L _ Cupyril:hl C 1\t98 by UniHnity I'Ta5 of America ,iII lnc. 4720 Ro!;IOn W ay luhln, Maryland 20706 12 Hid's Copse Rd OX2 9SJ Cunlln..,.. Hill, o~r\l'd ACKNOWLEDGMENTS All riPII rt~wd Printed in the UniTed SlUes of Amvica Brilish Library Cllalov.ing in l'ublication 1"forma/ion AYl ilabl" Co-publi$hed by amMIg.... ,,'uwith !he SurnIMf '"stUute of Unl"islics. lfI(;. Previous edition C 1984 Volume editor: Boonie Brown Ub ....,· of ConCr ... Cati loJinc·m-I'. blitalion Data l-Ilrron. Mi!drt:d L. Meanina.basc<llnIrulllion, a , ,,id. to "'....... t.rt, "lCI' cquivalcnt;c I Mildred L L.arwn. - 20d ell. p. CIII . Indudeo bibiiouapbicai reference, and ind~ . I. Tran.la'irtg and interprding I. Title P306_U4 1997 4 18 ' .1)2-DC21 97-44626C1P ISH:"! ()'16 18-Q97().1 (d od! : r.lt . ppr.) ISBN 1).16 18-W71-6 (pbk: alk. I'I""') - . ~ (/ ' ~' -i. ' u ' ~ .,.-"': -;' . .•. , .lI:,%.->-.,j \" · s' ./' ----_..--" S, ~ The . uthor wl$h$ (0 ell:prellli npprcc ialioo \0 Iht following a uloou aoo pUblisben. for varuing permIssion 10 qltOle from lhrir JNlirials III llIi' IIodt: Samson Negbo AbarJ&ma from '1710! u ~ of Afotk. In Denyn l)ucouru ( 1987); Kalharint Barnwell Iron her tv.'/) lexlboob Bibl~ Tran.,/mion (1975) [lJId Imrod" C lio~ 10 &l1Ianlics aN Tml'lS[u, li()fl (1980); Chicago LinguiSTic Society frOO1 Papt:,..from roo Eighth kfiqnaJ M U l i1l1f, Elli:! W. Deiblo:r and A J. 1'IYIor Ii'orn T' (JIIJ/mion 1'r>bI.,~ ( \971); Carl D. Dubois from tu, article eo.u.ecli..u '-11 Sarruwuti Manobo; llah Fleming from bf:r Fil ld Goridefot' Co"'m ~ ­ niall''''' Sil'o~, Sema.n/,'c ami MOFfmtmic AMI}&< (1 977 ); Ell en M . Jackson from Rul and /VIetorj{;tl/ Q"" siions in Tik<lr ( 1982 ): Kennnh and Evelyn Pike fOl' pcnnissi()(l to u ~ the n:upl~ O)!I pages -49-50 of their book GmmlltGli<:GJ Anal)'>";" (1 977); 1M. Summa Insrllufe ofLlnguisllcs for f""lnhslon 10 quoo.e from NoIn 0" T ",./U 1(1ll1)n, Note.< on Un&:uis li~ , John f)edcrmm ond John Callo",". Tmm. Won:I ofG<x1 (1974), Knlhlcco OIIlow. rnlCOJUst Con, jd· /ol lMg Ih~ ao,iOflI Ur Tm ruklllq I ~ e Word of God (1974), Mildred Larson, A MiJJMJDl for PTObkllf SoMrrg iN Bibk TraIlSb:sIWn (1915) and .lOOn BcekIlWl, Jolio C.Uow. 2nd Mkhad K ~ 11re St!rnIi~ StnH!ture a!WrillU CommUnkillio1l (1 981); TIlt- United Bible Socjg! I ~ frolll 111, HlblE TrmHlalQr, p"nicu l a rt ~ the artIcles by Darday Newman Weslcm Pubi l!lhlng COltlpaOy fro m ( 1977) 8Ild David Fro; (l95)~ U.d",=/ H i.<roryofll!f WorlJI Vol. 2 by Jam« L.. StdTeosm (J%6); and Jam<:! WbcIIlky from his articl ... K_'i,dg<!. AUlitoriJy. a1Iil IruJi"Wuaii:rm "",ong IItt: Cura (9_iri) (1m) lind ProftOUIr$ and Nomi"'" Elemn ./.J Iw Bar.airt OW»urst (1973) e-The paper 11K<! in Ib is publication meets lite minimum I! it" tl- P ~ or American .-arional StlIndIord for information nc of Plopo!r for Printed Uhl'll)' M .. erillls. ANSI <:39.4 8 - 19114 '" CONTENTS ., f<l«"'(lrd . • rrd:lCe . Own '~ of th e Tnm.latiOD Task . l. Form and Meaning. 2. Kinds ofTrnn;laliom. .., .. "., 3. The Semantic StrucIl)re of Lungu.lge •. 4. Implicit Meaning. 5, Step< in a Tra",;latioo ProjeC1 .. The Lultt! • . 6. Words as " Bundlcs of Meaning . . H """"HI! 7. SOllie Itelalionship< Ll'xicaJ IteU'" , 8. Oi$CO'..mn& Meaning by Groupil1ll l1'1d Oln!mst. 9. Mismlllching: oflnical SY$lcml bellii'M! Unguage. 10. Multiple Sen= of Le;d Clll ll.elDl . 11. Figurative Senses ofLe)[ica.1 hrtflll. Pr~ 12. Person Ref"'"Dce . lJ. lA . ~i cal hruIS and Situ.liQual Qootcill. of Lcx lcal ltclm. 14. CQlIoc.tion!\lld Con~Drd", IS. l..elical Equivalent. " 'hen Concepts are Shred . 16. Lexlco.l Equ;v.ients when Coru;eplS ~ I~ Unknown . 17. Spc<:1111 Problems in Findiug u xlcal Equlv~en . i l iuAaJ Structure . Ill. I'lopos:ition< .•. 19. Caae Roles withirl E ,~ Proposolions.. 20. Rel.ni.OI)S within Sw.: Ptopaositlons•. • bef.>..te\l Propositioool Structure II.IKI 21. Sk~jnH C'tIme SInICtI.Irc. 22. Skewing of tUoclllklnlf)' Force ",,4 Gl'lIm!fl3lkal Form 23. Fil:UrBlive Proposiliorl!J!.fet8.p/>or$ >IlI<I Similcs. 24. More on Propos itional AD.lIlyt.is . , """ " "" """ ". '" '" '" m '" '" '" '" '" '" '" ,., '" '" 283 -- I Com .... niall'''" R~ l alo 297 n s. 25. Addition lind Support R~\aI;orli . 26, OricnwiOfl and Clarifoo;atioo Relation •. 21. Logical Rdiltions. 28. Stimulus-RESPOSSE R oI~s. 3J5 FOREWORD 379 Tn!s 2~. '" '" '" 381 399 Groupinp , 30. Discourse Genre <2, 3 1. Cohesion. 32. PromiDeOCC , . 33. "Tho CoInl'QunlC8llon SilU31jon .' 34. Inf",.,....;oo Lood . ",'"on 5<17 The Tran.lati" n rrognm . ""52' 35. Establishifllj: the Pro;':,", . 36. Tmn.slatioa Procedures. 519 37. Testing Ibe Trausl3lion. '" Rihli"1:I"3 I· 1,y S7l IlMin . In the 1M! thirty yean 3 body oflileraturo QI1 trAuslatl on theory. I"SUpport arod IItmngly Inil UCf\COIJ by modem linlUislics. h", apl"'~ give ocadrntic ""'ptCl:'lbiliry [0 !be new pmfession of the nonlilcnq' U'lJII$lalOr. Some of these boob, ootably " .'rillUJ by West .. E.IISI Germans, ba\'e h«u p/l il<>tOphical lind absirecl to ",1111" at all cl~ J y to the translator', mul)(\:lO;! probl,"""" Some ~ .v leoncd toward;; contrasrive linguiSlics. Others bave tended In lie tral'tSi.atJoo 100 clooeJy [0 a Iingulfilc theory. Nida.'. wen: the first 10 del>11II all pta<'lically WIth the w lUll'llI as ""ell as Ihe mani fold linguistic problems of~.l i on. Dr. MildJod L.arwn h... here prodo,nd tll e first 'nlbool: designed 10 iii: used in 'h. Cl!I.'UOOIll. as " basis for COIII"5C wQri(. I am pleased " ,," ftan .....ed (0 be invited to write a foreword for her textbook "f translat ion method. The book'. p-"pose Is f,rst to mue the Surrmer .lnstlltlle of Linguht;cs' tr.>niliotioo priDclples and study prvccdW'tS "'idely .c.ov..... and S<"UlAdIy, 10 offu a tCJubook wbleh 1~ ion coursos in universities tond will be generally U3CfiII 10 tr.J1lS CQlICllts o f fW1ner and hi&ber ed..cation throughOll1 lhe world, pII" tielllnrly in the tllird world cou nlricm. where 1l00d English te>;l000b lOre IOuch in delTlmld. Tbi3 book include< Il1tOSllllloo eUlup/es from s ,,,,nmably ",kill '00 range of languages, partlcuLvly As..... African. and Amerindian languages. rangina flOO' ilIe ",mantles of words, c:oIlocaIions and J.JI"Opoiltion to Iht <"!ftats. enclilll each .haper wilh a u<;eful SCI of pmctical exercises which are also a blick_up for learning English. lI er Inatment Q[ collo.::aliom is rhe nlOjlthorough Md ill umi""ling thaI J koow. Metaphor and sim ile have III importanl p/:w;e in !he book; We semanlic ru.$lOtWn, of lileral translarion:tsf: ",,,II handled Or.1....a.-..n h contiooous ly .x~ised to explllin LInd iU",trnte!he interpiayofsy.-ax, SIOfnot~ and wmr" uniutlve force through suus II/ld varintions of word ordcr in th C(lmposition of" 1exl. She makes vi '" good II$C: of tbe still IeXt-[ingU\>tics. fainy /ececdy established p"inclpli:s of The emphasis of the '000);: Is on the "alue ef Idiomatic a~ d UD,onsll'ainoo. language. The abu~n! <Uld ubd~ re.<;QUrCes of th~ EngUsb language are ~bed and uempli6N here "itl>. pt"rvnsiv<: ,."...,. and crnhusWm. The book Is excepl ionally wdl pI_oned.. .. 111> ~ com~hC(l; i ve 1/1&:" and bib!iOZfl\phy, and I have IK) doobt Ih/l( every Ic:ocher and self_leach ing stndent cf tronslat;on , nd e f English will fuId nlu<:h ill it which they.;:an lliC: "'itb profit 1'c1\:f I'e Newmarl; l ~ " 'lch nic , "fContral Lend"" and UI"'~lS Snrrey. U. K. it es of llradf()Id and PREFACE Mere:llld more un;\'ersitio:s ar(t\lod Ihe worl d M~ adding OOurse3 in u1\flSlati0l1 10 t!leir curi ~ lu<n: how""fIr. the tcxtboob a ~ ' a i lab!c for Tbis vol""", has been "Tim.• , wilb lIteSe coursa ¥uch COIlr&es an: ~w. in mind. TIle de$IR of lbe IUthOf is 10 m'lke 8\lIilabk Ibe principle. of trnuslalioo wMch have bml learned through penonal expc:rio~ in ir1OIIslmi o:m and OOOS\l llalioo. ~nd Ihrous.h Interaction wit h coll"'g"'" invol\"w in InnslBtion prOj«1S in many ports of th e world. style of pracnl8l1oo h."U been deJibo!r1IIely ado~. A ~ogicat RqlClilioo;' rcJUliVly ""'-'<I; hquently usc is made of eJr.81.np/C'I: and wilb ",-ercises 10 becmried OUt by Ihe st~dcnl. Mch chapUI ~ludes Since il i. assumed that =ny of the S/udclIIs will ~ ipeakel'$ of minorily lartgUOlleJ. lIIZIoy of those exercises Involve lramlaJin& from (If irno \heir mellier tongue. "The llW<:ri.1 I, ~ted III ruch • .... y lhat it can be uled In a scl(-teaciling situ.1tion or in ft c1ll'iS1'<JOrn . An aJtempl has beeJ) made 10 1<eel' technical lem1' 10 ~ mini,nlJrn. When tcchnic.'!.l ~"lnry is \UoIOd, evtry effort Is IIIOIde /() clarify III" tIlCIII)in& of"""h '·onbuiary. This lias been done 50 WI the book can be U$ed by any tHlIJ~or. e,'en thougI:t hi' «posun: 10 lingui""lc and t"""lotion theory Iia.. bcett minimal. Ilowowcr, SOlO. "f the thcory Is cowplu nnd tKl altemJX It II been made 10 ","rsimp/lfY Il But lbe audJor has soughl 10 ll':\l 3l:I WlCompliCIIIlod strai&hlforwAf d 'lyle In order /() tn.'Il"t it e"."'f for lhe user to gmsp the princ:ip/e.; bein& pr='f1/ed. Th is ;. Oil introductory texlbook. ]lie firSt five cll.."lI)i.Cl"& give Wl 0",,,.,,1\_ ~ljJ: Ihe fuOOarnmlftl princl~a ofllWltJatiDfl and the rut ofthelxlol; ex~ndl: and i!lusua!CS Ihc:se principlo.. The <>verriding prillCipJc is lhat translation is mcaoing_hJsed rathe.r tlwJ fomt-Oased Once rhe tl3nsl alor has ldrntl ficd rhe me<lll ill<l ofm" sourc.. 1el'1. his goal is 10 expreS$ 111>.1 Same mcaning ill the receptor langnag(' With forms " 'hid! may be ~ditTercnl from !hose of the """"'"' ten. Many viii " exampl=s of CTOIiS-language equ ivalence are used to illustrate this princip le. The author is d""Ply i nde~ to the lat. John B«kman. from wbom she learned m uch ofwml is included in this book. TIle material presented h",. borrows beavily from his writings "~1d those of Joho Callow, Kathleel1 Callow, Kamarin. Barnwell. and Eugene Nide. Th i, book simply takes the tmnsl.tion principles expounded by them and ~ ls !hese principles imo a new frameworl: all a texlbook for prospecti"e translators. e<pecially ~pe:t kers of the ronny minority l:mguag •• of the world. J also wisl, to thank Dr. P!:1er Newmark for reviewing lhe manuscript and writing the foreword. Dr. N.-wmark i. vi.IUng Profes_ sor at the Polytecl:onlc "fCentral London and Unh'ersit ies of Bradford ""d Surrey, U.K. wflll comi&rahlc e"pcrience ill trainingluru;btors. I-li. 1981 boot . .~proa ch<!s 10 Trans/ation, was espociall y helpful 10 me in the p!'epaml;"" ofthi' led book. M,,"y persons han helped in th e preparation of tMs book. The author Is especial!y grateful 10 her oolle.o.gue:5. mem1>ers oflhc Summe)' lnstitute of Linguistics, who revie'-"ed the 1fl3I1uscripl, m8king many helpful sugge:<tJons. and '0 tho.e w bo helped in many ways in 11,,, JlNparation of the manuscript The lis! of tho.le who contributed is very long a'ld ",och i ~ gready appredated. MLL September 1997 , OVERVIEW OF THE TRANSL ATION TASK Chapter 1 Form and Meaning Whit is trans la tion? Tram latioo. by dictionary definition, consist. of cluu:1ging from one SlIlt. or tonn 10 another, co (Urn Into one·s own Ol" anodt<:r'$ 1974). Tramlalion i. language (1bC' Mmiam ·Webitc.. Di~ bMioollya d tangt:of tonn. WMnw ••pnt.of tht I'orm oc. La~ "'·e lire referring to !be ""IUIII words. P~. cla\LI~'. sent~. paragrnphs, etc., whieb are spol;en or written. Thew form . are referred to .. !be su rface se n ti" ", ofa bnguage. It is the suuctunJ pwt of lgU3~ ,,·bicIJ " actually -"= in prim or hcaN in sptDCh. In tr.... l&ion the for m. or \he !IOIIf':;e I.onguagc " ,epIaood by lite 1'0.... of tbe receptor (target) IMgIIIIge. But how 1.1 IMs ch;ooge aooompti,bed? ""'bal de!ermines the choic.s of r<l.m in tltt trans I ~tion? Th e purp<>SC of tltis tut is 10 mow th!ll lrnnslatioo con';w of ITllr\Jfari", tit. " ' lDin; of 1IHI source llllliUDKC into t/o. r,cepI<n lanJll3&e. Thi. is done by &0;l1li from the f. rm. of the ftrSllanguage 10 Ole form of a IH!COnd l"8IRg~ by wa,/ of annantic $UUClUre. It is IDcanln: which ill boeing tran~fcTed and mu>t be beld COO5tanl. Only lb c form changes. The f(>1'I1I Ih.llo which tit .. tranillation is made will hi! <::Illed the SOUFlCF: LANOUAGJ::. aod \he for m into ",b leb it is to be chaoged will be called the RliCEPTOR LANOUAGE. T ....... btion. then. c:onsiJU ofstlldying lb. le.:lcon, grnmmltlcal strIlClW"". communicaTion ,jrualio~ and culrurul t:OIlIext of !he """""" 1ol1!5"l'Sc I1:;U. anllyzing It in order to det<Ttn i"" its meanini. And then reconstructing tlJilI ....... mc;mllli u<lng the ltxicon and grnmmatios! $trocture which ar_Ilpp"0rrimeln the RECEPTOR LANGUAGE.1Id i\scullural ~ontaI. The proc:cs. may be ruagr.lltme<i :os <hown in Oispby 1. 1. l<!t u ~ look II an eumpiQ. Assume tlu.t we arc tnlnStallng the ,U('nl>,·· into the Aguaruna language ofPmJ. Span;5b sentence ~ Te ~tp ntil Spanisb fonn oonslsllJ of the verb fun\) 'eng- 'have·. the ."Uffix ..() ·fl1Sl pcr$OrI", and 1be word.....,110 ·.Ieep." The combination means Ihat ~a person, the opeak.., iI in the S\.3le "bcln& 'l epy . ~Tocy t.hil S811le mc:anina in Ag\.l.1nllla """ would use KajDlfg pwja_i. , K H -'" • ~ " ~ ~ ~ ~ • ,00< •0 E ~ • l<-; • ••• ~ rn~ , ~ ~ ~ • ~ "u - "~. \;I "' "'~E ~.d co ~ • - - ' ~!l •j . .£~li\ < •• ~ ~ E't;~! IfI :;.,~ iS~., .; ~ ~J2 S ""cHi." a ! ''ii' ',ii ~P" ,. I .~"EZ 'Ullor , lmt!~ ,~i !• j.~l u~ § " 8 ~" "~ U' ..c '1. 'Q oil is ~ .. I. !I •••• -!r·! _ II o)i::..'l<"::i h~I"i .c it]" ........ ~. "" !::$ 'j .8~_ "d' u " rn•• 0 ,- . 1:l!~ ~.,-g; ~i:'B~ ~ - z "Ii':::'f ~ ~o "B~j - _ ..s o:s o~"; .a"i~ ~j ,, r.::" _ 001 -9:a.; 2j:::'i;.£ ~ j ci l!I.!sl;li°6.; t· ""<I ;0.. u§.B --5 <"I_~S!'j ~ -" d~ • ~,ljio1 o"'~.}: "'3" =>~"! :$ I~ ' '" ~ " '" 0_ >'E ,..:,~"81 g .... -;; ~ o.zZ" ..~:g -0; " -.Ii' j - ~' 0" .;~ .! ., g~E81: o!O '; ~ j h;~ !.=il ~ =HJH • Form 4nd Hutting OVERVIEW OF TH£ TRANSLATION TASK pl."" Ulp \(J fantdic M ......j<> lo./aId. ~ In anoIber ~ brocln"" ""Y3. -Ikyond 011 Utou ,hillp. mJoyofrkiidOlu l/tal your pro!",' m;"d CWI M(1MjO is ilt.fpiraril)7f, ~ meaning "And. above all. enjoy tht dc:h&hu whIch your own mind will cre!lte . Mal'!jo w ill ;ru;piro y<I~ ." (7et/1t. A look at thc Portuguese 011 the other side oflhe bro<:hu~ show~ tbat the unnaumll English was tile result of following the form of the gt) i:JI Ulllking the EIlgIWI rectpoor l ~c Portuguese llOlII'Ce lacgu.~ rransJaIiOll. T(} do efT«Ilve tf1ll>Slalion one must dl$CO>'cr the m.... ning orllle source language and receptor l:mguage forms wbleb c:xpross '* this menning in a .."lund ..'ay. II is !he purpose oftl'lil b<lok to fumiliariu tJx, reader wilh til<> basic IInaulstfc and socloHngubTk facton invol ved in {[",\Slating Q text from . SOURCE LANG UAGE into a $I.lC()OO IMgUagc, i,e .. II,. RECEPTOR LANG UAGE, (I/ld to give them enoual' prnc!ice tn 11,., IJ'8QO I ~tIO!l process for the o:ie1.'elopnenr of d;lIli in ~"' · Iangu<: tmr:I'If"l". UDderIYlrlg pret1I iIIe upon which the book is t..scd is tIuot the but umu!IIIion is the <lne ..,bicll (1) uses tu IW)I"I'J'I3l 1ang"'91 (2) eornmunicales, _much .. po:mible, f<IJJM of lb. ~"'languI&, (0 the r«eplor Ia.'lgul'ge speakers the saine meanl na that was understood by the speakers of the SOIlrCe i:>nguage, and (3 ) maintains the dynamics of the originnl source language te)( ~ Maintaining the "dynamks" of the original ~ I~Xl mea"" Ibal the lrnD.'lia!iOl1 i. pre&en1M in a WIly thaI il .... ill. bopefully. evoke the u rne resp"n.e as 1M SOUfC( ie.'l:1 ~tewpl.d to e\'Ok~ ne .""h Characttri$tks of lugllllgt .... hicb "fTt tT tnll,lation ThcrI= ate certain cl>an\~ri( . of JangUllgcs which 1'(1.\"( a very di rect bc:lII"ing on prindples of lTlInslal;on. f IN!. 101 \IS look 31 the charactcr!st!c, of meaning co'"poneot:I. Me . nl0l: compo nents arc "p cknged~ InIO le~ica items . bUI Ihey rue "packaged" differently In 0118 1.tllIiWlge than in anoI.hcr. In lIlon 1~ Iher<: ilo a meuin, ~JI1 po ..... 1 ofpJuralil)'. for eu mple Ih. English -I. ThJJ.often occurs In !he grammar M I wffix DIl~ nouns or vutllli or both. In Aguaruna, flQwC"'f Cf, phtrllUl)' ~ ~ IlOOlponetll oftbt.: ,·qb.'lem ItK lJ"and unoot be IIeJI01fUCId OUI for many of the more common "en.,. Jfthc lICtor i. ~incalur, tile first fonn wil l be> lIocd, If plural, ~ ~ I. l. IUpihJ.~ Ite eke/" IO-et< 2.pi.laju oI, be silt 2. peUJruaII Ihey lil M 2. .JJtiaJw !hey run$ WC01 .,~ WQI A study of any diaionary will indlcak the am3lJng Mp!ldaging" of meaning COf1IpanenIS in lexical ilnns.. In OtDllll" (Muico). one $insle ....ord rnran<....udo shup U)' " igJoI. All of those componetl!l: are in a ¥insJc lexical item. In Vitn."Wl~e . there is' word w!, icb meoos "'meon~ ItllWl.f 10 go S01tU?W~,. ,,,,d IOmelhilf8 M/'fNl/U tlI ~ so I~at he Iorts /0 SO bad: Mme. Many limes a iringle word in !he OOUrcc languace will need 10 be Irl\l1Sla,oo by sevem words. For I'Ulllple. 3 projNror ...·u called 1M Ihillg firm slwws lJic1"fes on lhe .. by !be Chipaya of Sol,,' ;"" Second. h Is clrllacterimc of ~ 'IOgUlu that the &aII1I: J1lC3I1ing compor>Ctlt will 0C<:Ur in >ie\'cnrJ surface structure kJr.lcal items (fol'll1").ln EngUi;h, Ihewonl jJoup oc=n. How"'"el, r.be words /(lmb. ram, and ewI\' 81so include the m ~an ln g sMep. They l[}Clude tbe additional mtlU ~ 1l componenls of yo<mg (In lamb), IJdr.,lr 3fld male (in ram), and 00..11 andfunale (In e"I<'o!). In HuambiloA (I'cru), Ic.mb would r~ ((I be u:aru;lated by M,beep its child. ~ rtfm by "sheep big. ~ md roo ... by Rshcep il3 "·oman. ~ Third, il is funh .. cbaJw;t<::ri:$llc of languages thai ~ ro ron will be moo 10 represenr l'C\'erai .hClMlive meanin\:l. Th i~ ao:aln is obv iou$ fr(>m looking in any good dictionary. For example, the Reader's J)igo,\ Oreal Enc.ydopodic Dictiooary gives fifty-foll( meaning< for rhe English word nm. Mo;r word<> h.v~ more than one meaning. There will be a ptimary lne~ig -Ihe ooe ",hleb usually comes to mind wb en tile word is said in iwlatioo-nnd ~ ~ _ the lIddill0ll31 muninp which a word has in con~ wilb otbt1" words. 