguish him from his son, called Joseph too - Furttenbach the Younger (1632 - 1655) - draftsman, painter and engraver. 29. Oriented to different fields, his culture of knowledge has led him to write many topics among which stands out Architecture and Theatre published in Ulm by Saur: HalinitroPyrobolia and Newes Itinerarium Italiae (1627); Architectura Civilis (1628); Architectura Martialis (1630); Architectura Universalis. Ulm: Meder, 1635; Architectura Recreationis. Augsburg: Schultes, 1640; Architectura Privata. Augsburg: Schultes, 1641. 30. FURTTENBACH, J. Architectura Navalis... Ulm: Saur, 1629. 31. FURTTENBACH, J. Büchsenmeisterey-Schul. Augspurg: Schultes, 1643; p. 20. © 2018: The Royal Institution of Naval Architects Historic Ships, 5th – 6th December 2018, London, UK 32. 33. 34. KAESTNER, A. G. Geschichte der Mathematik... Göttingen: Rosenbusch, 1799; p. 433. FURTTENBACH, J. Architectura Augspurg: Schultes, 1641; p. 37. MORISOTO, C. B. Orbis Maritimi sive Rerum in maris et littoribus gestarum generalis historia. Divione: Palliot, 1643; p. 699. 48. CORRADI, M. Biblioteca di Storia della costruzione navale. Morrisville: Lulu, 2011. 49. FURTTENBACH, J. Op. cit., p. 10-11. 50. A Genoese palm measured about 0.248 meters, see: FORTI, L. C. Fortificazioni e ingegneri militari in Liguria (1684-1814). Genoa: Compagnia dei Librai, 1992: p. 302. 51. FURTTENBACH, J. Op. cit., p. 105. 52. DE NICOLÒ, M. L. L’età delle tartane in DE NICOLÒ, M. L. (edited by). Tartane. Quaderno n. 9. Pesaro: Museo della Marineria, 2013; p. 10. 53. HAKLUYT, R. and E. GOLDSMID (editors). The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation. Vol. V: Central and Southern Europe. Edinburgh: Goldsmid, 1887; p. 235. 54. GARCÍA DE PALACIO, D. Instrucion nauthica (Instrucción náutica)… Mexico: Ocharte, 1587. 55. The chapter on the description of the battle of Lepanto is illustrated with two images showing the fleet ready for battle (the first) and the conditions of the fleets at the end of the naval combat (the second). These two engraving were published in 1639 and the author of the illustrations is Jacob Custos (c.1600 - after 1643) who collaborated with Furttenbach for the illustration of his architectural treatises. 56. See: CORRADI, M. ‘Epitome della scienza navale’, Atti del 2° convegno nazionale. Cultura navale e marittima, edited by MOROZZO DELLA ROCCA, M. C. and F. TIBONI. Florence: goWare, 2017; p. 136-149. 9. AUTHORS BIOGRAPHY Privata. KRUFT, H. W. Geschichte der Architekturtheorie... München: Beck, 1991; p. 193. 35. HIBER, K. Lichteffekte im theatralen Raum. Diplomarbeit, Magister der Philosophie. Universität Wien, 2010; p. 37. 36. A Furttenbachʼs biography is in: Furttenbach, Joseph. Lebenslauff, 1652-1664, edited by K. VON GREYERZ, K. SIEBENHÜNER and R. ZAUGG [Köln: Böhlau, 2013]. 37. 47. The description of Genoa is in Newes Itinerarium Italiae. Ulm: Saurn, 1627; p. 179230. 38. RONDELET, G. Memoria sulla Marineria degli Antichi e su i navigli a parecchi ordini di remi. Mantova: Fratelli Negretti, 1840; p. 1. 39. The expression “Naval Architecture” is used to designate naval design techniques and it was probably used for the first time in the seventeenth century by João Baptista Lavanha (c.1550 - 1624) in his treatise Livro Primeiro de Arquitectura Naval, manuscript c.1608. Before this one naval architecture was called Ars nautica by Fernão de Oliveira (1507 – c.1581). 40. La Riviera di Genova. FURTTENBACH, J. Mannhaffter Kunst-Spiegel... Augsburg: Schultes, 1663. 41. WITSEN, N. Architectura Navalis et Regimen Nauticum… Amsterdam: Blaeu, 1698 (2nd ed.). 42. VAN IK, C. De Nederlandsche Scheeps-bouwkunst open gestelt. Delft: Voorstad, 1697. 43. ALLARD, C. Op. cit. 44. L’art de bâtir les vaisseaux et d’en perfectionner la construction… Amsterdam: Mortier, 1719. 45. There is a French translation of Furttenbachʼs Treaty entitled: Architectura navalis ou de la Construction des navires en usage sur mer et le long des côtes ... traduit de l’allemand par Jean Poujade. Paris: Bellamy, 1939. 46. FURTTENBACH, J. Op. cit., p. 9. © 2018: The Royal Institution of Naval Architects Massimo Corradi is professor of History of Science and structural mechanics at the Polytechnic School of the University of Genoa (Italy). Research focuses on the History of science, History of shipbuilding and Naval science, Structural mechanics and Construction history. Claudia Tacchella is scholar in the field of History of shipbuilding at the Polytechnic School of the University of Genoa (Italy). 9