10 Engl i.!t. we can A)' rM boy tlllU, using nlll in its primary IDleMlng. We can all<) say rhe 1NO/at"/1l1IJ. the rlw:rrwu, and M.I ~ nln1, u$ing nm in ""'ColI<1.'II), so::tlS'eS, I.e., Wilh different mean ings. BUiootice the following comparison with S"Mi~h . Motors fI1ld noses <lo noI ,om in oli langWlges. ..n f..NGLlSIt SPANISH Th<boy_ E1 nl6\l com (l1IIIS). n .. ,,1000I" I\ID&. EI molO< I'unclor .. {funaloMj The clock run •. III reloJ ..1d4 (""lu). His nose I1lI\l. Su nW ctIorrfl (&ipo). Tb is pt"inc:iplc i. OOllimiu"j 10 ~lk:Iems for it Is also true that the _ CJNlIW;~ s-tlem !lUIy expr-ess ""''era! qultco differmt meaninSl' For e:xam~ , the ErJglldr pn~ive phrase ",yit",," may mean ~the b.O\ISe I o"n, ~ Mtbe hou:Ie I rent." '"'the Itouse lllvc In.M , ~tbe OV1':,RYJEW OF l1Je TRANSLATTON TASK I w ilt, ~ "tile hOU'lC for ",1\kh I drew up the plans." Only !be Im"gft" context Oetermines !he rnunirl&. t;ori« Ihe followia& VO$$CiSive Pmoscs rind tile \1IIiOtY of rnc:aoing:s: M 0< m,= port· .... ho'" (pari or my body) my . in ~nl """"-llCt;v:i!), (J lIng) "'Y book (!he book [""'.... or. me book my~il. r~ my ln.1r> U<& L ........) (tho 1nI1" l .ide 00.) Whole -"'I1u:nces nlS)' also ha,'e ...vaal fWlClKln!o. A quesliOl1 form may "" uud for a nonqlltSlion. Fore:campk>.lhI: question " M ",),. wiry d",,'lp< .....,. tMdi.<M.1 ? "Jw I.e fontl of. question, and I118Y In """. OOIItUI be a~king for informBl ioo, but it Ii often USN "'i th the ", ea ninl: Of COlTlllland (or ~ u gesti on). ral h ~r lban a real question. It 1$ th en a rhe lOl1cal que'tion. (The mnner of trandatlng questions will be discussed In chapter 22.) A simple &.dish scnltncc like "f!, ",/Ilk ,"'" Nd. ~ .nay mcan eill101l" " He made (_ • carpenter "'(luM (1I;U::c) the bed. ~ ()J ~He PIll the .shoets. bllmkCl, .00 pillow ill neal " order on the ~ J LlSI as woxds havo prim;1l)' and MCOOdaty meanings. 50 gram. matlcal markers have (heir primasy function and ollen have Oilier i \()n Oil is \ISW in F.n£lisll to s igllal ft seeondary fian<:tj(lnl. The ~ " Com!",", !he following uses of on with lhe _pondilll! form med in Spl1s~ . ,'lIriecy of ~I& Ju:on ..""oml un hbn> ... (on) eJ "",10. owr..mw<.. J,JoilIl tJlcoo1r6 UIl libro J" brd~ (ob:u) nwan&ticas. /otuI found. boot "'" n-d3y. 'u.n onOOft1r"O iohn foond ~ boo&: "'" ..Ie. JI.llIIl enQ)llmlun libra a (ftl) Ia '· ....1lI (on ~bqi. , OIl barallllo) JCM foomd a book oro Dd In the AchoU lmguage of Sud.m. the word Of ~ has \'arlous f1ICMlngs depend ing OIl the word s witb which it oo;cur5 N()(ice the fol lowing' [lhe ,'[!\ag• ....bcrc I H,".) ' he floor. .John ,,,.. 1Ioppcd by tile polir<:1IlIIrI. /JxlJ1iD1r. O'I'ner.;bip or anhon.tiip <)It 9 or b)" In the fll'St, by ;1 used to sigmllhe ulc:aning \hat the poUcc:m.ao h lhe ogot1lf ofllle K im In Ihe seooIId, "" signals iMilhe hooblaDd is lbe "'1 fool Jolin found . book Coonp8fC abo !he follo"'ing UiIe$ John <topped by the bo~ oWlImhip ...... ""'" ~ F (m.. find MMmng u~ libn> rl (1he) man=. r...ru._. The child jz A: ulu«<t. The pot U /IroU~ Mac ..", The rue I.t ""'" ""I. tI-'. . We !lave S«t1 thai OIlC form may t:ll1lf"5S ' \-artlyof m ean On tLc olhfl" band. !IAOlber charo<:teristic of llollguages is ~ in ~ • .11Ii-le me~nl n& m ~y be expressed in a variety of forms. F"" e~3tnplc. the m03ning " the cat il bllld. ·' may be expressed loy Ihe fo llowing: IIu! cal i$ black, Iht bJ~1r cat, and llul Cal. ",hkh i4 bhut, de P<' n d; ~ on bow thaI mUning rel.oces to.> 0100 meanillS$In addition. lIIe mc:minp of"14 lhu piau f4ke,,1" " lllhe,.., "")"'lIe 4ining !ten?., and " May 14i1lrt=1" Prt essmtlally thc sarne. The speak,"" is Indicating a ~ to .It in a UJUi/I II("II. In Pidgin, the meaning "He gave me a bol; ~ SIllY' csscrnially til e same .....helher one ~ ays "~1 I glv;", Itlonpelo buk l o ~g mi" or "en> i g ' ~im mi "",nIXI" but." AIO<l, lbe meanlna: Is essentially the WIle in the following Enalish scnIenca (uample fmon K...L. Pike): O<h . ... blomod.loM bcaw.le of 11><: dimwIt)". OIb ..... IlI"mcci John for ,be dimc "l1 ~. 0rIIm bLlom«l !he dilf.cul.ly Ill> John. Odxn -'d.loM w. respoo$lbk fur II>< difficully. OIbers IIOOUoe..l JoJu, Qf beio, I.. pcn<lbk for th o dlfYiw \!y. ,, YSE .5 " f! il'_~ l~ oS"'.s oi! ~E .r .,~ ~ ! ~l ." S ~ .~ . .; 1S. __ .;3 E ~f': ~ ~_ .. ~]: ! g ~] ~ ;: r:; , ~ i~1 I! ~"; ~ -~ -.; .- ;~ ~l '; . §i~" ~ ~ ~'o ~g.§ Ii~ " ~hS!"'is,5l.] ~ ~§t-l <I-~ "-c:'~, "- ~ '"' ,~ . ~§, ~" ' !";:i~, <)" -l! -?,"~ ~ ~":t- "1 ~'l;! t ... g .. "'" ,]~ " " ,,'_ '1:'.2 ' i:"1~; ~-.1li l ~ . ~" ~tel's " ~.2:t E ~ ... ..., ,,'" h- ! " ~ "6J!.g):;'i-~ "'" " " >.."'" ..~ ~q '" ~ [ I;j~ ".. a<.2,'E-s·~gli ~ ~ ~ <> - ~;-E41iS§ "·-~2Sg; "<.0 ... l! ~,"' Jl"'~ a_ " 8- ~ ~ ~i],t ."':t ~ """.. ll-::!.;;" i""'" ~, -<: - ~ "* . E!cl~ '"~=.sI-1i -.. " .. ~j§ ~ o~ ~ ~ 6"'=-'; !;~{i "': ~l ~ 1i- = ~ ~l:" ~~ t-s.;j ~ . l;~1!g ..., '" - ,'<. t" ~-§;itl41 ~ ,~ ~ "-S.~ §:~8 "'1!<l~:. ~Jj "O<l ........ Sol .. !:t0 0 ,:,,: f~:l tJ:i f ~ "l~<; " - !:1]~ ~ ~]t: ~ ~.@ ~ "'" o;~ ~.:;] ~ -~ ~.,: j<'"1 """ " "'., i'!U '" .... i:: ~ l "-':.Q§cl,~ J;1l~"IS !: ~ ~ Z-s , ·!:l~\ib ~il.;! "'" " " " ,~7; ~ i?'~0 Q ..,." ~ .,," E ~g , );;tl ~. ~l ~.s , ~'i? ~ ~ "'~ ';f-';ro ~§ "i"t'o; is 8 <> >. ~ &.g~6 .~ '" "0 o " l' <>" 5" i ~:l2j ~: ~. .5 -s§~ . ~] ' r~ ... " 0'0 s ~ ~E E5 0 < .:;; n ]~ ,, - ,," !f8-5.E - ~'§ . ~ .~! l"J .g il ~ ,-£ ... ;; t: ~j "-g !:!.!!I " "E .. " ,,- .t-- =:;.f'.] " ~ ~-,;".l ~" -'" ~- ~g;< ~:;] "!i a '.!~"EIi'- " ' '''''''" <3 '-'" ... g "' . ~ '-'f; "'" -E ~2"5.!:i?'-tl,;< ":; il' ~" il.o ; - ~" ... '~"1! Pl ~ -ioe §~l ~ ~ '" § t}J!.:! ~ ~]>t.s § ~ . ~[ ~ .,. -. ~_o!'l ...,-., .. '" !It :<~!lIi l~ ~ ~li- 1<"'1 IS ~E'l.;-s ~:l! H[, "" d" -'" ~ , 0 :...1 n QVEJWI£H' OF TH£ TIUNSUT/QN TASK along M mddfnly $IIW" ~ry p-rlty liltk Mdloa Jyill601/ up .lte lIutldn and thnM it ;"'" hi$ /he rood. H~ l~aC/ed _Ill ~ IMto: ...... "noll,er perM/II ""idling behind /rim aNI h" diJ/,, '/ ......111 /rim 10 su lire The lfr<J"G"r dido"' obi_ rltat I~ nect/lJa >ow- rn.lly a snak. lie diM imfndiarll/Y. He dltd ~ /at. dJ,,', rea/be 110.0.1 iJ IO'M" m*; /U did" ~ mow NI"'l " sNlke ima hi., _It. Ill/he,. ,1.1111" n""i:lna . """u..a. Anyth;,'i whicb ClIO be fAlld in one laogu!lgecarJ be $ltld In loo(h,. It [s pos.lble 1<,1 Lransl~!e. The gOili of the tnm,laIOr i. 10 keep the meanihg constant. Where-,'cr !1eCeSMry. the receptor "'!liUagc ror", should be chAJIgo:d In order that tbe source language m c anl~ !\OI be distoned. Since a mun i n~ expressed by a particular rOl"m 10 Olle language may be up,cued 111 quile a differenl form III W1IX/Ia' language, il Is often occessruy 10 ~han8e tile form when translatIDa. Font. "nd M ~ "ig /3 6. ! Clme ; 1:IaW; I COIIIfUO'I'1!'d I (:;onK;, saw, and ~ 7. ~o.u later he came. Aft.". Iw., ..."fd:s he came. 8. nne iI a l1lhI.e in Ihe booL Thcre 11 • book 00 ~ lable. 9. The young man had a Greek grammu book ,!Olen. A Greek grammar book W"" stolen from tlto young man. 10. He was awllkened by a thunderclnp. A thunderclap awakened him B. U'iltl.< mIlIlY gramnt.1lical Conns 01'! yout"" which realize Ihe ... me mun hl, as tM one given below. Thfn p!lllhe "me "'flAIIlI inlo • I.ngu ~ gec <>Ihe< th:\D ~Ii'h in .... many forn" lIS yo ~ can. Ex. llIe cal is black, llIe bI.ad; cal ltIe rnl, wllich is bla<;k t:.XERClSlS - Form ane! Menia=A. Iden'ifying ch8nse of I!It .... lllt \"emI$ ct\angf o rfor • . Some of !he following pail"$ orsen l~ differ in their forl"ll . Some differ g. r,.,dieale if the primary change is in the furn. 0< in in m ~ ani (he mean InG . Ex. They robbed the old mat) The old III:lIl was robbed by them. Answer: t10ange of form I, TIIIO Jlud.1(~ The ~\ldent l ilI~ 10 ~Iudy M:ll)8!llia. like srudylng lemanllcs. 2. I booghl a P'oir o f hom-s"'-. 1 bought a pair tlf J~t shoes. J. He SIO .... !be bird. Sbe heard IIIe cat. <I. PhiltJp W~ ,,'Ill.lr.ln& Phillip I0OI<. a walk.. 5. Go to t>ed I "lUll you 10 ,0 LQ bed. "'' ' eo- l. the jug 2. John bought mcar ). ~ hOI day ... mother', long blue dress S. l'elcr 's house c. All oC the fO»)lowing have (he same lIJMIl1Iallcal form. Wilh the dw'S" ot" laical i!emS, Ihere 1.0 • chanae of mcanina w hieb is aigMltd by that luital it...". apart from Ih. rcf.....,lial rnc..run& of Ibe WOld ;tlele. WhaI mell1ling Is signaled In eIICb ofthc foll""'1ng ponmive p/lrMes? Ans.....,.. by Il$Iling. How 0lII lhai I"I'IGOlin& besl be expressed in III1OtlJa" Iaoguage "'loich you Ipmk7 E... (he matI's car _the man OWIIS 1M car !he I . Ille mAn'S ~ office ~tor'l 2. the doaor'$ paliOOl 3. the doc: tnr' ~ book - the ~ i'I part orllle man u OVERVIEW OF TlfE TRANSLATION USE r om, 5. tbe dOClOr', h:.OO 6. tile dOClor's hClllSe (b) Opiolons D. (Adap1ed from B "m,~ l 1986:24 - 5.) For eacb pair ()f ~eotn ce~ $M C whelher lhe I"'" sentences are ( 1) Ihe same in meaning (2) differall In loo:mlDl!. I. (3) I. ralnc"hU nigh t. (bl RIIIn fcn all nlght. n",,,,, 2 (a) i$ a boot on the table (b) That I, 8 (able In Ih. boo k. 3. (a) k>Im ..... as ~ surpised wilen be heard the news. (b) 'The new. very m IlCh lImaud l ohn when he beIml n. 4. (a) II W ~ II hot day. (b) TM d:Iy was bot. :'l. (a) I'elcrw house. (b) The ~ thaI bd oags 10 Peter. (a) nc rO!IUined iilent. (b) He did not say :>11)'lhlng. 1. (I) I bot'&hl dOlh to make Mary a""",' drew. (h) I OOllgbt a DeW drc&I: rQl Mary. (a) 1 bCILJghl "cgtabl {lil d M~("'ing " 12. (a) In my opinion. (he go v ~nuIlc li is deinl! well a!>d making many impro.... ments (n the COllnt!)'. Sui dlcn: arc many people wllo do 001 _srco!hal this Is 110. 4. tbe (\0<;10"$ broIhe.r ~ In lJoe marl",t. (b) J bolJgtu tomatoes aod oni008 in t ~ 'Wllkel. 9. (al My parmlS IIJ"e well. (h) My mo4ba" and fathn:ue well. 10. (al Johll Is il! ; he h". a bad case ofmalnr (b) John b '·err ill induo:L l~. 11. (&) There 11K fotIT rooms in !he !loose. (b) The h _ hu fuur room_ nod .ltitchen "'Ihe bai:k. . 0<' "I'e = divided commins lhe government SOllie tay Ihey doing w.ll and malinll mADy improvemenu in Ihe country. OrhCN do not agru. ,. Th ~ OV1,RYIEW OF mE TRANSLATION TASK £nillsb verllon 1< a li ~ra[ F'flIeh: M t~r d_~ ' n ""blknl. of the French. 1nIIl,\atiOfl, It ,ooods [ike It WIIS "'THIen oriJl!!I.llly in tbe re<;ep:or language. Thoercflft, a good translator will try 10 tntnslate idiomati_ caUy. This is hI:!: 1:0"1. However, tnno:\Mions are oflen a mixture ora 1I1enl ll'llllSfer of !be ~caJ W'lils alon, whh some idioll).t.tk rr .... J ~l ioD of ~ rm:aning orllle len II is 001 ealy 10 oollJistently translate !diomatlcally. A tr.lntlaw may npre.s.s some part.s of hiS ITMSlation in ycry natural fornu and th.en in other paris r,n back into .. Iileral form. Tramlazioos f.U on .. continU\I!II fJ'QID _Y li:eml, 10 Iitcra1, II.} lOOdirlCd lilmll. 10 near Idiomatic, 10 Idiomatic. tItld lhen 2.1). may e-..., moy" on 10 be und uly free (sec D~play Odeu/!, pasusgrrra d6fillt>liQft rk DouaIII. ~ mt l~wpIM. An Idiomatic traM I.llon into English would be: Idlom_lK- t:n ilisll' M 5. O<.lette. plSS«\gtr wanted 00 the phone. l' Kimk of T""" .'laf'o"" rOT Oooala. )'0\1 !Ire Excq::t for Inlcrlinr:ar uaruJations, a uuty literal 1l'aOSI0l1oo Is Uncommon. Most ITlorulaton who l end to translAte ]it(rally aolual.ly \"ery Illral modify the order lnnke a partially modified Il lu a l lrlllsl., ]on. Th~y USOl acccplabJe senlmce structure ill the lil=nlly. receptor lana""e, H"",'ever, the k,tical item:! are ~ Oecasiol'Lllly, !bcsc arc also ch:mgro 10 avoid complotc IlOIlSI:JlSC or 10 improve the communiulion. Ho ......,.,'er, (be resu lt <till does DOl 9OUI>d oatu",]. Nottce the fotlowlngeJllUIlple fmo • language In POpll' N_ Guinea: nrul gr:umnar enough to p""""'/>oyrIndi ,., aJoo.ttbo npsifo 1_1'a!......:I-her (llunf) I t.... I,can (modl f\cl I fomned ..... {o my hton. l~ l """,iroed liletf In<>>t1.'' .... '' m""Ire ~<ar iWoo;nat'" u"duly idi0'l"'tic ('5 1 TRANSLATOR, 'S 00" [)is"",y J J UOdu ly free Ira"sladoU:IN DO{ ronsidc:rcd acccplAble IrIloslI. tiono fOT 0100It pIl!'JlOSe5- T"",It\lk)m are Dudu ly rroe if tbey add exlnmeoui; Intorm..fion II(1t In d.e .,.,...,., text. if tbey cbartgc the meaning of Ille WUR:e tanl\1a&e, or if they diston tile fact. of ~Jt! historical and cultural Selling of the J ~ 13Og\1age Icxt. S<>melimc:s ullduly INc l rt. I1 ~ l a li<>n s nrc IllIIdo foo- purpo«:S Qfhulllor or to bring .boul a spe.; u.1 rcspcnse from the reccpror langw.gc Spea);:L'rS, How- ....I1) T he modil\<)d I ~ra l Inl ns l. lIoB .hOOf!'" tho:: order iDlo English .struCIUJe. How""a, me smI ~ " m does MI communk:ate In de:\/" English. All k110(l1 3littr:o.nsbllol ,,-auld ha'"eusedlhc fonn: MEnevI!!" f<)<lot her,~ 01 ~I"' l ept h ... mcu><lIY in my heart." A~ ,,'hOll"anslales lu II modirlffi lilual mann ... ,,·iIl ell""ge tl,. grammatical f()!'1lls ",lieu Ihe COIl5lrU<tioIlS are obligatory. How_ te.~ e'·. n ever. if he hfl'l l choice, he wilL follow Ihe f(!flll oCtbco ~ o lfCe in \he r ~ceptO r 1angu."lgC. though Q differtUI f(llm mighl N m<lfe n ~ Lil tnl l and IDOd I ~ d )ilenl tnnsb lio l%!.COI\S ISlentl)' err in th.al lhe y ~ literal eqWv,lents for tbe wo:d$, I.e., tbe Iweal items beln& tnnslated. IJ'~ ...1 traru"'!iom. of words, idiom s, fia,\lreI o f If'<<Ch, Cle., result in uoe lcar, unnatural, and sometimes nooseD.ital trnns la· lions. In 1I roocllntd liler:ll tnllsl .rioll, Ihe lrnIl,lalOr umally lIdjlLSI$ the t=bliort enough to avoid rcalll<lllSttlSe and wmog meaning., but the UIlIIaturalnns srill,emains. Idiomatk trao S)atiOIlI we the ILII!UIaI forms of the re«JXOr langullge, botlI in Ibe gn>IIIIMIitJll o:lrIStf\>ttlOO$ and in Ihc choice of lexi<::a1 ilem •. .'I. truly idiomatk t MlllSlalion dl)tS no( round like a I ;~ ev~. lbey .,e1101 atXeptable ... "",,0).-.1 tmnslati""", The emphasis Ll 00 Ille reaaion of Ib<= !'eliding Or hearing h ..00 Ihe tnr.anin& i • .,..,. necessarily lhe same as !hal of the i<I\ltU \angUII,e. In oottrellslalloo. the $(JUIce le:luaid, "/ wcugllllfwhelf SIepllanll1, Fortunatus and Ac/tnk:us amvtd, bec<lu~ /hey ha\'/l.fPp~ ""<1Il>W' lackingfrom you. For I"qrt:fiu~ed I~y Spirtl (HId >0"" aw. S""h mtll d~enVl rt:OOg1Iilicft." 11 \\11$ ~1aI.d, " Ir $ "", i. f:OOd 1O..ec ~o:\'e. WcZy BOd 'B!& Bam'. They sort, IIl3ke up for your MI being "~ TIoey're a big boc:IillO both me aod you.aU.l.et'. &1\'" lIum a big h;nI. TIle ptlJJlOSC of Ihe tronsIatioo wu 10 make lin BnCie<lt luI "''em oonlcmfX'l'll}'. but (he re!uit ~ an ulldnly fr « In ~ la lion , The trarululor· s gool .lIQuld be to reproouu in the roccpl(>I lMguage a lUI ",hiGh coijllnunk:!lles the sacne message a.o; Ihe source 1""8""8e bu.t usinllhc natural grammalical and lexical choices ofille rcc;e",..- I'""¥l"'Se. ffu goal Is !loll Idiom . lie t r-.n~l i G" . In Ibe cha",en \\flkII follow, the manyde\lils invol""" In productogsucb I trlnl latiOll will be dJ=sed. The b;lsic ovmiding princ iple is tlIII! "" M KiJuIs '" T"' OVERVIEW OF TilE TIUNSUTION TASK 10 idlo",.lk traulat>on repod~ 11M' 1I'''''l)ing oflhe SOtlf'Ce I.:mguagc «(hal if. Lbe "'''Ming intended by the "';l:ill8l OOOIll1unicator) i~ the namn! form of llle re.:eptor language. Howevfr, Ihere is always the ~":r ()f interference from [he fonn oft/II> .looreo language. The Study o(many tTaf\SlaUI'nlI show. Iballn order 10 translal:o idiomalically a trnnslator will need 10 Ina« mauy adjustllK'll(S In form.. Some ..ump'" of III<: k"lnds of adjustment ..."hlcb will neW LO ~ made are d i ~ ~I)V as ~ bcct&rotllld to sbow !he need for lhe roon: <.\rtl,iled srudy ...·hkh follo ....~ in b ter chapters. Transilltill!:: I:ram mlltienl featu res diy~OI Para ofspcech are languilKe spocific Each IangU3gC has its own of dK: lellioon iruo el:tSS'" such as IIOWIS, vtTtll, adject;'"", e\C. DitTa.nl Ien&Wlgcs will l1li,.., different cla!sc:s 800 subctasse.. 11 ",ill IIOl a]Wi)'5 be posoihle 10 !l'Mldgle " source 13118""80 noua with a noUQ in tbe fI:«ptor language. For Q!lIIIIple. lodo-F"..uropr:an 18111guages bave UllIII}' llOUIlS ",!tieh n::aJly refe.-'" acIioos. MOillanguag.. wtll )'I"Ifcr 10 exprcs-; actions as vaM ralher thoo. naUM. A t!"llJlsh'lor in Papua New Qulnea (from Deibl\<l" :md Taylor 1917: 1(60) w~ Ml<ed by ~ paI,ol orr,<;cr to tI'll.mlate ~IC Eight-Point lrBocov ..m...1l Plan for Papua New Guinea (Papu:I New GuI"",,: Cenml !'Ianning Office 1973). One oftm- poillb moda, "DecmlraI.iZJltioo ofeconomic adivny, plani~g and 8ovanwolll spending, ";Ih emphasis 011 agricultwal dcvciopmnl. vmage indu$uy. bencr Intmlal trade. !lIld more $pc:oo:\lng cllaOlleled through local and areoi bodies. Sucb -IC'D.IC1l<;eIIll"C' vcry difficult fortrnnslalor.l who ,,"UtilI<> lmnslate Into tI)e IndlgClJ(lUJ langullies of Ihe country. Word suc~ a< (/ce~ · M InlliuuiOll, (lCIMly, phmning. govenl'~M rpe7tdi~g, I!lIlphasi.I. dew/- u IU J~Ioit ;\-10$1 Iqua,es ba"e a <:!au of words whIch may be called pronouns. Prvnotni",,] S)"tems "ary greally from laagoogc 10 IMguage, and the trWls]nt <x is obliged to LIS(: lbe fonns of Ihe r ",~ptC>r language c""n Ihougb they may have very dlffurenl me'ming' from the ptonollDS of lllll SOIIn:e languttg<: . For nample, jfone is IrlUl.!Iating inro Kiowlt (USA). the ~n.s ",til MVI! 10 Wdi~ale • dllTonmce beN'em singull/. dual. and plwul person ""-.:n Ibo\lah tilt .ource hlllgll3ge does not m:»::1! this; lhrotl-wty distinction. Or if .. tr.=lator l.t translating into Balin=: (S ..~lIet&1'b 1963:15&). be mWI distin · g ~ i.h degJn:s of honor ""'en thoogIl nolhing in the source l:lI1guage irldicates lhese dj ~tincj ons . He will noo.llo under,tan<l the eullure of Ihe Bali.... e and {h c cul{lmIl context of tlw lexl he II translllLlng in order 10 cboose comedy. In EngJuh. the first penoo pI\lI1tl pronoun " ... i$ otten usod .... hen the real meaning u - . d ptrSQfl)O". lbt: ruson ror tho ~sc of we is to ~ empathy and undemanding. 11M: Durse S3)'!11O {he sid: child.. '" It·, time for us to tal::e our medicine now. ~ Or lilt: {....:bcr "')"3. " W ~ 're n<}( ao1ng 10 sllmu ...... '11 "'"31k quil'"lly \0 OUr p!oc<:s:' Clearly. Ihe pronouns do not refer 10 the nurse or the teacher builD the children. whom slw: is .ddrc"ing.you. [n translating these pronouns inlD "",other language •• Iiterul lnlmlatioo with flrsl pcr$01l pluml wou ld probably distort tbe mtaning. The translalor wO\Ild nttd 10 IooIr; for .~ 1l3IW"3.\ way 10 COmlUUllic;;lfe _ d tItId tbe fedingof W\J"IIIlhy C3I1"ied by the .ooun:c 1ani""&" ~. Granun3lic31corulructi_ also >"aIJ bcN-"ftn the lIOlurcc:lanf:U3ge lind th~ l""C!CeJ'Ior language. The artler. for ClIampie. may be comple\~ ly rC\'ersed. Th ~ follOWing simple , cnlen« !mm Gahul;:u (l'np.'" New Guirw:a) is livcn wllh a rnorpheme.by-morpIteme tler~ Iraa<lall00 mdemeal h (daur from Deibler) ""DOn. Opr'Ie"I. lind {rode ...'Wld h ~" to be r=docn:d by ,'C:rb!; in mosI languages. Whm ve,bs are usN, !hen, the appropti:ll.e , uhjC>Ct and object orthe "er" lMY ooeed 10 be tl\8lle expljc:il am.. The form in !be receplOf language is w:ry different fi'om the 00III"Ct! language form and y<'1; this kind of adjll$tment. UJit'i "erbs nolh... Ib."1I1 nouns. mUSl be m...:lc in order to communlcaie lht l"es""se. An id iOtMtlC tnmsJatjoa " ... , maoo which used vcrblt !lS in tho followins: It will readily be ""0 that a som cwlull understandable tnmslallan into Eng!isb <"'{uires a complete rewnal of thc a,der. f will go Ie lown The goYrmmcnl WanlS 1<1 deanse the wer); It dou fOt M inesscs and w.... t It plans, and the IDOIlC)' II spmds In lbe alpit.al, and "'3n\S 10 lncmIsc ..."haI pe<>pk lind groups it! local __• do \0 help fanners and small busineues wllosc own..... live In Ylilagl!S., and help people in mi. coumry buy and ~I thing. mack1 in this OOWltry. and to !>ell' local lUOOpll spend Ihe Sovcmmenl"s money. "")liMS. './";/1 gel 11>"", lemOiU. ·' A more idiomatic nnnsiallon would rmd: I wll/ ¥" TO rUt.", Ie gel s"''''' Itnt<>lU. In onIcr 10 h.we an Ullderstandable English form. the Older must be chanted completely and foO"", Enl1lsb gnmmatlcal in .cIditioo, the dlroct quote. ... hkh Jlgn31ed p.qpose io Gah\1ky mUSl be d~e 10 the cqu lvalCl1l English fonn ror J'l'-II"ilO'C clall';e$.. It is DOl ur~omn thaI p;t.lIJive oonnructioos will need {o be tran.lated wilh an Mliv" construction or v~ versa, dependlns on the ....Ji ...., I«oono _ aJ-i~ loto ".""f../,oI:;; act·",,11-i gym • . . . - ""!Inns. ..u....... lJ'H'in.1 " ~\.g§Iir _ r ~§irn.-1 o <~., ' :;. •f ~ ~ ,£ !1~i t; U ~- !3~ "' ;:] • :~ f~g.e=s ~1" 5 ~"i 0' _ &I"" ·~3 ~ .~ ]~ }"·t!rf'£"o~S ,,="__1, 01 " '"""':EOI"S'§ ~ag!I ~§uioEw.=1 J; i .g · ~ -Ji - - >- - ~':;<l O:L '?;>S '!! .. g~1! g I:Hl 3"~ ~:; t: g'~ r~,"!:J- 80 u :.~ :zs:::: .. ~ ~a "" ,o·,·,·-t" ~ l"': - ~-1'!" ; ~ !~iY -".!l _=] .. ~ ", .s=1;l ~- 06 "' :. El !I-;;;"j'!<"".s- ;Ji~ ~f i-~ ' .. 'l5~- ~ ,g ~ ,~ ~i:g E ~ -- ,13 ~ " =~-"!: " H I ~ , ],8 .. ..;; 5·=·\I "" ..-.r; .. :E ~i I~ ga ... "s t! .. _ }1~3 ~r!i:a .;<OE~l! C ~ ",' r".?:>2 .!I'l',, - o .. ·.. ~'o '0 }l!~]i ~ ,;~ rg-'s~. " ,~ 5 >- F. " l -o l5 =.s1!'& ." [ ~ ; ..... 5 .8'" ...... :ii - ",,-," ~l" ~S .~,g- u!g~'r.dhj, ~ ~ fa ,,; .... !f_ ~ ," Ii: '" S i;l fi1!g;-~&'E" ~;JW f~ i! ~ ~.i, .fl:t; ~ £] B -5~ .. "'I' • ~il L " ~ n . I:l o~ :~ H : ~ • '" H '~i. ~. , , •• H ~ P p :,§~ '" , ! ,j 1l ~ 0'" ,~ ~ ~ •~ , O! j ]-], l~ '.'~ . H a• -'I ~i j ~ ~ ~ o • "< i~, " .,. ~ io '5 .. 'o.!.! .g ~ ~ ,s.~ _ :E -< ~ ~. • ~. 2 ~ o 0 ;::: 1!~ ~~ ~. -a~ . <~E "t ~ , ,I , I~i .s:~ H _ .d:!1! ~ ~ 8 ge: 3:e ~ _ . " ~ ~ ~ o OVERVIEW OF TIfE TlUNSLATfON TASK Z6 (b) An International Alphabet would inevitably bring about a r ~ 'Il "' tears spelling refonn, too. And bow many hOI child han no! be<.'fl shed 00 spelling' (a) He then rep:>rtoo bis mi, fortune to the police, who :ll"e searching diligently for tlIc tltiet: (b) He t1um hi' mi:5hap r<:portedlO the police, who are the thief intensively .earching. B. Loot for literalis m. in the following translatiOl'lll into English and underline the words or phrases that do not sound natural in English. Suggest ~ mOre itUom atil: way of saying it. (All oftltes. examples >lfe from puhlislted trans\a.too material. RcferetlCes "'" not given .0 as not to embrurass the mm slator.) I . We offers as attractiOl"l" horse trip orear by fields and forests . (roorist BrocllUre) 2, To move the ClIbin push button of wishing floor. If cabin should enter more persons. each one should {ress number of wishing flow. (instrllCt iom in elevalorilift) 3. The archeological matters in Egypt indicated Ihat tbe prin_ =se. in those days had used naturnl cosu.elic to polish their beauty, (Newspaper) 4. Since \ 976. the Women basjoined the popular >lfmy. and has been permiucd 10 joill the armed force. and to acquire an equ.:ll laws have '''ttended the mother's lea\'e mil irary ran};. Of~ before and aft ... delivery, and grantoo the m~h e r an ndditiott.11 two-year le.v" to take care ofber child under four year.; of as" (Newsp"JX'T) 5. A ho]d,up (robbery) took place of a motorcycle rider at Kamvung carly ~terday mornins- (Newspaper) 6. When you feel col d, bocan"" of tlte d inmte, or )'Oil feel something had in yonr bones. please rub Parnm Kocok Super Keei!. Shal::e well the wlution beforc use. (DiIecti ons witn m~dine) Guatemala City ill always full of surptisei. II has a delicious cl imalt:, for reasons of ito ahirude-1500 meters-but not so high as to affect people from low"lying "",as. (.Magazin e of ao airlwe) Kind!; I)f Traru/Illion,. " 8. Villagers spend most 'lftheir energies in p-oducing com and beans for their families. T ho~ :u:<! the principle prooUC!:i, including coffee, greenB and fruit. (Magazine "fan ~j rl i o) C. T he following <m: ~tcnes ",rifleD by Sudanese wh" are !lOt yet speakers. The form used shows ('l<OIpe~ of how fluent E ngli~h their mother-longue language structures have been carried over into English. The same inf()lTna!ion is th~ ~ given in f"U"'ru.hesl.i in the iWQma\ic EngJislt. What changes were made in ~ting English? Th= chaoges point out SOme of the differences between Sudanese language! and English. Sir, the problems of before don"t forget. (S ir, plea!lC don't forget Ihe problems "'e dio;clI.'lsed before.) 2. If there is any m.,ans. send me a lene, 10 R lwoto. (If there is a'lY way to do >0, send a letter to me at RiwOIO, ) J. 1 will think you time to time day and day. (I will be thinking about you often !:Very day.) 4. I am vory gra!cful to infonn you witlt this letter. (I am "cry happy to be able 10 ,end/write yoo this Ietter.) 5. J .m a man who has boon to luba for IS years. ( I have now lived in Juoo for 15 years.) Chapter 3 The Semantic Structure of Language O«lp and surface structure Another way oflooking at fa rm and meaning is to think o f them as surface .truetu re and deep slrutture. One of the basic 1.1sump" d dislinction beh\'een lhe du p tions ofthi' tnt is thai there Is u ~ali (semantic) and Ihe .ure" "" (grammalical, lexical, phonological) S!TU~ lures o f langwtges. An anaiY'lls ofl he s u r fa~ Slru c! ure oh language does nOlte!! us all Ihat we ",-",d to know aoou! the language in order to translate. Behind Ihe Muface . Intel " ... is tbe deep . Ir"dure, the mellJling. It is this Ol""ning that S\lf\',," "" the base for tramlation Into another language. It is A . econd bask a" "'npllon Js thal meMing j~ ~lroCtued. not just an jn ac~sible mass . It can Ix analyzed and ~preswtd in way' that nrc uocful 10 the lranslalor. It is not OJdered in the same way in which the s u rface strueture must be ordered. It is a network of semantic unilS and the relation. bel....-cen these unir... The, . units and rcbtl oos may be repre,ented in variOU$ ways. The con"cntioIlS which "ill be used in this text han, been eho ""n for pmctkal The aim of the book. is n<>l to argue lingulSlic thoory but to pNsent tool, which will help tmnslatofS. Nevertheless, it is importallt to nate tbat the procedures are based on the two "".umptiom givtol .hove. Seman tic s truct ure is more nelll'ly universallhan : rammatica l struct ure. l bm ;' .lypes of unitt, the feature., and the ",lationships a", e""",Hally the same for all languages. All have mn.n;nll ,,"mponea u which Can be classified as THINGS, EVENT$, ATTRJBlJTES, OJ'RELATIONS, for example. BUI oot al l language, hve til ••ame su rfate SlruC1Ure grarrunalical classos-£ome have can j uno;tiQ. ~, olhers de no!, some have preposilional p1~, olhers do not. Word classes ditTer from language to l"ngll8g•. The fou r semantic classes listed above occur in all languages. Any (x!pupt occurrtng in any l angu~ e "ill refer to either a THING, EVEt-IT, AlTRlBUTE, or "'''''''fl'. RELATION. " ::; ~ ~ ~ " J >-, 11 • • ~ ~ ~ 1 "•J ~ • 1 l, ~ l, , ~ .f { .! l • "• ~ ~ • g! • ~ ! ~ U ~ '0 b .~ ~ l~ " !~ ~! :;~ l ~ i~ ~ ... - ., -E]~l S'3~ .1 5.~p , i~ ~ T' i~ "" &. ~ ~.s ~ 'O il , ," j ~ 0 - .: :£.8 0 6 ~ ~ • 0 I ~<'H .. .,,0. .. --2: ~ r ..c~ ~ ! ' ~-5 ~ 11 8 • ! "::l Ot"", §-~ I h J•!:i ~i ·, ~ ~!] ~ ~ .. 0' •, ~ ~ -~ 0 0 ..!l.i • i "2 'ag. ~ ~£ ~i!1 Wj~ il~ E " '- .101 ~'!el'l 2 , $ .<O § "ii! .5 tl,&J , ;~ ,, '" ..., Or ~ !;"~ .. ·0; 'qo _~ g n ~ {~. a l!~ ' i-~ I .- ~ ~ -j.- g~ti ~ ~,£.g ~ § ...Ii"'" .= ~13j! -:; u.s S .,-'5i ~ ., !!l s , !j •• .~ .H,,.. . ~; j~ :; -s $t~ :g"i;i • .siil", ,,&' ,- 1.- " • 'i2 -5 a.fi;I] "i' l~ ! ~ '"~-; . 2~H il , f .; ~'" i5. .... .s ·f!! 1! ~ ~; '~ 2l~"]'-& ~ .'"!1 ~ 12 ! ~, .., '" ~ =. < d lhn ... -!~hb r ,],. iIi' ~ 8~ . ! ]~ 1'5~ ", '>C ~.-, ~ ~ ji,!!:i'i' U~ 1.:5" ~ ~ i ~ ~ 1 , d I~mi! ';; ~ t:~" 'i>~" .L H,," H.h',.' ~,!i- .. o " i :.8 ! ~ ,! ~ji ~ il:u " ~ J -s . <> 'U ~! __ ~!l·~ "" _ :~.s ~i { J, 1 ! ,"'" i r~ -'" , t .~l ~ lr 1;1: i• ~~ • ~ !! ~" - ~n1p ~ • , ~ ~-r{ -.- . .&:~l Or =~ :f"'~<1 W~. 6 .:; . ~ -5l';~ §~ 'iJ! 1!t~': ..; ~ ~ " .> "1 •~ ~! e n 1;;, } ....l ! !.H ~ .h :t! ].iI •~ •.,; , '" ~ >. I :''' .';! :: is 'll ] 0 " 0 ]~ ~g ", i ii! ••l "~ '1'< J . ~ " "~ "i-~d" . , ! g " 'HW .6~ t ~ .[, t~ :3 .. ~ ..s -"d..!! .o - ~ i ..; t"g o ~ .. :i:iiH••., .;! i!. . ij'.!i.sA ! i~ g 15' !" ~ ~ ~ ~ ! I , , •• " ~ !~h - .!f'l1" !il=~ --_.. f~ n'""~13.. ~ "Iei "'is; };''§.fj 1l ...:.~,8li t .Ii 0; • I I• Ji -fi'fn:2 ! • ~ "•I !i5~n ,• .1 • -iill "'~ 44 :W'~ ','- ~ . 0 ..... 01 .. .... l eU , ~ :'!j ~ ~ ~ f'l ! ! ~.- F ~] ,"• ! g ~ i :i ~ "••" ~ ~ 2i' B .-1 •ill ] l :l ~ il ~ i l~j ;:> ~ ~E !, ~ Hi n 51 11; OV,.:RVTEW OF TIlE l'RAlYSUTlON TASK TM $tm(",1ic Slrf<c,ure of u mll""I/'f ut4in& bel,.,.",," pammar WId leItIantics. Tr«, which is a 1lIING. i, boeing used as a ~. The EVENT which rook piKe is caused 10 go up. The meaning of the scnteI1CC is tIw floe dof CtnI.fM llot co>, 10 IP lip /1110 Q ITU or rhe dog c11<lst'.d Iht cal: theNfon. lire cal 1<'('111 up GcnernlIy speaking. the ........, and proDOWII oftlte gmrmtw ~ fCl' to 1lI1NGS In the scmandc stnJeture, the ,"CI"b6" of the granmar til EVE)..'l"S, etc,lftberc Were 00 skewing. !be rewiortshlp would 31 in/a a Ir/!t!. l bert is a great deal Qf skew ing betw~1l ~ , e &J<lITIlIWI"8nd THL"05. . uprtsS tbe ilCn\llllllc structun:. H .oogllou\ this lut _ will discuss tilt' kinds of slr.tw\ng w hi~ • Ir.II1$b.lor needs to "-.tel!. for lIS he IJ'nI'I';la!e'l. $I,,,.... In th~ unmples given alxwe. yOll wilJnolice thai for tM Enshsh examples. only nouns are w;cd to iI1 wtrnle TIllNQS. only .erbs to I lusr:I~ EVENTS. only modlnen: to ilhl<1Jale ATTII.lBUTIlS. an d RELA 110N"S l~ il h.tSlrale4 by pHpo$ltion>: arid conjunctions. In ot:ber wonbi, in all of the cX3mples alvm p;i"....c !here WII.'I a one-to-one C<I1T'tlatim bc1ween the sem.'IIItit m d grarnmatlatl s:tructl.Ir'eS- There wa. no """",ren<;e of ~inJ. ~ Boy. \ilh~ is a nIlNG, is • lingle lCJ<iCilI II,,", in English. H()wever, it I. milde up of s<-'Vernl mell"int cQ ltl ponenl . - HUMAN' BEING. MAl.1!, ilIId YO UNG. ( HUMAN BEll'IG belongs 10 the ,ttmanlie elass THINOS. MAU; and YOUNG belol\& to the eL"\S:S ATfRJ8UTES.) Some languases aI!iO w'e a word which includes these three m ea nint ",mpo"en !1 in •• ingle luieal item, Howe-'tT, other langua,;'" do oot. N'dogo (S...:Ian) has • ,,"'Ord dab> whidl ~ MALE iUXlllUMAN BEING, The includes 111 0 lIlunint tornp"'I word vi Ln~Il S YOUNG und. therefore, vi daw would be equi~ ~ le l l to the El'ili.h ,",'o, d boy. In ChIuan= (Me'lIko). each Rlnniult ","'po"cnl would bf a «:pard' word jiuun$ d1CiJ mi', The throo words meao VOU»G (0i1 1..D). HUMAN, and MALE. The thn:c: words are equivlllent \0 Ibe English word boy. How 18llgU3gt$ ol'£ani:r.e the lllunin& components into w()fd~ and pIJrascs is R ehl rac ~ r; '!lc of ca.ch language. be., follows: the sem.anliC$. The IlI"IlUn an: Or""'81<:.£"" l.t5e ,'arlow alternatIves 1(1 'The IJDllIiPlI UIll! In the oem:llllic u ructun: is l 1l..... nioG component .Menin" (omponcnls group together 10 f",," concepts. (Tloese lerml are defined more carefully in cnap(c. 6.) Meaning comJl"n ~n '~ and coftcepb .rc cklssified san.:W.ieaLly il1to roW" priDc:iple gnlUp5cllH1'GS, EV£.VTS, ATI1lIBlJ'Tl:S, and RELATIONS. nHt"os indude a1l llllirrulte beinp. naturnl. ... d sup:maturaL. aDd al l inanirn:Ite entities (boy, g/IMt. o~g.n gQlaxy, itha, blooJ). EVEl'oTS include all actions. cbal1ges of fitate (procc5S ), and e~p1lnc (cat. nm. ,hlnk. meil. SITt/d,. smi",). AlTRlfJLnllS include .11 tbooe ~ur j bu t ~ .. or quality and quantity ascribed 10 my TIliNG or HVE~'T (/<mg, Ihld. soft. rough. slo....ry. -'<knly.frwi. (J1i). Finally. kf:.LATIONS include IIlI those relMlons pMlled bcolWeeft 811)' 1"'0 of!he abow sem:mlk un its . since, DIId. lhcrQ<>re. aft~. Dr). (with. by. /w!c.:I1~ " noun•• pronQ""l EVThTS . ~erbo ATTJ.IIJ\1l'"ES . lIdjccl:i,u.,IIdYabt RELO.1l<X'S. «JlIjuna:i<In$. JlI'q)OJition .. plntel ...... odilia. etC. In a simp!. _eo Iike. John called Mary, JOHN IUId MARY bel\ll,& i c eta» D IlNGS and ~ ..oWlS in litis r-nleular &e!l.teoce; CALLED Is an EVWT st:maIIliI;ally and a verb grammatically. The """". - nf the teRlence iodieat" tbM ./011", the . , enl, is the ntbjooct and Mary. the Iff'crod, I, the ObJect.. lbere is: no sl<ewiflg between to !M se~ sulf""" Stl'UC1u,e IIIld semantic stmc:lure (pr=ppo:sina rhot 1m un_ .k ~wed fonn woold hft\'e all"'11 a~ suhJect and nrr.de([ M obi""t), But in tbe ...,.llIc.o $Iruc\ures of I""CwtgCS, tit,,", Is n deal of 11\:ewlng.. for exam Vlc, in tbe sentert(c, "[ luiUTI Jolrn', tall, ~ CDJI is .~ tb in this ]lOI1iculnr senrenc:e. it ft noun in the Sl.-f~ ....1'f"SCI'" It R'IJIMlIk .r:;va.T, call. Semantiatlly, !ben: arc IWO BVEl'-'TS and two PROPOSJTto :-:s whlcb "'" "'l""'ieI1.tod in the surface fo"n "11team JOlrn'r c~I . " The firs! proposition is John rolled and th e sncond, / heard. It Is possihJc to «:presl'llt 1hese 1\\·0 propositions In EuaU.. h by SilY!n& ",/oltn calkJ me a"d I hmTd M,tI. "This ",·ould 001 be skew<:d Howc-"Cr. if one S<I)'S. '.J ~ JoJut.J ciJI~ tbus, cxpm.sing the twO propositions in II single clause I1Ither t.it&n in two clausn. tbere is skC\\'ing. Oi 90~-mng the smtanllc !IUUCtIlre ine luoks removing the likewl ng betw...,n n-mantic cJas><1 ."d jVammeticlll ell-uel . ""SIC H Semantic hietuehy = In .rlC~ 'lrUCIure, unils. groupNI into incrca!ingly l.argw unils. In a ble",ll'by of ~ struc:tlll't$. MOI]lItemeil (roots mOO affixes) unite 10 forlll words, words unUe \Q form pbrosc:s, ~ unite into clause$, clsl,UCS into a !lCfl!c:noc. 0C!1I~ InlO a paragmptJ , p!U1Igraphs into discourse IltlIts of '1lriou ~ L:ind;. ood these unite to fomt a tc.1~ tener, ~on. or whate\·CJ", Although semantic ~ure is ~ or a network of oonfigumtiGns, each ""loa pili! of • latger (:(I[IilguC8lion. for dJe Jr.'CIicaI purposes ofthili book w... "" i1I loot at sernnntic II.:\I<:Iure Ittlrull'h ic:ally allW. The srnallnt unit is a meaJling CC)INfX»"!"'I. Meaning 0CIIllp<>neft1li unite Into concepts, ooncept. Into pl'Opruitions. propoiilioos into ,, "~O ~ .i• ~ , ! ,,• UH . • ali ,-.p J ~ , ,s'I~" "t ~] ~ j, ~!H ~ ~i! 11 ~ ~ .s j~ '" ,! " .. t hF: ~F. .§ - ,~ ~ §$l~ $; .il ~ i 8. it; r' h~ ~ d ~ ~ s ~ 0 g :; ~ " ~ N s ! ! ., , ~ ~ '"' .,f .~ 8 ~ ~il ,~ .~ ~ ~ ~ O A. ~ ~ ,,'iI fo ~ ~ " IHi:!: .. - ~.1-" !, ~H.ol " f -' I & • ] i f " " .. • ,I "",2- ~ .- ,; ~G il 5 ", F5" !'P] "'p £ . 1'- ... til~ ,.. ," I , • ~; ..l;.E . ~; -"H I, !: ~ 'U '" •'", 'f__ ~,s .~ ~ u , ~ iii ',-"!•.•!;" t ~ .. "~t: 'I ;1' i , - ~ u> r~ h.- is ~.I:-li .z . "ill,! ~ ~ i~ ,, i j;] .f:. . .. ~3f ~ -' 1 ~W{r .E ... '.ii.;; ] :0 ~ .~ ~ A " ..l;i'" -",~ ~ ,.; ~ ~ ~ • ~ '" ", • .< , >-~t ~ H " OVERVIEW OF TffE TRANSUTfON TASK SURFACE (GRAMMATICAL) STRucruRES (I) Yest'JrdAy John went 10 IOwn ""d bought a Car. He drove i1 hom" and shmved it to Mary, who was "elY happy (2) John bought a Car yestCIday when he WMI 10 town. Drivint£ il home he showod Mary tlw enr, wh ich made her vcry happy. (3) John bought a car in town yeSlerday. Mary was very happy wbel'_he brougbllt heme and sbowed it to her. In m.- eumple above, th e paragra).Jh i. firsl written \\.ith all Ihe concepts. propositions, and propositiooal c!ustm given in full. Then the !lrrtt surface structures which fol1vw:ue u.>oo to communicaI( the same meaning. In these Ihree different rewJ ites What srice forms (specific words) all' used to refer \0 the conceptJohl1? h. What ,urf""" forms are ulled to refer 10 the = p t car? c. 'What surface forms are used to express the propositi(l!l N"1a John dra..., the car home? d. Whal .urface fonDS Y, ·s uruayJom. "'"<VII = to used to ."press the proposition /OWfI? e. What surface forms lU"e used to sbow Ibe relati onship bo tween the!\Vo propositionsJoJIlI showed IMcay/o Mary "od Mary waJ" very happy? C. Using t b~ deep structllre propositions in B alxwe, translate Ihe infonnalioll inlo a l~ nguae olber Ihan English. R",,·rile tn two or three diff<.-.mt forms, keeping the meaning the .ame. D. Rewrite IILe following in Engl ish, changing tlle form bm keeping the meanbg as cOllstont as possible. Rewrite tlle parngrnph sevemJ times. u. ~ natural, clear English semences. (Such rewriles are called P'\IlIpbrases because the same thing is being ",id In a different way in the snme language. A paraphrase ch:mges tlle f(>rm but not th" meaning.) The Senra~ lic StrlleiUU of Lan8uII8e The day was beautiful. II was 10 ,·~ 1 <xk. Jru>e ltft the hOllse. The hoose belonged 10 Jane. Next Jane drove the car 10 tile post office. Ne~t Janc sto pped the car. Ne;>;;t Jane got oUl. Next Jane l0~ a hold of the doorkllob. l be dooIkoob " on the door. The door was part ,,[the post offic.e. The door WM locked. Therefor•• Jane was frustrated . But Jan"was !~ Mr. nol a"CTY. Rather Jane was concerned. Jane won<kft,d; "'as Smith dck7 E. Using the infOllDItI;oo &i"eII in the paragrnph in 0 above. translat. Ibis Story into a language other than English. Rev.'rire the I""rngrnph several thnes willE different forms each lime. Chapter 4 Implicit Mea ning Tmnslolion, then, i<oommullicalinil tho :Il~ m eM ln l l n a ""CO/Id languag.e M Was communicated in the firsl. BUllo do ro adequately, one must be aware of th~ fad ibat there an vwlow kinds of !OC8rnng. 1'101 aU Orlhe ,,,,,ming wbieb i.< beifl& communic.lled i. sta,ed o"~ t1 ly In tbe ronna (If !be ilCUr« language tnt Disro' 'aina tbe meaning of t ilt: Ic.:II to be lfandated includes consiocrlllion (If bocb u p 6cit and of 1~t ~er Ii 10 g;"c an h np lidl I. r....mlllloll. lbe ~ oycr;;c.... "flhe importance of improd! rnc:tnln& Ul tbe 1AttS1ator. TIle mauer oflmplici!. tMat"liog will be mentioned wany 1ifn,e$lhrol!glt<>Ut thil book. Kind s o f m ean ing Ptople usually think of meaning a$ UOIuctlIlng 10 whld! a wMl or salience refffJ. For example, the word a/,p~ rde,. Ul the fruit produced by • ceftaln lree. People know the mc.nlng of aPfJle bc:c:a""" they luI,"e s«n an apple and learned 10 call it apple. Thill kind of " ""l(1lnSls cftUcd REFERENTIAL MIiANmO bec.u.oe lhe word refers 10 a certa in thing. event, UnributioD. or Allalion wbich a pef"SOll can perceive or Imagine. A sentence h..:; meaning because il refen 10 something that happened, or nwy happen, or is imBKined as happening. RErn'UJNTIAL MIlA}<'"1NG Is whal the communlcallon L< nboul. II Is the ;nf_lart GOIlIent. The REFER.ENTlAL MEAtI.'£NCl Is orgmIted inJo a Hlllanlic struc_ ture. ~ inf"nnatioo bit.! :lre Mpachge<,l"; thai is. tIIey Me pW oo,elhu nod eJipn:sscd by a varitty of combinations. AI they are wpackJlgcd" lilt" L1J8ft" and hug« unil' !here i:< ORGANIZA TIOt-'AL MEANING in lhe disootuse " 'hlch rnUSl aL.o be taken inlOttOO;(UIlin lhe IAttSlalion. For example, if appl# halt beoo ref~ to In the telll and lit.., apple is ~fernd to ~ loe facl Ibal II it tbe SIlUIC fJpple II part of !be OROANIZATIONAL MfAN1];G of Ihe I ~X l. Cen.:tln InfonnRlion may be old infonnation, Some new; certain infomtlllion mly be the l"pic (whal is \wing talked a.OOui) of Ibe dloeoursc. Olliu in fonnatloo " " OVERVIEW OF THI:: i /U.NSU,TlON TASK Implicit MlXI,,;rzg the topic; and some infonnatioo may be more central 10 the rn"'l$uge, that i., more important or more /Xominenl. It is the ORGANIZATIONAL MEANING (Iial puts we referential infonnation much SITUATIONAL MEANING. When !raml"ting inlo "OOIh", lan_ guage, the original SITUATIONAL MEA1'>llNG .nay need to be ;1J(;1udt."<I in a more overt form if the same toul meaning is {o be wllllnnnicated to Ihe readers. The range of impl!C<ltions for trnns\a{;oD which grow om of the.e Ittree kind, of rueaning will be discussed in detail throughout tile Tetnnining chapters. However, there is one mailer which is very ba.i c to InUlSlatlng nnd is directly reluted to tIlese throe kinds of meanins:: Ihat ~ . the fact: that in eyery te};l {here Is meaning wbieh is expressed explicitly and there is meaning which is left implicit. TIle translator must he aware of {hese two kinds of information. Th"'" i. u plieit ~nd Implicit information eonununica{ing all three kind$ of meaning . (:ommenting 0 11 log&her into a coherent text. ORGANIZATIONAL MEANING is sig- naled by deictks. repcliti()fl, groupings, aud by many other features in the grammatical structll1<= of a l e~t. The lWo prOposil ioll< Mary peeled an apple and Maryal£ a~ apl~ include MARY as (he a~nt aud APPLE as the afffftcd in both prop"'ilioll" MARY and APPLE are boll! referred 10 twice (REFER_ ENTIAL MEANING) , BUI in order \ 0 form a oorrect grammatical structure , we must also know if tbe ORGANIZATIONAL MEANING Includes the fact th3! there is only one M'<RY and ooly one APPLE Or If 111= arc two MARYS <:>r two APPLES. If Ihey are the sam", the • urface structure in English would be a form like Mary /Neier:! an apple, a~d Ihell she are it. After the r LfSi proposition is given. MARY and APPLE are boll! old information and S<l pronominal forms are used. If. however, there ro<: referenC<':s to IWO MARYS arid only one APPLE, then the gr... nmatical fonn WQuid need 10 indicatd this wl,b 'ome!hing liie Mary pe€/ed M apl~. ami I},,,,, 'he mlier Mary"'., i,. All languages ha" e WHYS Qfsignaling the ORGANIZATIONAL MEAN_ ING. rut these may be "Of)' different mm I Mgua~ to language. For example, pronorn.inal fmm' are not used in th ~ same way in all languages, bm ,,11 languages wtll have a forw:tl way to indicate that certain infonnation is old infonnation. Be:.ldcs the REFERENTIAL MEANING and the ORGANlZA. nONAL MEANING, there is also SITUATIONAL MEANING which is cruci.! to the UI1deTStanding of any text. The message;. produced in a giv.,n communicat ion situation, The Jl:lationsbip between the writer or speaker and the addre.ooe will affoct {he oommunication_ WheJl: the oommun;cation takes place, when it 1.ak~s pla~, the age, sex. and social stalus of the speaker and bearer, the re!miOilShip between { h~m , the presuppositions that each brings to the eommunication. Ule cultural background of the speaker and {he addressee, Md many other si{uillional m8\t('!"S result in SlnJAnONAL MEANING. F(\r e~amplc, th€ very <arne persOlllllily he referred to by various Ic ~ i cal items . A mnn named John Smi1h mJY be referred {o a. Joh~, Mr_ Smith. Professor Smilh. etc_. depending on {he ~ i tua{;on. This chOice carnes SJllJATIONAL MEANING. JI may indicate w!tether the situation is fmma1 or infonna!. A friend who refers {(\ h im ai )o},,, 8S he greets him in the morning may later in the day call him Profe!>sor Smith when introducing him at a uoh'ersity semhmr. Different leXical fQ1lllS will be chosen to indicate SITIJATIONAL MEANING. A {ext mar be coruplet.ely unintelli gi ble to S()ffieonc who does nOl know the culture in which tbe language b spoken because tloere is SO " I mplicit a nd 1'X)Jlicil iDform!ltion As stated abo-I'¢, tile translator must be nware of the Emplioit and elplklt infol1Ilatioo which is being communicated_ Wben people speak or write, {he amount of information included in \he text will depend M the amount of ,h1lJ"ed informalion that already exists between the speaker (wri~) and tbe addrilSsec_ W1ten we lUlk about som¢thing. we leav~ out some of lb. information becouse the addres""" alr""dy knows these fnct. and might even be insulted If they were included . It might imply t!ud they were stupid or uninformed. And so in en:ry cotllwunl catlort. some information which is beiIl£ commWli _ ca{ed I. k ft implicit in conversation or wrinen te)(l, For example, neWS br o adcs{~r in the United States will make statements like, ''The R~agnl= bill pas~ed i ~ 1M SenMe lodlJy. ~ If the atlllOUoocr said. 'The lax bill proposed by rhe Pre.sfdrnr of I"" UNiled SWles, &Jl1lJid Reagan, was pa=d fnl h ~Se1lG 0[1"" United Siales today, .. people would soon stop listening to this ""nounce.-. He i, wast ing tlleir lime telling {hem things they know. It ig shared infonnntiotl. All communication is basedooshared inform:ltion. It rnayind ude shared language stTUCtUres, eulturc, previollS conversations, having read { h~ ",me material. a common experience, etc. In "'"'=ry te.\{ that one may want {otrans late, there wil l be information which is implkit; thst is. it is IlOl .Itated in an explicit fonD in the text itself. Some information. or meaning, il left impl~t because of the stru<:ture of lhe soU/ee language; some because it has already been incluokd el.",,'h.,.e in the text, and "Olne because ofshaJcd infonnation in the cenlnlunicat;oo situation. However, tbe implkit infonmitioo is part of the meaning which is t(\ be communicated by the translation, because it is part of tbe meaning ;n t~ nde to be und~r>to by {he original wriler. L " OVElWJEW OF THE TRAIVSLA TION TASK EXf.RCLS- lrn p~.il 1I1Iplidl Mt'Jllinx 4. No lime. Lei'. handle it ...itb. tel<#Joroe Cili. Mru inll " 5. I didn't te3Cb .flef.n bea,usc: Mr. ./ones arrived. A. Idmli/y!llld make uplldl any impllcl! TH!N(JS or EVE/'Io"tS in 11M' following: Example: After counting !he books, P.... .,.. D id ~'flen are 57." B<K>/c. Is Id hnpilclt In th quotation. After "oUllling lh~ book. , Pmr sai d, "Then: an: 57 booJ<.s. 1. FOTgivcn.m WAI di/ticuh fur ,(>1llC people . C. The fo!lowill()lI1lIgI'aph is II r.wbtt lll«aJ ,..., llIIimI from Baka (Sudan. d8t:I from Wanda Paoc). The IlIl pIIcItOflu.i... tio .. 1I1 aod ,ltulOou l illfocnut ion makes tbe poI"lIgI"ftph diffia.dt for . 000 B.lka I ~er 10 undemand. Firsll/le ~ugnopb is give", lhe.n the added inforrnotioo a!I ruppl ioo by a a.h~"'Cf I. given. Rewrite the plr.lgr"ph into English thai will he clUil)' understood by SOmCOOe out.;"" the Bob culture. Then l r8n, I ~I" t/lll same para" 1I'l'p/llnto I second language wblch you speak . 2. The people ofNl,ilcrll are bard workcrs. U i•• ooWlt!)' Wh... f I~ are v ioeyruds to give winflmd grain for maki!1lj bre8d. 4. Testirq; bas been going on.ol deplhs of lt1OI"e" tl\aI\ 18.000 fcec. S. W _ ~raIly l et up well b.:f<>n: da ..n and I q txfOfe !bell husband.! 10 reUghl the fire and begiJI making bre:lkfa.f!. B. In !he followll\i. II pl)p)Stllon. or part of ~ propo:tltion, Is left implkit .Jdcnll i')' and In."",e 6J>licil ttle implicit ~pos.it . ( ~ chapt:er 3 for . ,"'flnldon.) El!~ lp e The neXI day Jobn decided 10 go 10 town. He lbe Jooge:>nd Imd the matter lakrn can of. ~w [mpllcil tnfon1l3l1on; .JoII" ...../tIIO 10WII. he lI/"Ti,oed In IOW~ . 1lle tnt says !hal " ht o:blk.ltd 10" bill docs not My 1h::11 hi! KlUl.Uy did so. I. The Kina iW"IIInOOed IUs wise ll"'ll and a<ked them 10 InlHpftl !lis drealn. t'f/u,~ Ifkll /hty ~aWif"'.rled brltk ~ e,;()lIitm! , lhey /tome. TM" they appailll <l dtJy for th . ..., n..,,, tllty prtpart the-n'fJS 10 go fo<' ",.~ AdOOd Inlonnarion: The negOlj:ltiOnl an: ClIITied 01\ by tlIe .... ilor·s reblilves. This Is done aI!he borne o flbe bnde. "The bride', ....I.,lves are the OOCSI\"bo decide the dale for !he HIIlIlIaJe. However. It I< I be JIIiW'. relatives who IIlAke!he preptmlioru for lhe maniage ceremonies. 0<1 D The following: nory;"" modiflCd Iii""'] tnwll>lloo troon .Kalini'> (I'bllipplnes), A p<'r<Of1 who does oot know Kl l~ga cult""" would not understand the <lory. The words aod phrases which arc in italic. eonlJ:l in implied jRfl>r m~Uo tl . At Ihe end of the story,." I'xpla na. of th~ phrase!. Study 1~'n c:arefuUy and lion 11 given fOl' ea~h lhen rvwr ite lhe Slory In good idiomalic F..Jlil1sh (or yo ... mo(ber_ lon&ne). Kminga Hoodlru/tlillg $lory (lr.lnSCrilxd by Har! Wieas) I bad The people &om """''(:1',..110 came frorq Malaya, i[ i, said, buil[ the river TfIC(i$ the pooI ..,;tA no theIr bousn /lIlhe cm n ~,.berc sklu. They were happy I»cau.<e they wcre f_ Mel they did IIOl aI[O\lll 1. Then mpOOlhcr to[d me to makeroyselfa little head o;overlll8, lhsl t he "'QUId ohow n,e how. Illetnseh-.::< 10 be: conquered by lbelr feHo",,·.flW[ for thcir men "'ere "cry big, very l\ron,g, and '.cry ImlVc. IJ\d [hey WetC fear\c:u "''''nOl'$ for ,..Mnever they wem heMJlUnring e3Cb ooc carried mpol and. Ihey went $i n!:.i ng l>I1 Iheir way. Wbenc-ve! they arrived III the .mlrallee of tile ~fI(lgt, when they sho~lcd, the rhcll/r Oflhf WQ"'~ ~o in 2. But I never dld have TO chop il with lUI IllC brOlbet1: 1 only lI/Id 10 uge II king knife. ~ .9 " OVER YIEW OF THE TRANSlATION TASK TcatII ,cfall 10 I.e poopie who ....ill be ID,'oI"ed in!1>e project.lh f"'l'OOII II Dcompetent spenker of both the S<'>Ilroe lMguage and the receptor language, it may be lnal tI,e project ~an be doneoomph:lely by one pc rsoo:,. flw " , 'en so LIlere ~ ho uld be oth .... ava ilable (Qr cvaluatlon 300 .;ol\lUIWion. Most tnmslntioo rwoject8 re qu ~ Bream, n nwnber of peol~ who an: going to oontribule 10 ,he lraIlS!aIion a l lOme 5lage in the project. 111. ,,'Or\I:ina n:llIlion:ship bct,,'eft) U- people needs !O be estlobli>hold bdore the project !ids UI'Idnw:o),. It mar, boWe'o'l'(, l'Iw change as me p'Oje<:! moves aloog 11114 DeW bcton totne illiO focus. Tbat are certain esseDtiIIIs 10 HOY Irnn'llalion project. NO! a U of lhese nC>ed 10 bc found ill QOf;l p.,non. Th" r ~ "'" various kind, of progn.ms whkh may be •• , up depending 00 !he abHhle$ and oock groondJ of (ho<e wlln wlU be in ,·olve<!. The (tllm may OOlL'l ist of (I ) ~o ..lral1s1,,1(:n. wbore one Is a 5ptClaUst 10 the IIOUI'l'e lansuage 3Dd the ~her ; sptCiailu in the ne<:eflI<X ~ (2) • translator "'jlb maners capability to hanoi. boIb sourtC> l3ngunge and m:qtorL~ and .. advisor or ooll'lultanl, or (3) I oomnittee ...'<dlng . .\her with spx-i r ~ responsi bilitie$ delegate<! It> each one. Which kind ora jTOgJaI1I i. developed will depend OIl who I; 8\llilablc and qualified 10 determine l i~ (lrthe source lan&uage, who is most sld liC<! al draft ing in the m(:l the receptor IflIlguage, and who hil!! ao un!ler.lllnding of mm. latioo princ ~ lcs. The I""", may in\:IOOe lhe: InIOSllIWI'(s), . o;:(IQS\l\tA!:lc, testers Th. .m reviewtn, L'ld lecimical ptopIe 10 do typing and pro~ p.Ihi~ and dimiluor "'" abo part of thc ~_ Before the pugr3m i. fur alonR It Ii: lmportant HI know who will pc:rfonn tbeu oilifermt functions, (For dc\ail' s«(h'jl(cr 35.) The v:uious manbe1'9 oflhe1.e3m may I1«(l Sl'octa l training In order to do their part. This Imi ning may need La be taKen before the project begi ns. Toob ....refS 10 ~ wrltten Source maurlals whl(h will be used by the UIMitllon lUI b<lps.. These iocJ\Odc, ill addition to IlK doaJmcru to be: translated, ~ diaioMries.lniconJ, .... ,.,maJ"Ii. cullual descripl!oos, e\(.., of both the so>JJ'ce IaDg\IIge lind ~ \angua&e ... hkb Oft available. The team will WIlIIt Ill< much j"lOrnution .,,'3llablc as ~b1 e wbile tnrIIlaling. All "f th"' f ol~ IIhould Ix> bro"BJIt (0 Ihc tr:Imlatloa sile In ~ patl t ion for the !"",,jed, For some projects, tllft"lO wi U be a weal'.h of mntcrlah 1b3t can be used to help in loterrntl ng Ihe OOltrCe loogU>'lse text ~ in finding equivalents in the = ptor III!\iLla!\e. f or Olha projects, th= may be a sureiry of mch matcrlal, but whl!te\'Cr is ovailable thould. be !here 10 make lhe: ......n: ......... Equipmml ,..-d fll18neC:!l r.re alJo fools needed to (any on an dfcah-~ prosrom. 00c0I: !be In<'UtCF:< of the ICXI, the target 3Udiencc, and the teM:n relarionlihipS llrC cared for, and Ihe IOOb needed made avallable, ~ project is ready to begin. The )Jr"jocl will foll"w a series ofslqlII wh i~ h ind udc J'l"Cparoti<>n. an l Y!' i ~ . tram fer, initial dnlft, reworXing lbe Sups ill " r"tII$lIII;o" Proj«l 53 draft. Ifltling, poIishini, and ,"pari", !he IlWlUKrlpr for the pu blish..... Th$ 51~p< are discu~ d in detail in chaptcn 36 Md 37. initial Exegc!is tbe meaning EUlleshlls \Ued 10 refer to the proc;est of di~co'·erlj of lbt: SO\!IU Inn&uage Inl wbich is 10 he translated . It I, the step wbid! InciudOl$ [he preparolioo and mys:is ..·hkb mll$l. be done before II!I)thing al alJ can be 'ATiI1Q1 In tbr I'e('eI'Of JiDgwge.. Tbe (CJ(I must be undemood c:ompleld y. Thl. Is Ibe J'I'"OCC"<S ...I:t i<b ta\;cs place in moving from d,e I'O\lt"CC lool:U<Il:e fOlm III lhe ... mantlc ,u·uct ure, I.e., I" Ibe mcan irli of Ihe te ~l. The trnnsl. tor(s) should begin by reading the lexi 'IOvalll times, Ihm by readi'li "100 rout.rillls Ih ~ t may bclp In und.ersIaOOillg the CUlTUre .... languav of thoo sew« texl As he reads lhe teXl, he will be loo\;ing foI the alllhor', pwpose .,d. the theme of the tnl He will look for larger groupings or sealOl\S. lJe may "-:ml to o\lllillC til<' rnt. 1be ~ i$ 10 understand lhc lext as a wllol.e. Once Itt has done dlis. be ;1 ready to wor\{ OIl the m31erinl • =;on .1\ I liDle. The anulysl. " f the seu rce lexl .... ill lnclll<k resolving 1mblguity, & key words. Interpreting idcnlifYina Implicit lofom l'l\ion, ~ ylntud figurath·e iICO!iCS, recocnlzing when ..'on!s are being uud In :. ... ron_ dary _ , wilen &rammaliclll urut(\lreS are being uoed in II se.::ondary function, etc. II will illl'olve doin& thel:ind of amlym ..·hkb Ibis boo\; i< aU about, The goal of t~ is 1$ to dermnine!be IDC:li~ wbich i. to be oornmunicaled i" Ihc recqxor language Iext. The u ::a'1<lalor carefully otOOie, the loorce JaogUlge tClli oud. using all the avm;1t~e lool<, dctcrmints the oomcl11 of Ihe: 5OO.lrce langmge rne&S?ge. the rda ted COOlUlll!liCl'llion ~ ;t ua tlon mmlCr$, find all olh,"]" fa~ t ors which w ill need to be Wldcrstood in order to prOduce an e q u iv~ l cnt trarulatioo. T nm$fer ::a nd initial d raft After a can:fuI analysis of the soun:e lmIguage «'1(1, as indi<.ated llbo.,.e, lite IraIIlbtor he&ios dntfting piece by piocc, _Iloo by -uon. The tran .fn ",",ulu in rbe I nl l ~ 1 dnff, In preparillg this draft. the ,ranslator i. l1aru[cn'ing from lh~ !OU!"CC langu.'lge inlo It..: re<:epo.or IlUll:uage. A. he does !", he lIlU-o;\ ~ I w " y. keep his wrget audi ence in mind. Be£....e 4IlY tXten, h·c drafting CM be done, the key 1 ~1lIn ...tlx> detet"nliDed. E\"">, IU ( h3s • " ' of .words lIo"hieh :In: crucinl to the conIeni IItd eom<:1 oomm..uClldon of the rltemc. lbue need to be decided upon and may need to be chocked ..~t h other ~" of the r . ~cptor l a1l.~e, There are IWo ways uf approoc;hlng d'e 1",lISfer and. Ini1i. l dn f! . Some rranslutGfS prefer I" do a quick rough translation J() tltat the , I HP1~ ;jge !! , ,• ~ ~ ... "2:~X_ < ~ . ~ :l .! ii :;Q"'i~'~"i.E i"~j1 < jt ~ "S ,h•~! ,• li < ~ . .e~ •• ~ .. -o ~ .§~sl 1 . . ·~ " .jl: ~,'i ,lt E~lJ · ~l; - ~lR.i !li~ .~ , '-n ~ ~ j!.B:< -;! § ... il~! , .:;: l~]1! • h. ·~ .. .!s', i ~i'o;·:c " ij , 0 ~ ":6 ~3:_5]-j - •. ". 'Ii ~ g.. ~1 ,Oi- ~] <-~ ' n =- .~ , 8 [ , 1!~.a _i! .§"~l!:i "I-.!~!. h. •.; .8-~ S:;I '0 ,~ c lP'~i! jii 'i-l iii' 'in~ :l~£ 'E!'" ~ li ~1l ~t ~ ~ ~' !'" !~ ~z l ~ 1i > • ..!, .* ~ ~ t1 [ •, ,, , i • .. ;; I •• •, .! ~ ~ ~ , •; · .·,• ••,,• !i 1 ! "J1• ~ ;; ~ • ., , , .; i • ;; ••" ! •! • I l• •,,• ~ , •. ~ •] .~ 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ - "~ I ~&i ; [-,, ~ . ej .s&..s " .' ·" i"~:I·!' fl.".o ,. __o~ H £ .,,fi i~ ~1 I~ ~ ~ " " .~ ~ , ~ ~ 0 ~ • 1 .~ , ~ ~ 0 ~ JI ;; I • ~, U " 0 1" " ~ ~ ~ ~ I d JI j JI ;; ~ " " H ci ! !1i d ~ Chapter 6 Words as "Bundles" of Meauing A. dl;cusoed in the previous chapter., tbe ai m of the fran51ntor is to conununicatc dearly the meaning of the SOtJrcc tut in tlte tmmlalion. Tn chapler T. ( h.raeteri.tics of language whkh . ffOC'( how a IrIInslMor dots Ihis are listed. The first c h "'te T i ~t ic m<>nliOllcd WaJ that meaning comfX>O<11rs are combined Inro lexJc3l itfl~ b" t th.1t they are ·" k ~ged'· diff=tly in one hlIlgoogc frOOl aocl~r. A word Is a "bundle" of meaning componcnu . The tnln$lator ~ «J be ~ble t<l analy"",, the lexical item!! (W<>t<ls) of the """,co tut in order to tmnslate them. This IllQIlS bejng able tQ "WlpaCI:;~ words in Older to n i n g tit:!! i. repusented by the lexical form . DlctlollAries silo"" the m~ ~lIpnckM the meanings of word,. TWIt is ,,'by I lood translator will use a1llbe diCliooari<s and lcxicom: available In his study oftbe source 1IIn&uagc text He wants tQ be sure he knows the meanio; of eacll word Sinu tangllllgCS combine meaning. different ly, tbcN w ill be Oll."Y word!! which ,,·ill not have all euct Dfle-word tqlli\"alemln the r«:qlCOr language. CooC"e pts In chapter 3, ,,"htre the structurcof m ...... lng was discussed. II w .. pointed oot th:ll mu lling rompon enlJ and o:on(e,11 In clas&ifled ~caI l y as 1lilNGS. EVE.'-'TS, ATTlUBUTES.1II1d RELAllONS. THU":OS If. defined •• all anlmale belngll and . l1llYfl lm;n. ~ti!les. EVENTS intlude all actio~ proc~, and e:o;)lCri-. AmUBVTES inchn, all artribu!e; of quality aoo quantity IISCribed to THl ,",OS or 6VENT'S. And RElAllONS include all those rdalioos positC<l bctwe-en any two ~k unil8. Con ~ t"p t i . used i ~ this text to J"t"fer nollO Ill' form (word) but only 10 \be meaning content. A "'Q ~ tP' is a f\lW&I!lzabic unll of me.'\olng in MY given l angu g~. These COnctpb may be: brok"en do"lt imo a number of meaning components (bin of infonnatlon). Fnr example, the concept ram can be broken dewn into SHEEP, MALE, and ADULT. A concept is Hbundle OfcompOlltnl5 ofillcanltlj. Si~ " 61 Words .. , MB""JI",," THE LEXiCON wd can be lrunslatro iOlo Aguaruna with Ctlly the phrase 1/OIfWC/r bein8-ro1:t~ f«liJtg. In order to analyxc the meanin& of a wcrd In 1'fCllMIli0ll ror mmdatioo. _ must first think of"'bul tbe «1Ilr.l.1 ~na:p I Is and In wlial way Ibis is limited. It may Ibm be possible 10 tran$blte with a word to tbe I"OCtp!:or Iquagc which is OQIl;..lIIent \0 the tefttral ootIcepf and Uie • plt.raw 10 WtI the further definition. NOIe !he foUO'Ning examplt# from Aguaruno.: w,Jda"no" _ au.o"'~_ ~. whcro·they-"",-not·pI..,., -. houx b;J "'~-g;>th Jqt1mkJ ... u"",," M"'i tltaI-wilt-pbu poeope ,.. ..»ta dI--.,., ...-ploc .. Co bI, """... "" hm: poople piha- b ~n-u.io) Skewin!: flf d asl ifiulions "The"""" form may aloo be used as IWO diff"'<-'I1t parts of'pe«h . For example, n()/ice the uliC of blue in the pbrnses blue sky !!lid "~)I In tbe Ii,,!. blua is used as an adjective (() describe tbe ~ky, and in lbe """"nd, sky il uled lIS on t><Ije<:ti"e to d.=ibe bille. 10 the firsl, tbere i. no sk""I"1I box.us. bl , ~ Is at) AlTRlllU11! Il'led II on adjective and sky II a TIIL"C URd as a I\CnII), ill the sc~ howen" a TIliNG. the Jky is uied as an adject i"e 10 mudify blo .. which Is an ATIRlBUl'E uUd lIS. noun. Wbooevcr tlwre is i kev.1nc flfthis kind., tb= i. lil e1y 10 luwe to be ,ome Idnd of adjllStm<nl In nmslilCion. The 51<e...-illg belweea me gramm:n and th~ scmantie CBU;<>ries mu.l be talr:Cll into eoosidt:mioo in fonding tile UDdetlyinB matllng. T ~ IIIIO/"S mUSl be aII'm 0(1I>iJ sk~ "fing ill tile sour«]a.-.gUlip. Once the meaning is clear_ thq ClUl lbink about bow 10 teoonslr\lCt the metllling ill !he receptor INtgll8&c. "The ,"~Ia tor mm! guard Itgain>llrying to mak:b pans ohp«d> from language (() Llnguagc, ,in~ exb iMg"Uagc ha$ ill own syJlem for lJ1"nlliing ooncepu: InIO dHTcrtnl pM.< of~ . TIlcre I, lilli e guarantee that wlutl. It • !>Oun in one Laaguage is be$ltral\&!Uled by a blu~. · ~.1u '-' inCQIlltllSling l bcrwu:o. lWO lanauases 01)1,) often DOles a fuirly l'OOSislcol ~Ialio dlffeR'llt parIS of ~ch. ~ one language is usia& 1.bc ~ · ctb ,..ilb of~. "<>OIber taoguaae fUy be expressing \he meanings by means o f the "l"fbal nOlm. Such ob&cIviUions abou' the ""'lnl diffcterJ«s bo~ iMgUagcs can be ' -n}' usdbIlO SOUle d~e \'ef)' $aI~ [he tnwlator. Tl'1IffiIalrng fium 3 langlIage whicb uses many \"erbr; inlQ • bnguagt "lIich uses many "erbs wi l[ bt; caller Ibn ffOlD a lan&uage ",hieh IJ'lei maRY nouns imo a lan&\lage wblcb uses mostly n,e I kew lng bel:wem >emanlic dl ~ nud parIS of specch occurs fre<Juen tly. Many l:mgUD.gC3 ha"e spedal forms which make piau whete tl>tre Ire 00 poople) thoo,..,.· frZit !lOU" inilllOIMr language. Ills inICles1iDg, howl\ ,,",,. IOC/tU (I 0/ M"",,1"8 il possible 10 U'e an EVENT concept ~ I A nOUn In the grammar. for example, In English. hwled~ is n ooun bas«I on the EV ENT eonctll' k,!Ow. Ability is a 1KI1l" based on Ihf to ncepl 10 Mable and /,,1/ "pan 1$ • noun phrase bMc:d !)!l Ihe (onttpl (0 reporr [II , omc llInguages, tbe..., aJ'<' forms .... hleh modify ~ llInl (0 EVENT ~oac ...pu, 0$. for exampl~.I"fing in fall",:: 3far. Since fofliltg ...,fers '0 an £VENT co" n lll , tho .semara;': 5[ructure would be Q srar "'/rich is fo!ling_ In Ille ph.rue Slimy cyu Ihe adj«tivc s'arry ref"" to nm~Gs. 5"'" and 10 ,he: senwu:ic W\Ic-. lure WOtlld ~ c~ "'hid> loak iiI<. S14r1. Thue il &k~"I beN'"" lbe grammar and the St'Ill3IUic stntcturc. There: are various n:amrn; "-by nominlllwng. for eompl ... oc=n. One oflbe malo r...."..... in English, Ind l ome ~ I !I"&~, is so Ihal the (Opi<: vnder discu ..ion cal' be iOtroouoed b)I B noun. If t ~ noun. topi( is an EVENT, lliea a n01lJl fOlTl), often called 1WI ~bsu.ct " '111 be u ~ . For example. the now-. salmI/on may be ~ to talk Or th~ noun h~i8l m~y be..sed to talk aboul about tho EVENT ro~"w Ihe ATI'RlI)lJ]'E ltigh ortbe nOlUl/he rtMan may be USI'd 10 talk about the RELATTON rn"'n -re:. ult iflt is 1M topiC oflne .sentence. Skewi ng cf this kirxl b us:ed for pointing out tbe ICpic of tile ~" or fiJlj. !'Cft'!' polrlanlp b. Jf lhm lI'eft no Itewing. the text ":oold IOUntI very monotOOOllS and unllll_ting. Sk"""ing by oorninalilalJon, ,·t'fWi2aI.ion. and adjfclivization add< dyn.'min and Mlife ~ to Ill. tCllI. Tbt-y !lie pan of the Slyle which makes a gi'~n tUI 3 wort (If art. But if tmndat.ed IItCf3lJy inlO a _olld laogI.Iat(, they " ill soood Itraogc and llOI II'XOmplish lbe ~ wbicb!hey had in tbe ~ texl A ll'IlI'Iilator wiU find it helpful to lIIlIIlyze the ~ language by om~na tlte pan of speech " 'ilb the ,elrullltic cla~ i ficat on. In tI'e following example!<, the label. aoo,,( tlte wo,d$ indicate their grnm.. rMtlcal clftni ficlI\;()f! and th" label. untk'rneath In dicate tbeirsemautic closs. Notlce tbe .k~ ,·jn l: ...... ~ .. c~ ~ , 8 ~ , " , i { ~! ~ , , " l~ , .§~ . -~ :l ~ ~ ~ .] , ~ .a ~ z , , ~ ~ h~ z .0 ~ -f: t ." ,8 I ~ £ 8~ " ~ . '~ l " d~ z • ~ ~ • , ~, o ,,;:e ~ .;~l l = E" ii "..1' ~ ll'i ., < ~ , lUI! ~pl ~ 11~ ~i "1 , 1 ~ ~ hiH •, 1 !•, ~ ~,>. K- Jm!~ ' p.~" H~' •, ~t - t - .:! "·.P~ ir.:d;~ ." '" !", dJ,i1 . "!~ '! ., ! :~; ' JI '" '" 1l ~i · ~· : !f' , h , , >11 "•. '0110£3 ~"J , ,! 1! l:! .!I!l rl;~'i ~ EI:!~ !" 2 • 1 H ~i. ' ; ~':rJ ~ i ~ !, ."• !" d~is.L "lh! " ~ '·' "-I!.i'1 •,I, , <i]" > i! ~_-:f .~ " " ~ . ih ~ £~ "F', .s .!I.,.! :; !i~j ->~ ~ " • ".to.£ . ~ N ;l ' >= '=Jll!i ~ - -£ ';~]:!i. .."' ~ 2: .3 .:: l:! ~ C .: 'il! >£: , • .r• ~ ·'" ~ ~ ~ , ; : . . i •. I', '11 ~] i '0.,_ "lt~ 1 s]~ ~ ~t ~ ~i' i~<; ~ ~ ~; . ~§;t ~ . ~ , !d~ 1~I 1- .i ~gl ]11 IIIII! !il;I'~.1 .' , • •lj '->~ ~r ! :~§ !. ~i is"1 : ,!,,!-·n, h {1p' j~ ~ ~6 i ~1 l~I i -! 'ou~ = . ~ .i!j:tl~ -5J: "l - 'o ~-lg Ei ] !"' 61 . ::; .!.!"'z i~l: i ~ = £>'1 ~ f ~ t"'H!8J=s 1P, l!~ •• i '1 J. 111}~ 1 , " i'h~ " ,•••• ~_.si~! i~~ I~ ••••• I~ .S i }~iJtl s l~1 ~5 ~ij5IJ ~ ~]I • ]:~ ! " i."E '1" < t' ~o . "j ... t.!"~ ~ ~§]";:i-g!t Cu." l~O.215J:9z - :G~&.;si ,'B. . . <> ]' W" .!I>.""J!'a ;;.:::.. Ii, ·"i~ .!!. " . ,.g ij!1~ ~ ~il1 ~i ' agj ~i.g ~p 1ii",il ·.r.'.· ·! ~ ~ :I! •• =I.i·IIJ" ! • ..., .. .. " . ", E '" ' ':9 .... ~o. t._, 8"" .. '" ,,;.. ·1 ·I !ile· .s .s§i'! ~ .. ;.,"'~ =.! ~1l-5 J."'~or . ~:; i J;~ OIl~!=v j~ o" U] " '15 :; : _ .... -.; ;; .Il~ : 1!j=';S:l.~ t~1; ~; ~_ ' · JI; Ii [~ , ~ <> ~ :I.c<!!i. .! 1! '1!~ l;~ 9 os_";, 'ij • .'~. ... .E~i.t' .. :. g£IJ l~i; ~:1g ~!j lItl i~ & ~ i.. ~] .:::- fl:i . , ~ :s -.;"e , '-I ;'~ ~.§l: ~ EO -5" :; -e c;u .... ~ ;:;i3..t ~ ~_ iI'=i! , ~ ~ u ~ " .!I H~ -;, , ~ .. fi!! i .<[j . li4~e~ ]!~ ~ ~u " ! 1 1 .- . Wlmls "5 ~8"lUIf TilE LEXICON I. WUf:T 2. l~gisa 7. a. o n ,. """" wtlitffi C. Rt'\'oTitc the following ~pb to 7. to nC(ld to brea\:: lexiQI items down illl" rBCllrunt oo mpoMllU unle.. thl. is nccesSllry to match Ille scmanlk: Md IImmmalicaL classes wru-hunling . wit hom Jiving the (i.e .. ;'un/er could be .. man components of "ullum and being sinc e b)ll'epnmtlnll lI'Ia1l and <:nSf"'f'O ,..h" SlOne 10. to Junlfy \a hunting " 'c now have a THING. man. as R noun M d an EVENT . ...u /wn/jng, as a verb, a",lh~ re 1$, lheNf()l1!, no skr:wlng.) pt'1'3OO) I I. to tree L2. JWIIl'na; (WIIIC,) 1"/u /lIImer ....... a 5110 ... ..·/til., """" 8'1d;"8 Q/ong j" ~"lUy of 11M b;nJ $lopped IIi", 1C1Ied ia dutrppeillTJltU _NlIM 1M rushing brook. TN Il. fallin! (Sla.) 14. 15 16. 11. SO tll3l Ill.".., is no ok"",,, , bct":een tbe semamk ..oo lIle grammali cal danes. You do DOl &. to dive 9. to " spoilM lIim. Di.Woncsty ,. bad. 9. The .... .ruth), live hC1'e. 10. He', htn: on a visit 3. plio! 4. diMbutor(of lboot) 6. rif Mta"lng f;3" Su~csa /J'OfJI Jlf{)()/ing. He _ glutton 'us hUI/~ flUIINN! tJnd lhe" conli~ued deny suboolillillon D. In c:lCh of the following, the fomll of $C\'crnl bnguages an: gh<o:n "'ilh /I lirernl mnslation io(o EngIisIJ of this form . Whar ...-ouJd rile idiomatic English equival ent be fot _10 lei? trulh 18 lI1« m ~ n lca UOl 19 p<>Slpollc 20 . postpo nement J. B. Rewrite 11M folloWing $0 that there is no ske wln~ between (lie semant ic lind 81'11m maUcaI cll...ses: Allorher lang llag e you $p"~ k : 2. Mankal; (Braul): utura ywn u 'ak - heart sll$ flrmJy In E.>.ample: II root; . 101 or judgme/ll1O frlld ~ SonIeon. jlJd&cd well I:IId AI/utru". ( Puu) , l:aj§g pIlj!,,-al • llIy"leql h-ex i... Spanish, tengo .ueno - I-bave sloopiness [ IIIt·ish: 501lio~ . ..,..cd ....-.ahlQi. Aguarlln a (Peu): M<k Spa nish: 10) Apinal'e ( Bruit): 1001: En\:Ud,.! I . I aled "'bcf1 they rold me of the dealh of my motbu. 2. The love o f OW ~0\It)' il ,.~ important. J. Envy II not pxI. 4. D id yo\> llke your gra:odfatJ:m 's gift? 5. Hcis p li!ll'. 6. Nob<>dy rl!:')pe<ts B chca .. ~capi," I ~w;lj · " il - i $-l lrdy-tue,~ be says cree _ it he-belie,·... arnaxp;-;r . thinks "'Ith AlMltbrr bn:;aav. 3. Man!;.li (Brant): lim iiktux , CJ ' put tWDy word.! Agllirulla (Pen): Mduti hl jal,~ titl • kl.wiU.do-dltll . he-Mid Sp" ol.h, d io "" promes8' grl\'c hi . promln Enl!li.h: Anoth er 1211g Ugc:: H " 11[£ LEX/CON 4 M und urului (6nozU): Iguycilg ikhht kug puye he - i s~"d because h.,..h.", -ugliness (sin) Al:uarun ... (feru): aoontii y apji~w - his·henn changes ~i l ): illklm mii hikra ·I.,..-go-<:lf his sin Calleja (B ra [Ilgli sh : A nother lan l:uage: Chapter 7 E, In each oftbe fpll<)wing Il'aPSlaliorts into English tiw italicized words have been translmed literally and mayor may not be i diow~!c SGme Relationships between Lexical Items or correCt. Eval uate the Italicized words as translatiotlS. As nn exercise, chll!lge the part of speech of the word (or main word, if more than one word is iovol,"«I) in lh. italicized whether you can constructioo to $O)me ot.:her I'arr ()f speed to S~" impr(lVe upon Tho lran<l'lion of the .'lenIence a, a whole. Do nOl change the meaning of the sentences, but suh.1inne words and, if necessary, chng ~ gramrnalieal structures. 1. Befor. dep<>r/!lre, ) gave tl\eln sorne in'tructi ons. 2. Ifcosts change in any way prior to del;W'ryof the equipment, the rem wil li ~ewis be c1wlJged in ~qua l proportion Qneric-sp«iflC In chajXcr I, it WJS noted tbnt the Same ruean iugcompooml!; may occur insewrollexlcal items {wordl)ofa languag•. Theexarrtple was gi\'en of the word sh""p, The meaning SHEEP is also fOWld in the words lamb. ram. and e _ _This \s true bt:cause the word ~hup is a ;:eneri< wl>rd which includes (he mOl"<> . pee;r.o "'I>rd. "'m, ""'''. and {amb, Every langll8ge has whole =as of"ocabulary with this kind of rcbtioosbip betw«: lt h~ words. Notice Display 7,1 which show& the s emantic oontent of.ollle English vocabulary. 3. It iscommOlli.:nowledgethat the U.S. share in the foreign trade bas shown a lend""cytoward reduction in re~'fl t yea.,.. 4. A co/tlpll'IC e/i",;nalion of the general dediM in econom Ic activity seems almost impossible. IDm. ~, ~U 5. The gOl'emmelU is taking an nocessary steps f(lI a <kf~nse (If the bonIen:, 6. The United States i~ committed to a ~ a.rels mul~1 ofa genuine disarr1llllHcm. sidying for Ihe 7, Hecould nOI incitebis mell to mUII,,>,_ ThaI wonld be a cr'-me 8 He rises early. I can ,""yiew the past 9. Wlth my knowledge of Hungary's pa~t, it 11M tr''''''rsed and a,,,,,,", its present developm..,u, I O. Today Icatkrs and rtmk andfile laborers are m(lt"e united (han at any time in the past. YOUNG' SHEEP IIORSE rom ",,/lif'" ,~ =ro ,,., ce'tlfoal ~' = -,. ,~ ~" bUch chid _n .. DEER "'" fawn Di<plQy 7,1 NOIe th~ t across the top, th.. generic word. SHEEP. HORSE, CHICKEN. DOG, and DEER occur. lben. on the left hand side, the addiUonaJ meaning components. wh ich are part (If tbe word, in ,he ~UI<OS of the di'Play. are given; that is, ADULT. MAL£, FE.I.tALE. and YOUNG. (Note that th~'" is no sp"cific word in English for ADULT, MAL E IXXl.) When looking aI vocabulary \his way. (1M sees how the kInds of res:rating presented in the last ebajXcr could be arrived at for each oftbe words on the dispJny, A 'Ill'l is an ADULT, MALE SHEEP; a ewe is an AD ULT, fEMALE SHEEP; and a lamb is II YOUNG SIlEEP. We " " j ] ., 'FiHI 15.i -- '" .. -= ·1' .g · ~5! - . ~Ii. iiliffl ," '"" "L:!~ ,, "<I 2 ~ . ~ ~-.: !"S 1 ,~ I ! >'';;; 'G ,;: • ; oi.!:i-fj j ~P'H •~ ::'.:5-8:'-.;" if .~ 5">,!,!;;£j it: ,. '5 <;< ".;:; 1 .•i~lft "l!~<O>'-1I ~ - e..8.. " .. • 1VHi • ,.,~;.5] .... So!!- ~_ ~ ~ ~< "''''.9·15 .... "'l !5"'" e:'g.lJ~ 'o;5.@~ j Ir:"H " .. _ li ~ '6," ~ ~ :H c i i1" l=.5~r:t 1 ·~.1 1 a I , i ~ ~ ~" , •:! fr I ,, ~ !l ~;l h ", ~ i!~ _."8"]~a - ... §~ ~ ~- g~']i· "' l~ ';: ~,:. E!= x",~H ,,-u ]t':§."l8r~!> ~ i~J ~ ]~i ¢:' "~·I=.! 'Il.!lC t ~- ~8"' . ; : ~ i :iI~ ~ 1'1"1" >.'ifJ!.0 -s • .::::: !I!o."iI ·' · ~ i;-=8~"'!:s ~ "q' · ~ · r5! ,,_ -z~" W~ilf $~ IE li ," ~G-i]l l tj~lauB E 0 " ~].8 i - ~· " $ r~-i· 1S' · g~M.! ~ ~ a ~-:] ~ ~o .1" ~ ,~!j·";'l ",- . 'I ~ ~ - -"~ ~ j~li " . " "'~ - J - l: !5 u ~ !~ ~1a"'o ~ ~ : !;~lEi .~·l i~ ~:lu iol~ -.,", . . ··I".,!l ""]' " "E" -'. ~!"' "j-1 ·"·;'·U'· '.'!"!<\i <! "i ~" ~ ''',= >;;1!!€ ' IHl:;;" .!!:e1!& 1i~a 1t. '" .... E Ii -t'-- ~ ~aE y~ . ~ ~ ~- ",g .l! ~ = " Some Relationship< between Lexie..! TilE LEXICON + ulmal r I man an imal i mao "'~ I 1 bini j<sh L i "",ma" roml Y It is important to realiz~ thai: lhe same word can be uSC<l sometimes way. Since in a very g ~ n u ir way and other ti m ~. in a very ,pecif~ the generic I'I:I:u:iomhipli of any two languages are u5\l all y quite different, it is unl ikely that a second language would lL,e one form (or of ".an. In the Philippines, rice i.< th ~ g~"1leric all of these ocuren~ term for all grain. A poss ible way to translste ....heal might be a rice wh~a1. It is aloo important to realize that EVENT w(>rds. that is. word. whi ch are stru}ding tor a serrtilt1lic EVF.NT. may al"" be arranged in genedc-:spttilk relationsh ip" i ~ 3 language. Nolla Di,play 7.S. . p.. k I comma",} _ S 7S w) m l l broil fty Dispu,y 7.6 DispJay 1.4 cal!~d i 1>011 It~Hl I ",I>u~ r Ix,!: I I ask I p tud Di.rpl~y I --- 1 r G"""""U ",ply - ~ ' IDplo~ T I I'....y 7,5 The word speak bas a very general meaning, whil~ command, rebuk2. ask. reply, and a,mounce !lfe m(>Te sped fie. That is, they have added component< of meaning. The ce ntral component of meaning, speak. occurs in all oftbem. but there are add itional C<.lmponents ofmcaning ask Can be that d istinguish them one from the other. At anoth~"'lev. delinealed by additional C<.lmponents o f meaning resulting in beg, plead. implore. and pray. Not ice, alsa. Display 7,6 where prepare is the most generic and one way "r preparing is 10 cook, aoo e ookfng can be d one in severnl specifIC ways; is, b)' roasting. broiling, boiling. or frYIng . mal A tran~lmo needs (0 know about the gmltric otl(1 spo.' ~ln( relatiollships ofwords becau ... this may help him find a good lexical eqUiVll'l!Ilt which might be hard \e> find ifhe were not aware of this possibil ity. For e~ampl ., he may be able to use a g eneric w<lId in {he recepWr language which would include the Source language word and (hen add a o:k5criplive phrase in order to make clear tbe res!ricling F", components of meaning nf the source language word, e"smple, if woJ! d id not occur In t1 .~ rooeplC>!" languftge, (he generic lorm aniTtwl plus a descriptive phrase likefiercdwild might need to be us ed as was done in a translation into Tcpchua ofMe~ ic o. CenlUdoll W"'; lrnnI;iated into Mazahua of M~ "iC<l by using tl1~ generic tcnn 1>1(", and tbe addiliooai descriptive phrase who coM",ands 100 SQldiers_ Soonedmos. tile ll'anslaco.-will have difficul ty in tnmslaling asoorce langtUlge word which rep«sents a ~oncpf which is unfamil iar to the recepiOl language spealctlS, Ile may need to borrow a word from the source language, but in order 10 insure that it will be under.itood, he will "'ith the loan word; n <>r<k-T to want to use a generic c\8ss word a lo~ make it verydoor what jg beiog talked about. The A£uanma are tropical fores( pwple who have neVer seen a camel. The word cnnlel was transiated.lnto Agu:mma as an animal cnJfed CIlmeJlo, us ing tile Spanish l<.lao word camel/rl and identifying tbe generic class of animal. most In It is lmport,mt 1r1 notice that langungcs tend to d if~"! Ileneric tennino]o&)" rather than in sptdfie. When translating rela" til'ely specific words. It is usually eilSier it find a d03e equil'ulenl. Sptdllc vocabulary i< more likely 10 cOITC!pond between two lanwords, it may M more g uages. But wben rille is trnmlating ,eQ~rk difficul1. Generk \' oc~bulary ill one language will be qUite dif~rent from thai ofanodler and there wlll be 00 exact equivalent. For example, in the Aguaruna language. there is no word equal to English bini. The wordpi,/wkmeans "small bini:' tbe word chigkil1l¢lll\s "game bird:' aDd the word chiW(1g means ~big nongame bird. ~ such II as b=rd. It is possible t<.l say " flyIng things:· but this would Include Insects, airplanes. tic. When one is looking forcquivalent generic "'ords, these carnl<:JI: Ix: fowl(! by simply a ~k.ing for tht equivalent words of tbe " • ·, • •B S ~ I 1 .' • -. j ~ " •H •• j 1; <:.1 •- ,: , .. ~ o· i' ~ " THE LEXICqN 50_ IlriariOl..ll ips chopped 11 and had 1011 of com gro ...ing, $(I much it guw like cooe in. c.anc:-pQlcb. They SlOid " When 'JOA.Jt rom is gt'CW1I and "'e SOD it is ripe IIDII )'0\1. arc <:a/iIIg ii, kt us t{f( uiOO. ~ aUt he ",piled, ~S i oc you rcl'uaod to shan "'ilb nle Dnd <lie all your """" , I refuse 100. When the eoz illiP. ~ C(lI7f is ripe I alone will ., This i.i. story abo:>ut com, Some people had:lll ab~tI,f"!M. Socaus.. of thai. when or ~., . lci:.e.l. ~ Can we ba\'Q some of yoor com 10 cal1~ i.bey refU$ed. So one of ~ other!: chopped a cornfield He prepared a lIl';>i bil field He planted h~ seed an d il gn:w like cane in a C3nc-pl ~. The pe<>ple said, "Wl~ 11;< grown and we see that ills ripe aqd t b ~t you we eating ii, lei us have somt! to.~ Bm I ~ replied. ~S!nc:. you ",fus.cd 10 slIMe " ' jlll me .,d lII.e.ll "f f""/'J. I rd;,ue 100. When milt/'; is ripe I will deYQ ~ r it.11 by mysdf." S"b5lit ule .. or d ~ at .. u..ed when lhe: receptor lanJuage natural pattel"l'l! prefer a variety of words to refe.- to , be same Ihine or event. On the other hand, tile revene "",y be 11UC:. The source leXI may U$e .ub. tltutt wordl which would b~ !lIore nat",al in the reccplor language if the oritinal noun Dr verb were: used. Subs!l_ IlIl t " 'ordl; should not be Iromlllle<l litenlly. Ratbl'r. the natur.tl pal\~ms f<.>r u.sillj; sub.lit _lt "" onls in the rcceplw laniunge should be lJl<cd. Synon yms In Iny language, there arc wo:>rds which are ~ ' CI)' sim ilar in Mre very r",,' ..xae l S)"" I),ym$, En " words mellnlna . Ho:> wc".r. tb ~rc wblch an: "ery ~ ruila In mcaniRg will probably not lui".. exaclly In Kl\lenc:e ;md pano ...... ph Mru<:tur'=S. The " '0<d9 the SIIITIt ..... aftm and freque,trly are ct .... e .ynony mL There will be ",IS of words which ~ synonymou. In lheir nu clear meaning which, ho:>wcver, cootaln cerl>tin addH;o:>nal po:>0itive or ntg:.tt-·c o:>'·crtOll<.i. One m.'y be more f<>I'It\J.l and another 1= foonal. Ooco word ""'y be .pro ri ~ te in ooe ~i h l1iO and the o:>(I,.. r appropriate in a different situat lcm. The words fat. pl"",p. and chubby ftl1 have a common m<::aniDi' lIowever, tIIere: an only certalll conl"~ \lI In wbicb they (1ft inten::hMgeable. rtf', s.hrid. and.so::rt:o'>l are aoo I,-nonr mOIlS b\ll ",ilh a slighl difference of usage. Po:>I{"" offli:Y. po:>Itc.rna", alld cap all r~f to:> the same Ihing. but cop is tnuch less (o:>rmal than po&e o:>ffictr. A =:000 langll/lge may nOi have I specific wOfd for each of the S)'tiIay." of the '«lUlU IlUIll1llic. So!~ t l me . the rtCCpWr lan U:O ~ =y ha"e more ,,·ortIs to ch()Me ,e ~ IW«" lA:dcaIt_~ " f,om Ihn the our~e language. It is: , 'cry Impo!1:Ull that the lrallS iator be aware o f the very minute dl/fereQOeS in lDCM1iD& bnwttll WDrd5 l!KI near , ~ ' no.~ · ms so as 10 ~hose the word lllat has the ri\lhl cont.~l (Connotation wl1\ be d~ In chaplet" 13.) For t ing Inlc English from .ome other ~ li~agc example, when lfiIn~a which has only Ollt: woo:! for poIi«, "'hkh wool $hould be cbosen in English. pqliu officer, PC/iUWlOlf, or cop? The tmnsillor would need to know the djfference betwe.n Ihe near .ynoIlYIII I. The r. f~= ~ iii to the some person. but lh. words arc used di1fcrwlly. AJltoll Y"U The ~n l o n )' ln of" word l< the e:<lICt opposite, or coo\rulS in so me particular fW1 of Its meanlrlg. All lMg1J3ges " i ll hnve pam. of which an: U ' uyn\l. buI different bo&~ -"i ll ha,'e different $eu. For ~plc. In English, ....e dUl'll!gulsh dort and /all vertiC/illy. and )'hol'1 and il)ng borlrontally. In Aguorunll. lIlere .re only tWI) ",,,,ds S11lajuch And €R(Jjam wblch lore used for both ,he \'ertJCftl and borizom al distinction "flength. In F.n,lish. wo have , he words good and bod ... bleb an: . nloa yml . In A~. the d~inc!o It made by the word gDOd, ~gt ~. contmHng with the s am~ word g<XXi linked to 8 negmive .umx, no/·good, pegM¥clfIllI. That Is, !heie are nut Iwo ... parole wOJ'lb: lbere Is simply good II!I d IIOd frw· nut-good. Some Iquag... wlll have words for s~ OIhen will simply have a WDrd for f l U while Ibe m~ "n i ng for ~s lav~ " will be IIQ/-fru. I t ,an lOIDelimes be very helpful to. trlWlator who is tool<ing about the •• tonym , for a particular word 10 realize that if he ~ the W\')fd opposite in meaning, t.e lOOy be .bIc 10 find the desired word by conmucting a !lcgntivc f.mn of ltw antonym. ~ I n SOD'" InSllSllCCS. a re«pIOr language may aif.,ady use a coomuctlon with ncgsrives as a normIII w.y <>f bandling nrtain posith" COl:lCq)IS. l n Bila'an 0( ''''' Philippme..1lle e~pros l o{\ ill.< 1WI pru~ihle "'" wjlf ,,01 Is bow ~ mIL'll iJ e:q'reJ;$ed" (B«km3n and woro. Callow J974:1&.1). Opposlles are a k.\nd of . ul08)-m_ ..d, aDd /i1T1t!. many and {t:W. ape" and .hut. Cle. Some languagd have ..... 0Id for Cllly OIIe of !he pAir Md tbe othcr il ~ negative. In Agu.vuna. tbe mOSI o;:amplimentary way to say )'0" a r~ ~ulifo is teI.\3y J""f art fWl ugly, and tlDl _ y iJ a _ Clupballc way to !ii.Y few tluIn !be wordfew. ReciprocuJ WQrd~ Most languagea will aLso bave sell 0:>( words which an: lhe reciproc:.1 o:>f <>oc InolhC1". F<H" ~pl ~ , rhe words Rive and ~iw ~ " THE l.EX1CON have 8 ~ecip ro 1 rclatioruship \(I one Nlolhw. On e eM .IY, "John gave Marya boot .. Of one can I fty. "Mary receil't'd a bo<>tftom Joh", " nme sine:<: thf two aCflolli are r ecl l~ .1 ilClioru:. The muning is ~ One ClIO "John rouglrl /Jill," ~BiJ l le(m ' NlfQIt .kJ1ur. ~ Teach and IC<U1I are ""q......,11 ac:1ions. This m3)1 lOIet im ~ be ~ helpful ur, ,. In tnmlalion wbere !be I'I:O;:fltOf language does not have a lIPCC'ific ·...ord used ill the ume WIly III lite IO"U l""'III"'Bt . II may be thallbe same meaning am be COIumunica\Cd by minG i1 !'telproul ~ · o rd. For nample, llot gowrm" I!n/ SO " , " fa"B" gram W lire ",itw'" mlpr in S<)mc tro.n:slaticn lleed to betran.llalcd cOIlwrsely, 1~"'ItTJ O'<IC<!-iwd Q /af},'t! gran/from IMgowrnmtm. Style In some lMg\L,ge may make one phtaJ! ing mol"<: (om;el tball the alber. In Muyuw, !here b no word O)!l inTO Mu)'U,,' for ~ born. Instead of I WIll oorn In 1930, a uoml~i would ""ed to say my _,her g" ...-birth I" In, ill 19jO. AI90 In Muyu"'. h, dtcInrd ,,/I food cka~ WI\S transWcd 110 foods ~ forbidde n by hjrn, 6. • ,. E..'l:ERCISES - Sorne Rd";oa!bips bttIoIcu 1 ~ l.I Cl J Itr ms A. In front of the word 1I','cn . wrile a more lt ller;c word whicb include. Ihe given W(lm. ,,, the , pace aft.".,,,,, "'Q,d W"..:oin the eumplc below. write a more .ptcifk "'Qrd w b.ich I. c'lYc, ed. by Ih. tDorc generic QIIes which precede it. cbaJr _ J~ '" ~" L ___ _ J. - -- - - - - -- - J. - - - - - ""'- -- - - ,girl em .... ." , '- \1,. Irnife typewrite/ 10. II is "cry imponllM ...... lhc In>mlator be a....are oflhe fiw;:I thal lhe VOClIbulary of1.'le I'<IlItCe langwge will nO! match Ihe " oc: ~b ~ Wy of re<:"fll.... language. AwaralCM of d,e way thai vOCi1buht.rie . are Jtrtlrn,red should help the Inlf\$laWr to find equl "nlenl$ tho ~ gh lookin" for more g,cnerie or . ..""ilk vocabulary, by 1000kini for words lhal are iynonym&u!I or near Jyponymouli, and by looking for an'OIl}',"' and for rtclproca l words. " """ 7. COIKIUl ton Lrri""llte_ "'''lk , or Iitu!UJU"r Soml! Relationships hn~"'<! , <1I 12. caule B. Li lt IIp to IW ",embers of the d ~ ~ lin ds of game ~ in any languap other lhan &!gli.!! and m lnle lbc:m in • troc diagram to show" hid! lie the tooSI tfl\uk and "''fIicb lift' more ' pfdrk. c. Study lhe rr.rulallon ~ for the iUolicizM \I\'\)f1j io each 0) ( IfM, ..1c or following. WIIlj Ihe change ,node from Jpet:ir1" 10 gu~ ge nerlo 10 'pedr",? 1. 1be wotfJnalch ed them and lcattered Ihem. n" s,1\'agl>-Mim.olgrabbing lit lhem ca""ed them to SCflUcr. 2. He Itdc:d IIn'lUIld 10 lic. wbn lind dott, h. He loolced "I'OUnd to"" wbo lind thrOWlI the.wnc. J. ComIdcT the Wier nftl>c field. nl ink abo;oul the wild 110WC<5. " THE LEXICON Sooni' Rclaej,mships between Lexica/ltems 4. His lomb is Wilh us to this day . Even now one i. able to.ee b.is burial place. F, Give an antonym for each of tile following: 1. inside " 6. to tie S. Evrryone was talking about the hr.ppenings 2. 10 Everyone wn, talking about the Independenc¢ Day celebration. "",.11 7. 10 3. to ndmil D. In each of the following, a specific TIlING or EVENT is rderred to fi1'$\ by ~ specific referent and then by slIbstitule ...·OM. Underline the . ui:>sl it u!e word" 'Remember thm s"bstitU le "'om refer to oomcthing already mentioned in the I ~xt bill Wi<: a 4. IQ 8. to harm believe [() resist .,alter 9. 10 release 10. to forgive more generic word 10 00 sO. I. Abidjan is a largedty in Wesl Africa. It is located on tIle COOSl and is a tlrr iving met.ropoli> 2 101m rescued a young man who almost drowned, W~en what he had done oo.:ame known, he was given a special award for his deed. 3. Peter ale a hig In'3kfasl, and haviogoon c tbat.be wenl outside 10 watch the sunrise. G. In " language where there is no literal counterpan oftl.e leXical Hem UaJici2cd, it may be QCCCIiS"IY to "re a N"cip .... cal lexiclll item as a substitute. Rewrite the following in Engli,h Ui;lng the reclp"~ 1 action rather Ihan tho actioo it.1licized hON. Then tmnsbtc the meaning inlo another language you speak using e ither one equi\lIlenl "ftlle furmgh'en here or Ihe rttiprocsl, whidiever SOOIll'l more lltItural. John gaw lhe boot to Bill. 2. The peoplefollrm'tid Ibe king into the palace The Iypewriter broke again. r .hou ld have throvm. the thing away loog ago. ! bought it on discoWll and it's never been II good machine E. Give a $),nonym for each of the following: 3. When he heard that they v.-e", coming, he made preparations to ",,,,,lye them. 4. Mary had recieved the flowers from a friend. I. amusing 6. sage (person) 5. Someone lold her that the incident wm: not true. 2, monage 7. piece 6. Jolm /wMd the book to Bill 3. fib 8,~s 7. Mary borrowed. pen from Jane 4. durable 9. goodt!i:ss 5.C<»1llCCl 10. geoerous 8, I want to buy a book from you. 9. The drummer led the parade. 10. Please sell me a book. " THE 1.F.J(]CO N I !. The French army wtlquercd their enemies. SOl1l'" Rnlllion."lfipr betwcell L exical Jkm5 ~C is 12. The police pllFSU<!d Ihe criminals . H. The follow ing contain n et~ l ve stalemen(s. Restate as affirm _ ~ti "e statements. Would the lIega ''''e s~1tem n t or the affirmative statem...",t be rum" t)J1!UroJ in a trnru'llal;on into yC>\lJ" OIhe-r langUIIge? Elperiment with both and ciloo<e the moot nnturaL ~Or hi na is perhaps a '"ast country." Nehru dcl~re. 85 "but India small eUher." 6. He "'liS a lready beginning 10 believe that M W(JIdd slay o/tve/he would ru"';W!, but he refused 10 "Tite on address 10 his men; he would not engage in pror'"ganda in favor of the army. 7. ThaI Is all "cry well, bUI it's litlle. I. He may /WI be rich, bill he is a gentlerJl<ln. 8. He still 2. We CQw/J not d~, 9. Applications recciYM af\er the loove date wj{/ be disregarded. y that Ih;, was Ille truth. 3. He was ....wr unkind. 4. Th i' j. >101 a $1>1<>11 mistak e S, Parking is fIO/fo/bidden here. 1. In the follOWing translaliorn inU> English, the italicized words hu,-. been translated li!e",Uy and may (If mny J}()\ be idiomatic or 00=. AJl an exercise, chaoge (be italici""d words in such a manner thaI .. m nnllth'e senten<e. "'" made Dttat;>'. find "e l:a ~ th·. seolen:es are made .ffirmQf;ve. Do not change the mean ing but. if ~"=ary, substilllte words ond change of the S~"Itm<:, grammOlicaJ st!1lCt\lnS, In each ca",. compare and .""[ '-"IIe (he two poss ible trnnslMions. Example: Drinking is 1101 forbidden Drin1ing is (l/{"W¢/. I. Smoking isforbde~, 2 Not laki~g these factors 1Oi~ <lccounf in determining our economic policy would be nnerly .b5nrd Supplements to t b~ agreement are o>lly valid "'''en they are communlcalod In writing. 4. He's nOi a bad mechanic. has~', paid offhi. cal. 10. Uardly can any piS! generation compare In Slrmsth, talent, wing, and readi""'ls for the sacrifice w ith the forward. looking man oftooay Chapter 8 Discovering Meaning by Grouping and Contrast The: meMina ofa lexical hem ellll only ~ d isa:l, ~ d by studying lhaf pnrti~ul' Lltm In cootrast 10 Oi!ler itemJ w hich"", close ly ",Iated. l bcTe It no IDcanillfl apLrt from oigni llcan l ditr.,enccs ill conlIn!$. _0 Me _her ood then Dy iJ"OlIP-nlI Inged ... r won b which are ~ 1 3I"cd ~cnw;e.uy looking at the COOInISI ~woc n 1hese ...'Ofds, one it able _0 dmnh~ !he meaning. The shared meaning CIlmponmts Md the contn'Slh·c mearting COlJlpooeDls """ [hoa be dcscrlbcd IIIOf"C precisely. W1cal IICI1l$ IlIC relaled in .":lIiow: ways and occur in ~:Irious tinm o f 5mUl1llic KU.. Part-whole rdJoti-onl Ooc way in which !3nguages gro~p words i5 by the T~lntioruhp k nown lIS p.. rt-..·ho le. For " 1I \ p l ~ In English c/l~ . r,/luk.j () r't lre~d. nrur. 1nd eDr are . lI p~ of the /lUI/i. I/"tu/, MM, ~d. /nmlc, Gr"". /"gl, lIJd !~e l are Pl'rt of the body. Th ere arc Inany sela mm up of w ord~ In I plrl ..... hol~ TPialionship in OllY langU:lgt.l"hcre will beset. o f ...ont.s dUcribing pan. of 0 bouse. parts of I mac-li llie. parts of a vilJa&c, the l lruaural oq;aniza:rioo of a country, f"lIltical OTS""izmions, and !lIIll1Y oIl\erg. When a tnIrISl ator is JtUdyina tbe lIaM-h'''ok groupin&Sof _wo langu.ges. il will oftm beoott.. cJearlhOi lhere il; no aact cqulvllerlt for some ofu.e words. Some Will be mi5siog in ~ lntJ,SlNlile or aoo!her. The nason for mit Is llIal vlfioul; I ~cs cJauify and ""bdivlde broad !If\)$ of mowled&e in differatt ....ys. Slavie lquogC!l, ror t.UlrDpic. do DOl bft\"e KpaI1Ife words ror tum and /rand. The Rllttian .........d noka include$ both the _ and lh .. /tanti. In the same ""y, Ihe word IWga ind~ bo\lt 1(1t IIIldfoat. One word in RII$lJIIIIIIXI,;ers!be pan of the body which In English IS reprcr;cntod by two le.uel\! Ilem,. " •• H"J ] ~w ,g Ii ~ i...! A .. ~ !:§~J • d ~ i , •> , , i!~ •• . ]I~§ ~ ! 11 ...~ - ..6 .~ ~ ! "!~ • ii .,E ~ I } • ,~ ~ "ai; ' .,!l ,~ ~ - J f- 13.0:- l!~:' ;I'';: i~- ... OIl CfIO_ • i- ,l " il " ], " I ,••, •• .~ • • ~ r- i, • : ·r, ]. ,>11 ti •.. i" .~ • ~I]:l -,!~ • >' .. - < n ~ -e § "'" " ~ ; ,, Ii ,, " I " ! l A I f1 1, ,• 1 • • t1 •t •, " ,! :I. •l• ]~ • •• t , .• ! ,"• , ! I I ] " " t. ~ [ I ,l c J. " ,a1!-J!, ]:! ~ f I il! a• ~: •~ l &h "I ~ ~§ i ' H~ J! "~-;': _s~:! ,- .. ~ 8'; "f ja ~ ~; "'.:g ~ 1:. .s ] , l,! ~j1! •·•• it .1i " ~ ~ ,!l I ~ < !, .• ~ ! li 1. "- "i !• i- f j f ; l , .. , .' ! ~ 1 i E• Ij I < r 1r .! , •, t r • J ! !.. !l~ • ~ .~ j ~ .i! _- ! J a• "• .~ ~ § ! fI l ~ 1 •~ .1 ~ - "",_ .1 .i I. ! !J I. j I' i 1 I l ! TUE LEXiCON " D;~(J ~ pari ofl.ystml; IbM". when they ~ r.lokd in.l(lflle way. ~ would be no ","AI in C<lln poorUtg ,,'Of'(\< if u.= ,~ no! """"'" .b........ rompolK"l1c .. ln order 10 form. set. all of the words mUSl. contnin I IlfDt riC cOll1.po .. ~n l ln cornmon . For example, IU of the above have ~, I"g M~lUIi"g by G'roll" ,'ng Qlld Ct'lnlJ'ast ~ "'"'"'" ,~ the sbared mll'poncnl of KlNSIUI'. In the display wltlcb compare,i h,~n" eQlIlp<l D.to l wWeh lIIey ~1Lan BEING (see Dlspby 1,7). l ADULT I Y(llING 11<>111"11, boy. beings. TIter have a gucl"lt as the .,entral <'OIUPOMtlt, HUMAN ..,". """ Dlsp/D,8.7 fE..\lAJ..E ~- "" 10 lbe: CI"llnl com ponent, eacb word wHi hiwc "'hleb dl:$llng\llsh il from fill orller words of the seL Ma" has the conlnslh't COflIjXllI . "U ADtJ'LT and MAI.E. """""" 11M the con(J..sti\'t componmts ADULT and I'EMAlE, boy hal tbe COJlU11Slivc romponenu YOUNG and MAL!:l. and girl ha, the contrutive COIl'IJO"ftIl!; YOUNG and FEMALE. ElOCh "'ord eo ~ trnsu with every other ""ord by at leaS! one ~"'ie comportl.'lIt. The mtallm , ....... p<)tIui which ,mild l1li)' scmaruic: oet of Ihis id nd l§uUed lbe: Ctnuil: tompollul or the «nt .... , com ponent. The IDUllml: corapon eaf5 which d istinguisb than QIlC from tbe oIbor, and U,.., been u"d as label. for the displays. ~ conlr2Slh' t com polltflli. 1'hese are the comp.ne\lt~ which help in diotinguisbing ",""word from UJl()!ber in the set. Very often two languages will hne the same JCI as far as the ~D "'k tempoaen t ill ~nKd. but !be aontnsfin (ompooentl will he different. 'I'hcre may be m~ leJtleal ttans (If IC'SS 1eJ<i<:al items in Ih e set. ood the •..,ntrnt;'·. Comp<lMllt l may not IlIIItch. f nr exnmple , the set for ltUMAN in Engll.h i~ given in Display 8.7 and lilt set for Agu.1mnn Is given In Di splay 8.8 In ....,.,. tfemal ....illlej Notice th ~t 11.= Is an ad<I<:d contrast in Aguaruna fo r ADULT Ul'e 11"0 words, Olle having tbe lidded OOIlll'aSlivc MALE in that lher~ componem of MJ\Il.IUED and tht oilier of UNMARRIED. AI'lO nolke Ilia( the conlnlsl bet"'«n ADULT fF.MALE and y OlJN(l ~'E.\1AU; c.an only be indk-ated by addinlt a sum ~ _ud. 10 the word for ADUlT feMALE. 'IlW luffix means lillie 10 tbnt II\.< wwd fo.FIlMAL£rnILD hi Ilnlt woma~, ( H owc\'~ . Ihe suffix is clearly rdall'd In fonn \() the "'I)fIj for YOID:C MALE.) In tbe: pre;'ious chapler. we dlsc~ lti<:mn:hieal ",lationshijXI bcl\O.·ct'!l words; that is. taxooomies.lIert.lI!so, the Wtonorny is based 00 the sbarcd CtMrk ~omp!.tI\ t ' .00 com(nJtl~ tOmpollHls whlth dmingui lh one lexical i l~m from onolbolr. 1'01' example, ootico Di splay 8.9 (Rcclunan fI!ld Co.llaw 1974:70 ), adito ~ te"'..... li\'t tQfIpoaenl~ ....a lMpJ.,u We ..an mak. a display rn, the English words mnn. and girl, bcca<lse (bey are all ... ~" '". ~ Kinds ef ruunins; com poucDU ~ aWr"""'l! LJOnmricd tbesetreialingsil«p. hOfSt, ~C., In chapter 7, the ¥"nuk compo nut tb~ made ;1 possible to COffiIX'l'" a.U the .....·M OOMEsn CATEO A....'lMALS. 93 ..J.& 1n n.etal. ";';r '.'' 1'1.,.., ~ '-, 1 rockln .. cnl lr c1 • • k .h .l~ ~ ~.- I baby .~Ir Di>pla, I.' Notice thaI aU of Ihe ....ords in this set bel"'g!(l the eenenc class; of fo ....1n.re, 1he ronT,.tl~ e eomponUtlS .... hich "parale 'able. clw i~ . W(Jn~ cabi"e/, and cupboard wi ll ha,'c to do with the >hare and the use oftbese Jl'ITIlculu pieces Qffun:titun>. Ch ai~ is then Iht 1:' nerM: COlllpo..ellt for armchair, rocki", eMir. deck c/l..1ir. and babJi chair. 1be Q1ot3nlng Olf ~ ~ apin depends upoo conlrastivt tOlD· jXlncn l. which have !(I do wim shapi: and U.'le.lf a translll<lr Is ",·o.!king on a le,;t wllich include. IcrrnioolOl/IY relating to !be genc:ric elM! o f /wrnlmn. he will need to think vOf}' carefully through tbo .0n l .... 'II\'t ~c> " DiJC(J".., i llg Mea"i", hy Grouping TlIE LFJ(JCON in the 5O\lfce lanSlUl£<' voc.bulary and in the .eceplo. langu:>ge vocabulary in onk. to ,boose the besc cqIIivalent.lf tbm: i. 00 exaa cqul\'a1mt. he may n-l1O include d H' COOlponenlS by mpo u l u "'<taring, K indieatN previouJly, when the ~ riem is focal 10 !he meaning ofThc II(;I1lence or panliI3p1:J. 1f ool. be "'ill simply choose Ihe nearest «julvlIk'fll without fUrther delail. In look;n, at the mcnni ng uf lbe lexicalllcms which belong!O the same $.C1 n atlc~, one needs 1<> rrn;t identify the d4S$ to which it bo<loop \Ihe cmerie term). 1l!e" tWo individual lc:Jo.icsl IIcms belonging to that cia", can be stud ied In COIlIIUI, the "",e with the OIh.r. For t:AAltlple. COIrI",ontl, prom",z reb~ . ad; reply, Md annaunceaf e way. ofsl"'aking; that i ~> they all beleng 10 the generic class termed speak. BeclIWC they belong to ft common , . 1, the meaning of ~",h can be idenllfle<l by conll"Ul . Anofher lanSUl18C IDa)' also MY., 8 ~ ofle.l;col llem<> which arc p8I1 of the semanlk from this ~ I in dom.in speok. but !bey lOlly be \"1'1)' d1f~ EogIi$h . !'or elIlUllple, tbe W.h...al IllI1guage o f Guyana (dou f, om H.wtlru: 19(2) doe. 001 bavo verb< me;ming prom/f;<!, p,,,l5t. (>I,d deny. Th m..:mlnG i, s imply included in the con:cot o f (h. IIUOlPII{m whkh goes with the "crb Ny. Th<: gell crio: . or cea lra !. "U llillg compoflfllt can be said to be more ~ OI IIwI the Olbef wmponer!lt. Within the word boy, the meani"& compou<:nI HUMAN DEiNG is more prorn lnc::rn (h:lll MA LE or YOUNG which Jimply (!<,limiu IU ~iA N. In Lhe sentence "17r~ boy is /rue. .. the OO,"poncnl ofH UM,I, N is ,>Sed with nalUral prominence. However. in certain oontexlS. one of the contr.l3tive OOfflj'lOMllts may come in to f ~ and. theref(JfC, alrry marked proml/lCllCe. For example, in !he SCIlfence M'JM boy, _ 1M girl, lost the """', IIWkf<l prominetJce it 011 MALE whkh b a oollcmtral o;omponc:nt: Ihm I ~ Ir is • <XlI\IItiti\'" C<lmponenl . In the sen tcn<:es "If b<>y """",,, <>C«J",plull 1111$ 1t1.<k. II ...i/llau " ",an /0 do it." morted promi nence is on YOUNO (lmmatnrit)'). the olher IKKlccntnol compotlfllt. W The components of mcanil!g footld in the woro boy d iagrammed as st>m-... in DUpiay 8.10: 9>-=" ,.... Display 8.1fJ aUl be ~"J Coul,...", 9S s tl \" ~ component. at><! lhe T he ,elatiomhip between !be twO cCltn tt.tnl component, flUMA."I, is om of dclirnillltion. thal is, HUMAN is delimited 10 only 10. tillMA N tb~ ~ VOUN(i and MA LE. 1l>c n:htkxuhip befWI!l<'O tlte <'l'lllrai comp<>nenl and !be c.. ntrlOSli"e co mpollenl!; iI ~ Iway , on e of dd lnliUttioo; tbe conlraEli>'e componen" delimit (narr()w down th~ m~tIlin of) Ihe ulltra l cO" lponem . [n additicm 10 the rentral tornl'O".nt and the e()nt r.ut in COmu. there are often illddrn ' AI ( 0.- .uppI<:mCDtary) conlpoHntJ. at absetI:c: is inddentJ I for 1M COIllrS$l needed to Tbdr ~1lI:C differt:oltWe B tenaln set of tmILS. At anotl~ 1C\~t or &tudy (J1'IC« specific), thelle same romponcrtU ,nay be confrasli v. tornponnll. What is genulc, tontra.lin, 0.- Inddenlll dcpcndii on the level o f focu. of the anty~i s. It dcp<nd., 00 wbllt level of the tnxollomic hkrarcby ftt whIch one is i«<tn,. For example. in COlIlrUling IdmI" offumjJure. It ~ DOl m eo.1lnI i f "" in oonlnl$l to the objea. ha, ,,1"/11' or not. Clrt!ir II ~lraOsi labk, bed, f'IC. lI""',",'er. if.,.,., is describing lbe ,emanlie _ kinds of chair'$, Iben having anru b 00 l00aer Incidenml bot is oontnl<;tivc. Alsa, in 1llO" ing up from k;m/$offomi1>lre til a ,ua,c I:cneric cl!lSS of "nifilcu. tILe component I<) sit on which ....'3$ COrltnlStive for / wrnllure is no lonaer eomrasliH but only iocidelltal. Sioce tbe lran.J.awr is C«IC:cmc:d .....ith the mCllfling of words, he ",m oft~ n«d rtr., ""g.... h",,,,,,, 10 jnl'Uligate: m ioote d;fferetK:eS berween .....or<it in . scmalllic $CI. It 111 the " ontrastive COCIpor>etlU that he will want to f""" on. EXERCISES M Di_I-ering Meul .. , by CtOUpiDI: and C"nlrllK ["',""gel A. Compare th words fOf pans r>/ .. houu ill Iwo which you speak. If possible. get I'Omcone else 10 Ii$! all the panl they can think of in one language. Ind a different pcr$on to list al l the pam they Clll think of in a _ d l,,"&ualle . Thf.ll (ampo.re the IWO lists. ~ kinship trons of anolhcr language wb ichyou ~peak . ComJlln: tb e. 'yitan ..... Itb EngJish am! Alluaruna rnsentcd in this ch~e t . What diffen:nces do YOlU lind? B. Diagr.om tile l>"fern or (arurusu for C, In English, the word!: -m.. ga:c, S/QI'r. gl~rt, put peer. and SlllllCC art aU ""ys (lj1ootilll al rJrings. %at '" the eonan..l i,', con' ...."""'''' (dllferenc.eo;; of mulling) which 5ej)8r1Ue lbern in meaning? -S ~ . ~ "f..$e ,- ~ go t! .5O ~ "' - ·5 E ! i !;:" E~ l 1 ~ ~ ~J ~ •8 ~ " -.:I ~- .~ E~ " ~ ~:li ~ ~ .. :( "J i!10 9:: ~ " ~ .; !Z. ~ ,-" E i ;;; J!\ .;:: oS t: ". a ~,. ;:;-ti :a ~ . -=~ E '" .. ;i_ : ~ £ ~j~l !i~ ~ - e :l 'O .l e !l~ 's ;$ "-;0: 1; • e § ~ .; "@ l;; = -" .'.,. ".!t~ 'a ~ ~ i 1~;, ~ ~ ,go ~ ~ 8 d ~ MismQ/chIJ'g of Lu:ir:o./ .'>ysu1rU THt: LEXICON " 8 Mbrmlw Eot1kh (1't4 ® e l>I':ck r~ ~'" EngIi& h lin•• M~ 1}"~ i",tid; ",-8 "'i/<! Gnek~ 8 O'IOPYTl in ~1 from En&lish inW TzclI8l, !he ITlInsblor will h3II\' 10 from "lithe words for carry eoc:h I1II'Ie be is 1nIlSl8!i ng IlK ODe EngllJh word. The text will Dttd 10 be studied c",..,fully in ord ..... 1(> choose the ( orr«:( word. lICIWl!Ver, when IrMs.l:!tinll from Tze1laJ ;nt<.l EnIlUlIIlbon k only ODe wwd 10 choose from. tbe word CQrry. This wUI be USl'd IDlless the manner in which !be Ob;«I is being ~ ;s ~laI to !be focus Of theme oftbe COOItXt. Then a ~ipl i ..e ph,a.., will oeo:d 10 be !!dded In English to ul.lh dfaf the r-onrrnsfln me.ni n~ rornPl'"ent, foundin !heTultai words. ForcnlllpJe.lrpach occun: In the Tu:ltalleJl.t, IllI1 00w the objM is ClIll'kd is DOt focal tbi:n ctlTT)' "'Quid be liufficltnl in !be: EqIuh tnlm~io. However, If 1M tnaIV1« in wIl!ch the object is carried is important to the pAS>llge, tbe II'aIlSlutor ""ould:><ld thcronlrastive munin: compo nent, 011 the ~ead . The Tlingit of A1ub I,,"f no gcnmll word ror .no'llll, bui j nst~d Ihcy ba"t many ~if" \vords, dep:ndlD& (III tbt kind of swimmIng invul\'ed, the plll'1leipants in""h'ed. and t""ir !lingulMiLy or pJuml ily_ Nore the roUowlnll (data fro", Comtat>ce N~i.h ) : J/-IQQC}, (si .... ) ~ M-<iot>-Y.Haad! (plu.j d~ y<l-X'f/aJ; Th .. following U8lnple shOW$rnu\ for lh~ one English word carry the TzcltallaJlgtlltgt' of Mexico hIlS many spedfoc t. n ltS. Howe" ct, !here is no genft31 ,,-oro for cony. ..., "'" carTYaero» {h. """'idei'll 10 eo.rry in (tHo palm of 11>0 ~d 10 <Nry La • ~ or pOIloOb loIS- 10 ClIfT)' u"""' II>e:qm II> <::m"y on I~e head II> <an)' alol\ "'-'" ., ,... .,. ""rou· ".,. ""'" r- - M~iI "'00 waler) (of IhoaI or I\sh JWiftm .... """'"' _ter) (or .nlm!>l or h,,,,,,n Nlmtn't\i on \he 511ff..,.,) yo-I.<><> (1Iing.) J"I-~_ (orb.."., booInl) (afl'"'ie fisb nr .... mamm.1 , wimrn ing (.ioa.) "'--400-)'IJ-:.·""t (pi" .) Disp/IIy 9.1 j<i"P' jn 99 ~ e yflJ,.", ~" La'llllages ~twen (pI ..) (1i""1 jI.Jzi_/l:waan (p .... ) (of .,....1or """"" ~'im",tl s.orf~ aimlCS5ly. In tircl ..) si-AO(>(tinS ·) (of blld ""the ....-1..,.) >",4:;_ (SIng'1 (of bud or r,.b wilh head em~rg ji.J1_1tco On. !be to 10 c:vry In g ~ 10 ClUJ)' difJoreJIl ikrnl lOJtf\er 10 earT}" with IOtIgs 10 c:\N)' In the arm, '" carr)' bclwcetl "...,' , tftIh 10 cxry on • 'PO"" 10 earT}" ifI • COflIai:ta10 entry 011 \he: b:d; si...t_n (pJu.) )'d .. j-u>o~ (plu. dlJ.tuu (mg.) b~ya-U«#(pl. Y"-}"-g<>o (l in!.) Y" - I-~ (pill. , 1~Im"' 'n t ) itl under ....... (of.omtthing SIOIrnmiI'II fau a'Id pow..-Mty, especially .... mantrIlOIl) (ofporp>tses swimming"''' KI1oo I) In \J1lIlSlating from English into llin£il, Lhe tran>latorwould ntt<! to be "try careful tocllooselhe lukal items ....hklllla\·c the m n n;1I1: '" THE L£XlCON Mismalchj"8 of f.ujeDJ SysteMS UlW,,,· ,. Lallgl4l1gC.s component. whieb malCh the information in tile text being trnnslated A persOfllr:lnslating into his oWn langaagc would know inst inctively which "fOuld be rorrcct. but he would need ro study the source language English text :mel situation to find tbe corrttt word to U~ e in the translation. He cannot ignore these distinct ions even though English ha. only One word for swim Bm even s ,jmpleset ofwotds refming 10 parlsofil ireew ill not match e~actly from one language to another. In isnag (Philippin .... data from Rudy Barla,m), (he mmk of a tree Is thought of:lS two parts. rother than only one as In English. The lower part is ClIl1edpwrgu/3/ld Misrmllchi ng of stmantlc Sfts boluf) 'leaves', Th. lexical items of a language ~ a great network of itnerla~-d meanings often caUed a cognirive networt. Different approaches to Ihe analysis of th is networl<. will highligbt differont of speaking as others hav• . Often direct quotat ions "'" usc:<!, and 101 the upJlfi pan orutang. In the I'angasinan language (i'hHipp ines), a inlo Ihree main pa rts -lam"l ' roc>I&', si?lig remboo plant is div~ 'trunk\ and bwik 'Mir', Th~ "hair" consisr! ()[ bu/aw'-I 'branches';md Som~ languages do not ba,'e as many specifi c word:; for 'my~ the form of Ihe quollllion cRITies the rncmtlng rather than a more aspects of the semantic structure of tlle iar!gUnge. We have already looked ~t Som~ of lbe ways in wbicb one can 1001;: at pan ofthe "',,;oon. Basit to all study of the lexkon is the print iplt that meaning can be di5eovered only in terms of semantic cor:tlr1lSl. As trnnslators stlldy the meaning of words in either the sourc e language or the receptor language, they are dealing with a sys1em ~ita l ilCttlS may be rolatedto one anoth:r in various ways. They may ha\"e no meanIng compooent$ in common. being related to one another simply in that they oe<;lQ" IQgether when pe<Jple :m talking about a certain topic . The ,,"ords are grouped together in the minds of the m=bers of the commWlity using Ih<m. because the THINOS and EVENTS referred to are often ll$socintM with one another. For example, each language ha<; a vocabulary which will be u ..d w!ten talking about the topic agricu/mu. The English words plow. pl(f~I . han¥!sl. wheat. corn. hoc. hinder. thrasJiillg machille, etc., all belong to this topic. 'illere "'iIl be snbgroups when talking about specific kinds ofagriculture. No two languages will have c()!upletely matching vocal:,.daries wbic.b. are used to talk about agn·culmre. There "-'Ill be many more le~ icaJ items in ooe language than in anmher. The relationship between lexical items which are related in this way i. rather loose. Nevertheless, thi! loo.e relationship is one of the elements of cohesion within a text ..... we shall discuss later in chapter 3 1. In addilion to th i ~ rather loose relationship. thew ,,"ill be :;ubgroups of vocabul.ry which are very dooely related to one another and tied rlap of meanIng components. For example, a set together by some o~e of words ""bieh would occur when talking about machinery used in agriculr"u "'ould include plow. harrow. rraewr. combin ~ . dC., in Englisb. "These words make up a ruhsct under the broad topic, agricuirure. When discussing agr/cu!mre. 3nO\l,er snbset would be words &uch as bratl<'h. rronAc, 1"00/, ned, andfrui/ which all have ft vcry dooe relationship to one another in that they are all part of a tree. spedfic " spel};ing ~ word. In some Amerindian languages, There are no words for ca"'",,,na, beg. bese..ch, ml:, tell, proclaim, P'lbli,h, qucs/iM, discusJ, mal"l'£/, deny , pennil, desire, etc. Radler Il,ese are ""!",,s>ed by dire<:t quotations . For eX3ml'le. in Wa;w. ; (Guiana). as in chapter 2. " You prom!j<!d lO mme.·· would Il""d to be lranslated " 'f wHi ~fr/aily ~ome , ' )'01' gaid. " "Ht praised the canoe." wou ld be trnnslated ,. 'II" a ">I'O!!derfol rollO<'. ' he soid" (Hawkins 1962,164). The translator needs Lo match the system of ODe langu:!ie. against the system of the second language. Even wben there seems to be a WOld which i. eqUivalent. there may be SOm~ comronents "fthe word which nre dilfen."IIt frem tbe components of equivalent words in tile S oUre ~ language. For example, Nidn (I97S ~; 58 _ 60) us"" .... an illustration the set whiJper. oobbM. mu,""",r. sing. and Ina.,. He says ' hat fo r .....hisper "there m.y be very low, scarcely audible wb i ~ pcr s, in coot mst with v«)' loud whispers. but all the variOlls degr~ ofloudness are s ubsumed und~r the designation of ....hisper." Hwang ( 1979: 1) says: "There is a pari-whole relatiouship (see page 87 above) octween each of these words and the word tree. In Bom (Peru, data from Wesley Thiesen), there are a number of verb roots which are all used to talk about coming and going'. tha1 is. ,lOt"" ... the most closely corresponding Korean term for whisper. !NJbakira, ha<; .... its JDQS! imp<>!"UInt compon<:nt "m i" us loudne<ls. ~ in addition to other components &iven by Nida, "verool;' '"nonmU!iC:l.! pit~h," and ~vo i ce l e s . ~ T hus . 5010"'ys somethi ng very softly. sakail im plies t~ al the ~ p "lcr elose to the hearer's ear, so that a third peTS()Il would oot hear what is being s~id. Likewise, the serrumtic com ponentS of babble and murmur!n Englisb are not equivalent to lh~ of the Korean terms. Ongalkl1lillI 'l:xIbble ' and fi"'g<1lkI1IiUl. 'munnur' may both be verbal and picudoverbal, combinati""" of cOUS()Ilants and vowels. but without me.ming, while in English the former i ~ pseudoverbal 8Il d the latter , ·.".bal. '" THE U x/CON M&.atd,ing from one place to anoIbco-. ~ Ho...-",..,.., 111= words do not IU t ~h the English USIIge of ""me mgo. They mUll be IlllderslOOd;o rellt(iOll5hlp 10 oue 8n<')(hff in ordeT t o disc:ov~ the rneaniD&~movenl ,., .. mall. Some languagc:'l "'ouId UK ~ word COWUl, aod OIhcn ,,"OI.Ild &impl.y use the wonJ /nnrd. One ....,do to Iwo",' bow kinship they Q~ terms lire used.as \'OCal ",'e&: that is. In "'hat ex,mded "'' )'l< Hwang (1 919:2) IKlIes!be following for KOfUll: W>" ""ftt· """. !""ng ",,;\,eat ""'lu; -I" ",minsamn0: """'"' b:ocl: 10 -- 1I1 l Ltl{~"f#!$ "'" U<ed to oddreu peopl e. ~ - ,.~g of La.ictd S)"Ste.u bawulI Kiruhip term s in Korea .. oftm have (Ir1 e:<Imok<! ";',e Ollt<idc the kill'lhip 'yslem. Thus a male friend ,,{the f;vnlly (or the povent) may be called an un"le. aft,.,,;, and a ftmale ..n;. Korean! do oot nonna/ly dl.llinguish friend on BUIlt , aj~m 8C); for younger siblings, tong$iing. but .ex dislinctJon for older slbltngs Is obligatory since there is 00 <;>:)V<:t: tern. for ,~ ""''''''0 1n llora. verbs and verb suffIXes of direction must be: usoo In .elatllXl 10 Ihe speaker's locatkm. Come is used ()Illy 10 refer 10 lbe pJ oce from where you aTe spcakiog. Go i:; used in . ... ery other 5itUiltlon. $() you ~n <lilly say wme 10 "'y house if you are speaking from your holl.'lc. If you are oomewhe,. ebe yo" m ....! oay !;O 10 my 1u:>o..K. Wh en you s~y thai someone to a gjr'-'1l pi"","" il implie. that yQU were then:. This mt'.J!S thai in PlMY plill'<:S whele come is used in English. in B<mL I{QwC\·«, it must be IllmSlated go in <>rller w make ~ wben tM rpc&li:er (or writer) i. reporting what happened, it depends 011 tile location of the reponer as w which feno i< used "The trund:llor will nlll trntl'llalt COllIe from English w ith Is_ each time. but will .uudy the conttxt to be fUn: whkb Qf tht: WQrds in the Sd dwuld be used. 1l1e "'ord which a nom opeaker fltld!t "'0$\ aa:urate aid DIIt..nI is II ... COIT«t QrIC. Moodur1Jl:U(Bnzil. dIlla from Matjorle Crofts) h",,1""<> ~rt. for COllIe. Xe is used wben Ihe speaker is at bome 811d aji", ;. ... cd wbftl ilic .peaker Is !lOI II home. MlIXacalf (also Br.tzI]) tw. three tpatial .K11!np w h ~ O:t=-mIDe the IlK Qfrnolion ,·crbs. These scn.illgll are home ruu. pIao:e--in-paniog.1lOld tile areaoftravel bcfwcen these (I« P<lpQvkb 1967 rQ'dcu.iIs). AlllJOSIlII1y mlll1llllic ~t wblcb we might CO!npII"C bc:iWttn two no{ only iMg""F" "'ill ba'·. $Orne mismatch. IGnsbip teru" mi'ma"h, lIS $em in the ptC\"i<ru.< chaplCf, bw kimhiptmns alwoften b;,o,·t eII.nded m.,.nlnp which cause addillonal problrms in kao.sla. ti()l). In lIOI"De language" kinship terms refer only l<> blood ,el"Il ...CI; IUld arc nc'·u uied in I:>Clcodod ways. Hom''"''e!", in &til isb il il not ulKOIIlmOll f()l" wmrone IQ ",,11 a boy .roll if be de>es DOl know bls name. Rut Ihe Firo Qf PHU do oct ~peaI: In this mannc:r to those not ,pe ifeaU~ thei ' own childtm. and woo"" would Imply ft bl ood relatic>luhlp. [n a similar circumuancc, wlter<! one wan15 10 addre)s a yO\lnger perlOll in a loving m~nl<' r , the I'ilo would USe tltdr word for """'E them , In fact, ther<: are four tmns forlde s iblng ~depcnirl 00 !h~.ex oftb<: ego: oppa 'older btOlher (when the ego II female), ' illmi ' older sister (female ego), ' /lima 'older slsrcr (male ego).' lIJld h>""ng '0100 brother (mak ego): Cu ltur"l mi.maj"h or IeI ",,,1 items We have already ' tressed the me! that differtDr laoguag" have different cOI>CeIUrations of vocabulary dcpc:ndillfl 00 the eul~ geographical location, IJld the wnrldvlew of 11111 people. Decau se o f the diffen:ru geographical situaiiOll, in one IMI\LO&e th.r . IMy b<! a great coocenlfJ.tion of vocabulary \hal har (() do with asrlcul· lUll'. in 300100 /I creal (ooce:ntl'J.1icm of VOI:lIbl.llary tblll Iw to do ..·ith fi. bing. How these I'et< or v<>Caw lary relate to ooe another a nd C8<l be: lIIlo8Iyud has alnady been discuS-'Cd. "111<:", is. Ilo....cvCf. an additiOR.1I ...poet to this ,,·hicb is very imporum [(l tile ,"""wor. At fim glance ,... ords in one ian&ua&e 11111)' [<dt lib !hey (:(JI"n. to ..·onb in another and may even /w.·e the AIllII omtAl DOd CQH\n!I$lI''e OIlponet1~ of (I.leooing, and yet oot be: equil"llm . 1"mla:. for cr.ampk. til<' thtr:e words whtch are roughly c:qui...alenI'n munin& I'iClU.N\ If) DISplay 9.2 (Strange and Deibler 1974:11). spond "in oikos ~ bouse ~" :: ,~ lX,play 9.2 "=~l .tat ~ "g , ~ • ! ~ "~ r~1:'o • .. il ~ .!'O~ [I3~ '" "il • ' ='l;~"B°i_ ~5 ""1:: .,. . . n~ !i ', "l]~!.r ;~ ~.M! "00 .!I!-e ... ..s ; ~· .fr ~.eIn;;..§ ~ z·M § ~ ij'§ _'! .. 0_0'. ,il ~ g I""'" -!j'~!lO- . ~ ~! i. H :l~ !I .. c:: _o ~ -" " ~'" I; '~1& .f' · hts' ~' I· 'i 5 r ~ ] i · ~ ; i ~ l ~ . ~ ~ tIra ~!i ~ ~ eH · ., q t" - l.-~ ']" ~ t-" f3~j ~ ~ : ~ $-:]~ gt,~i · ~te " !1 ~ ~"o.! . § ~,1i ~ ~ ~3' r'g-o!1~ - .n I -;i 11 It::<.li :; I e"tj ... .,• '] E~ ! ·h~ ~· ·o t;3·gr t· ·i .! "~. lEJ"- t~ 'i~" ...'= <:$] O ' . .. ... .;;; .. ~'5 E 3 n t h ,of >.<>g l ~, • i .(i' "0 ~ ~!I& ~e """ .. ., ' ..,. ...... ij,!~ 0> ~ .3 ~ "~ 't,z~ ~.oiJ",- il:J Eu " · ~li'!-o g<'o§~l "' ~ p• - '~a!: ~!:lf ~ ' EIf' ~ "'~ - il"'-a~ o~8 " _1! ".5·'1 [!.>-.Il £t , , -~ .g~=i ;JiS : ; " ~ . , . , ,, .... G.s £H~ ,bl'o ~;s i: " ..i! ge '~ ~ ~j , ~ ~ u ~ "" ~ !'"~ ~e : 11 S~. ,-tJls~ t'! ..~t .: "'1·~ ] . H .. , . '• t t; .... c:: .! .' ~,gJj!i.s ~ . •• -;1 • • .. -'a~ 0 . H .;~rat '"1- , ~§ t~ ~ ~ ~:i'l ifl';< i!l = . ~ ~:§ '8 ~. ~ Ii - I. ;, ~ u ~ ]~ ~. ~l ~j is ~ ~H " • ~.! u ~ ... ... Il !:'<'I"! h~ ~' i,~ ~ 1~ t!.l"] , ~ ,! ,I 1"9, ""1 ~ . g ~-.i .;,·.• !c. r ~ !>l"'J!,. ]a-;~ - _,-oo j- - ,!' :{ 'r~" ~ ·ig ·~ O ~'oj ~'-5! s;~oQ l'o· .. ·a 8 :~ . ]~h.! ~ ' u~ ~ , ~ ~ fi! =il~ , • ~ .~ "d! l~" ·C~.c -=.. ;;:1'... O§.!i.._ -~ gl ~.!':§- ~t!',d d e~. i, . ! ., =:- c ; , . i ] ] " • ~ , ~ ~, , il " :[L 6 .sli "s, ] ~ • ! ' ~ !:o::<l'.,j. !ni.~ ~if - f <0.;"< ~.g .x :i: ", ~j ~ ~ :g.~ ·s "" ~ -~ '~ i" .f< .", ~ " N " 117 ":~ ., ,. -g.~ . ~, ~ I ,.~ ~ :, " .S ~ '. , in. B-E . "" .* • " . ]'0 Li ~."J;l.~ -'s ~ ~= ~. ~< :;~s • . ''; i ~ g'. =.° .~ "2.,~- .2 1'u'ii ;; HI ~. .. oI~ ,~n '!!" .. •• 1"·"-] ~ -l~ ] ~ ~j .§. -j ~0 .~ ~t.g ~ ~ ~ .'- ~H ,I l~ ~ i ; •,• • ~" ·." .[ , ! a' '. h5 .§~ " H .g li: 1i 1 ~ ~ ~ .H H n n 5 ~ -, -, -, ." ,, i 6 5~ ~ i 51 51 ,, ~ ., ~ " .. .' ~ ";; ",. !'> j. ·i ", ]] ::,.. .-H :"OCIS~ t'~"i !'-s . ~ '5= , ,, ,i , i ,~ ~ ~ c 0_ 8i~ _ o"&! . .5 .. :i.e ] 1I"O,s-:.~-' <, ~-; ~ ~ ~:; ~ H Chapter 10 Multiple Senses of Lexical [terns Dennin, "Kcondary !Sense" [!'It h. pn!viou-. chapters, lexical i1cms have \>een looked &t from the po int orview of tile meaning compooeflU o r which • given word II compol$«!, th ~ most p;lrt, this mcanlns II dixo\'ere<i by cooll'llst illg OIX lexlcil ilan "'ith aruUit, In . system. Pairs 01 word!; which bPve !!<)me memIng ill common may be contrasted; """Ie scm3! ~ic seu IlVI)' be CODtnlSlw. Tuooolllic studiu, componcolial fIOal)'9l!l, lhe.rudy "fanrooyms IDd S)'DOIIymJ, Mel IIIe "unpocitingM of Ihe QOIC~ps or mtaning W1IIpoomlS contained in a word all deal .....11ll (he fact Ihal [be same meaoiDg mil)' oo;o;w IU port ohbc me:IIling one oen!iC o f ''afIOllI wonk. So 1M, we have hccn lAlI:ll1$lIIIly ~bOUI of a si,'on word, Ih., primary meaning. Hcw.'cv('t. 11\051 ,,'Of'ds b.avc f'", mono 111.'11 one "" nse. Al " 1>$ noted In CbaptCf I, 11 is dmrncteri!Ollc of worM thot 8 ~lnge l ~ ica1 item may ha\·e """crnl meanin&, om« then thaI which most <tadl ly comes to mind. ThilSe meanings nre often The I'ri .. ,ary " ailed neolldary meanlng$ or secondary I~ n "'. ~c n ~e is (he mUlling Sl1ggested by the "'old whm it 1_ \lScd alone II I, th. flrsl moaning or mage which a word will $U"~ " to> !ll(lst people whtn the word is said In 00131;00. h Is the meaning l earned carly In life 0<Id Iii llkely 10 have ref.:r<:n<:e 10 a ptrysieal . ituotion. BUI III<: &lI'l>e word mfty h.o..-e II dif~1 melnlnt when med in "(I([IC.t1 wilb oth.. words. For example, the word "m in lsoiMion will mean $OIllelIoing [ike """... rapidly by moYillliM I~J rapidly. Bot If the Jacot word i . used in the COOlut of rivv .. In Ike river 11I/U, 11111 Iw nodting 10 do with l"gI or I1Ipidity. Illhou&b tI ... Idea of motion b Slill lber... RUIf ill the ooml!Xl of rlW!r means: 10 flo w. St«IlIdlry il'tUt:$ nrc dependent 00 the contexl In ,,"'hk:ll II word Is used. it. i peaker of M""mbe (NIgeria) will tdl 1(111 that chi m eAIIS ttl', ]lIio i . the primary IIlcn i_;. But " speake, of Mbembc w!l1 . I'D u>c this same ",·",d in ph!"", like (from BfIrn_ well 1980:32): '00 1i • ~ :e :e· :e! f. ~ · ••" j ~ ] ,S 1 •, ] ,•" .i' .i' .i' •z ~ ~ ~ j c ~ 0 c ~ •~ ~ c ~ ~ < 8 ~ e •~ ~ ~ ~ "g S ~ I ,:> i• ¥ 0 ~ i • ~ c~ ~! b ~fit· ~ I ~fi"']. ~ ,! 1.e ••! • l " ~ •• i i ~ "t OJ ii ~ ~ ~" >~ > ~·aol K ~ - !, g~ it ~. -~ ~ §"~l ]~O-i;!I 13 '&:""2os'" .. .;:~ ~ .§ .. r 1"1 . .!! .. :o:ii J! "'$." '" ", -~· i'ij ~ I~ "":§ j • - ~ ".!i ~12 c"Oi i:'_g-5i~ ..... E" ...... g ,,-._--" ... :] ~; ' _E"'S~] ~ "-5[ :S ~ 1~S .. f ~ L =Bj!f . ~5' · .lJ-=<115 j E "., ~=J8 .a a 1l- !! .. i1.£z,~ ~ :b~ . ~ ~il;fS8:§ ,"'~ .. E~[t' ... '0 . o~ i . ,, ,, fl. ' . 9-!l~ 0 ~:s.5g I"· .. .g -; -:;l~, 'I .·1- ·1···· · ~ ,.., ... ClIO i it t; .~ •• .!'! "~, •!• .,Ii • a! ,i§ 1t "~i' =~ ~ "g ;; " j'! - • .. ;.•i"oS.•.c ?,ill$ ... ' _!:: !:! "j!Ci li i'" • ~ · 'a < -': i:'=i """9';; :- e~ ¥ ~.;: " . = . . .. , " · .s t. .!: !:l "'¢ ~ ~ J"! ," •:;:;ls .• c~i 00 ... .. .s;'.';! i ~ ~ '0 2 -; ... c ~c ~ :; ~s.IiC n'"'i 1 f~ • I -~:<t!8 'Ig '! . ..,.A·' =~2 . ~ Jl Jj ,.s~ ~ 'Ir~ I c:" -;: "",j§';; ="" !:"5!!! ¢_ . =il~S! iO_." S ! "'~ir ;-=-d f ~.s§9g ' ..' " ~&e!l .8£t' 15~ ~ t l . '" ,~a. ~ "" Ii""!;:;,~ ~ ~ • · ]'U"i .11'"1' 1!"5 ~ i ,~& ,~ dt ;, .- THE LEXJCON '" n.. bfrd rum. The pain! run., I. Anim.te beings with I¢g., e.g., bini, des. iwr>e, boy. TM boy run.<. Tho ""lder runs. 2. Liquid., '_g .• .tnam. paint,jauul. """,. =<, ~ c~, "''''_ Th ~ The "''''''''' rLlno. The faucet (lap) " "'... The ivy rm. TM jelly ",n.. The walCh ruos. .. nms. S. Self-powcrtd mechanical object" ' .i .. (;Q;r, »'alch Step 3. Regroup t he contexts OCC<lroing 10 Ihe collocates which belong (0 (he same generic classes i, follows: The woman ru ... AoilDa'c bdn ~. " -itlliegs: 111. /;W"''''', rho boy ~ ""'s. Th, dog "'.... Slep 2. Sorl lite collocate:'! iol O generic elane •• Each gramm:llical form shQuld by atlalyzed sepal'lllely. In this exampl~, We have used only Intransitive verb fOlID •. If the noun nm occurred, this noun fonn woold need to be separated and analyzed separalely. One begins by ma'< iu8 best guesses, refining the analysis as he 11Ie ho,se """, 1M "wn"n ""'S. Vi •• " g~. The ivy ""'s. 1M ~" plant '~IU. 1. Animal. (bird, dog, horse) KuiUcd TM. nodri~g 2. Hum""" (boy. woman) Pan. of Ibe bod~ ""'mall jelly, sold"~ 4. Knll1ed d<>lhin& • .g., J/""kjng "'''''lting run ., The d<>g runs. $ON, 3. Villes, • .a., ivy. be<>n pianl The ""r< IUD', TIw <ye ruM, rhc~a m Mllltiple &IJse$ of Uxic,,/ Items Uqqid .. Th. """" ro",lir<!auct:f",,,,. Th • .OIhJtmI ""'-'. Th, sore "'n.<. TM"",,,,,,. 1M paint ru ~ •. The ",Mer 'U>U. The jeily "'.... Sdf-pow.... d m«hui<al object" ~lo":' 'h,... (<:ye. nose. """'J TIJi, WdlchJ"llJU. TM.C{II"nlIU. 4 Solid. (jelly •• old.,...) Liqulru (fau'""t. »IIint. 'tmtm) Step 4. Lisl I ud bbd the sen .... of tbe "·ord. Once the data is easier roorganiz<:d by the generic clrlS8ell of the collOQltes. it is m~ch to ""e tbe sal""s of the wo.d. For nnlmate I>e;~gs wilh less, the meaning 10 be UJ mo,"" aneselj [roM one pl~ UJ another rapidly, fot JUJu/d.., s imply /ojlow; for viNes, the meaning ii ta grow, O. Vine. (i'Y. bean plant) ""= Krull<d clothing (stocldng) 8. Mechanical objects (car. waich ) <". Notice that, although animal. ond hu," an~ are given as l\\!0 different generie classes, the sense of 1"1'" is th ~ same for oolb. Therefore, a mOre generic class may be given - Qn iQ la t ~ beings with legs. A lso ">",, HOSt. andsort! are clasmfled as parts of the IHldy. But in cOlmectlon "'11b nm, It is not the Pllrt of the body but the liquid dm! comes from the e)'€. no!I~ , or $Ot"e which run.<. TheI<)fote, they CIIn be grouped togeth e r with liquids. Jelly and .wider are liqllhls also in even though they become solids later, lb<;refo~ , they that th ~y r~1I are aI." grouped with liquid1. Thi! new classification would be lIS follows: Sen .. I. to lJIO'" oneself from on< place to ~ber (or to """'•• rapidly willS foet) (of "'maI~ S.n •• 2. to rapidly bemp with leg,) now (of liquids) Senl.3. to grow In 3 tpr<ading "'ar (o[v;"",,) Sen.. 4. to devdop n defect involv ing movem<nt of thmod, (oHmt <\OIh,ng) S.... 5. to func tion dfectively (ofmecllanicol objec!< or mol<>r"<) ~ .,.&~ ", ." ~l! ! U ~.5;:: •• jE ! ~! "J ~= .;1 5 ~ '" .<; ~ ' il ~z ". "..2 oS I=.!-; 1 ~i;t]l ~ ]I .. a" H 5 . :;~ :!- - ,. ~ ~8 ~ ~1l £ ~ = j l i!.£ ~ !• , ~; - !t~"'j f~ i Ii ~'oa!= i.!~- -~ ~"r, ~E- l~ ~ " ~ !;,~·'l :l .a ~:I.!"il .:;" ~:;. l' t~ g ~l ~i ~ i!'~ > ;; "' ii -o o~l. " .~ j "I;. ~ f~lJ! - . ( ) " " O:l_~ )! • •" .S !. ~-50 .5-~f;e' t::'!!~ <~ Is liI~ ... "" ;.:;i~!B-5o ... _~ li.'o¢ - i- z~":l ]~O ']~1!c:" ol ' ....E!!! .. li(S O i!~~-:;5. J!1! _1:< ~-30 ~,;.c .. a"~J ·= ~ i' i~j l ~l" dH';i l,i ~ >- !~:~ :a~} E ~'Q -E,:; ,·~ H I!ol-l;,) fr.! ,IJ!'i:11 .s 1 . M ~ ~O · c:i~t<,.e-= I! 1111! '§J~! .~ .. ··ep' .-~! i~" i ~" ~,-l !hl ,; fr!J-!1;ti ~ 5 :I"-:<ii .... ::: ,::.D]lliii ~ :a~ .:r · ~<l."i;HL r o.~"l!IJ jl~ ~i tl~ ~!il U~.5 ~ ".5"''''' J!;-s ~:- .:rl>~;i -s :; i>'Q.t~"· c:... .18,: ~O] ;...! ~ ' > 1!,1 ~ <0 1i-5~4J!:r'o2 :~;iJ!E -, , It •! -• ... .3 - ...: ]i~!H.e~ l.~ ~"i'l! ~ ~ 1 • ! ! ;; > > ~1. . ~ §. ! "'; 8~':oE!1;] .... · !f.:i"'s85~<>0 !-Sl:5-"'i"ii ~l.ia i ~ i!' .:1 'II u, Ul'- o"i '"2 5 l<:! -I~ ..11: .• tic - ~'I _ _ --.., ~1 1 = a~ .. <0- -5" M"Il"pie SUI~ THE L£X1CQ/'I 1/8 ",hele this wOS use.;!, the IIlM "'''' uot God. The pcooplc said It, but it W;loS r>OI true. However. wbOd the lTonsla(Of did IKIt know W!I$ tl"~ the " "or<! sayin its primary senw irK!Udcs the eompooent of l~ lrv/h. The word I(J)'in OmJ roeam /0 SQylM ,rulil; tbnt 11. the IIOIUllltod Dl~ing. In O[dt: to indieate thai what they said " 'II not tnIC, say mIlS! be olarked So jIhad 10 be traru1&tcd '''The }'tOpie Jaid/(J/uiy. '1111 i3" God, • - (" avoid wrong lIle3lling. No equivalent JelClcal helu! wlll ha"e the "",lie oenoes from Even primruy meanings thai look. the same &1 language to bJlg~,e. rlnt may have addltioual OOInponml5 thaI can the meaoin& if \I<eeI. "'itbout ewe. One oft be mO$I imp:>fWIl thing. ill tran!llaIion is to be I~ !hat the ~O n lC)U 11 sufficient to mart the mciWng desired. Amb1llultin often arlSII wbro the tnmslator 1<00",'$ only one or two oc....e5 of a word and doc:s DO( koow the conIext .... eded 10 signal !be EXI'.RCISES - Multiple Seuu of Lnicaillem, A. In each oftbe following, the "'Om wblc:b is ill IIllla is being used in a se<olldary ~CIH. What I~ tbe mOlLning,lIIld wbal is the d lfend "fmeaning IIIat links it 10 the primary sen..,? 1. HeclIrrks many b~py meaning. Notice thc three A~\Inl uxmones with bim. 2. The eovcmmenl has <.>n<;e againjocked up tIte price of <lil ru.1Oft I:Olrect 1. ~r,·c &0110 CQICIt a pialle, ~ be said, fool('!Il at his walch. 4. Children ndopl val"". and auinode!; of their pIltCrlls. 5. H., had to Cll1ry tile Immiliatiol! willi Ilim 6. They a sentence. belo",: 111"" rffi of hi!: lif.,. virtually Cnp;NuJ thil; tity. 2 . POliti ....,,}It-; (boo 01.,,&) 8. Thtworkfngconditions ofGranilj(J1I bdiNdthoseof lhc more modem El Reno. J ""iii Q)......... ; (boa !hoy •.,..,) unmarked melll'ling wt-Ith aU n:llive speak..,.. would P'·. as the lIl<:I\oinl of past;. Hut as J<)O[I as the word Is used in other conle:<I<. the ""UocaIeI p,·e !he other '.Pttl. A uan1i3:tor "'.od.:in& OIl the Sibllc."Il1oCW1.IPI of Noah was uylog ID tnmbte the stateruenl ,nade by God, ~ I will K"I my bow (rnJnbow) in Ih c10d.~ The only lexkal Item In the laujuag. fOf rainbow ;1 llIe word pagki.ln otd<::r fur It 10 mean rainbo"',!he wnnl","{Jjtro;W($laod) must be In tbe camut. The fi,..t ruggestioo for """stillion was ~ 1 ",m cao'" a bQa (0 stand in the clouds:' but t~ e addi !iOO of it Clllutlve malk: it rerer to an anlmalt object.. n:unely a snak.,. Alio. ...inbowl cannot ~ iX"><C,,,,d in Agollruna. "The ftnal solution came in uslna t1l6 ~erJC. "1 w!ll c:ausc yell Ie ~., it, the nllllding boa:· The comext ""MinS had to be present and other possible muundemandlngs eHml.ollled. t~ Sllppose<\ 10 drill the loldic,," rc R ~I (lry 7. The warl: SIOJ>IIIIie by mW"lldpBl ~ployet:I I ~kp",(txol;) the <COI1 l lh ~l lher is TI,e first means thallh.re is Q IlO<l ~nokt. a raillbaw. and the third tILlII ~ are warer spirits. AU of thtl!\ use the w«d pi1gli whlch bas the p-Irnary scmc of bo<I. This II; the m "i witfl/ lit'., -. 9. An js{1l1>d for nev.·born care ~ td be provided in tbe del j\.ery 10. They amI'l Sllrrtd."p euoagh ibwl inflation . B. I" me following sentences, Ihe meaning is In'lIiguou because the w<xd whicb Is in itali.;s bas at 1eusI1WO ""nses. Re-,o.·rile ,,·jlb N ·O set1teoo=<. ODe Iddin& Cft(Jugh coutut II> . lgn.a! OOe !pCMi"l:. and a seoond addina """"gh context to lig.naJ .. $COO<td me,.uing. 00 no{ " hallie th., words given below, only add e<>nlcxt I. I boughl II boot.; 0" Broadway . (location, subjt<:t nuutcrl 2. I raw wbat he was talking about. (object, idea) J. I,.,.,. into ~I.r . Joocc yesterday. Jehn 3tr)Od "P for Mary. ~. s. John ~ rapidly. C. Show how the oentm<;es ill B wculd ~I be trnnslaled into llnOrhcr IanjU!Ige you ~peak SO 11$ 10 commuqic3lc the two meanin". ., := '" ¥" I's, ,I i~ •s ,~ ';~ ' 0 ~ ;. § r; ,•~ d i~ ~ , !il ~ ~H 0 " ~~~ -"' :! :! :! :! p, ~ ! .5 " '" ... iS~ 'fl> 0 0 ~ .s'~ ~ U 9 0 -r"- •• "I · • Ij -5~8 .~ = !~B - s:l~ ~ ~lI:- t ... ~ l ~ " .~ ,, :i, ~ t , ~ ~; ,<1 ,; , •• 11;· 0 ~ !'.- 0 ] ] ] ] ] ] . :g..,: ~ [1 .... 5~ • ~i l~] :a.r .2 Iio2i ci ,; !q] .. ,.t i• ~ • , , , ,• ,• _f~' ",,:li! 0>:: ~";-A i'o i -p ~ . " ~ !' . ,go - .s~ ,::c: o'! "'E~ §fi~ .. ''''.is, J!] 3 0 ~r..," ~.g 0 0 • ..ciJl . ~ ;.y .. s" -i.B.. Jl£ 8... ~ " ~ ~ •• . ~ 1 • ! ~ 1 l ·· I ] ~ ] ] ,f ~ ] ] " m THE LEXICON Figurative SmseJ of UxKalllems tM floor. The words kelIfe, head, and floor all h;",e a figurati ve meaning -waler. brllu,s, and people !l:sp¢Clively. One word wos "SUbsUMing" for anolher. Bul \hey are not sytlQn)'llls. Keltle is not a arm is used to symbolize amhorily. A Iile",1 lite IXJtlnlry, 'h~re translarion using the word 0/11:1 would give a \''-Tong meaning in SOme receptor language •. fn each example menTiooed aoov", the re)allonsbip was one of ""<oclallon. Therefore, Ibey are exa m pl~s o[ metonymy. ~ f ct o n}' m y occurs in most languages btu will 001 malch Ih. specific e"unple. of th~ mewnymy ofanoth", language. Where the .Iolll"Ce lanj,:uage uses Ihenrune ofa city 10 refe:rtothc inhabi tants. many languages In Papua New Guiooa will eliWinale the mflonym y by IrimSlating the full meaning. F(lf eXllmple, l.orodon had ei«tiOIl!! lasl wuk is u an<lated the peapi'" oj London h{1d elo~r las! ,..eek. Translalors transJ..lting the Bible from English inlo Motu atld Pidgin (Papua New GUin",,) adjusted the metOll,'m)' in tho seotm1cc f am UrnOCf'lII of/lois man 's blood by using Ihis man'$ death since blood is nO! used in this figurati\'e way in IhOS(l\a.'lguages (De ibler and Taylor 1977:1077). 111 synonym for"'''ler, nor hc<Jd for bmiru. Keltle hIIli a figuno.th"e Itll.!Ie which oeeu.. in collocalion with the word ooil. The fig urative ,eQ<e is also based Qn collocation. It lias tbe figurative stose only when used with certain OIher word •. Association may have to do with temporal relation,hip as well as spalla!. We say in reference 10 a holiday, "We'>e wililed for Ihls dlI}' with IJl1licipa/ion. .. Day referring to Jndependen<:e Day. is used for the holiday which they will have on (hal day- A student may say t(} hi' friend, "Your hour has come, " meaning "1M: lime /(1 lalie)Ow emm 11M arrived. " There are also rtgurathe Icns .. which are based on " logical contiguity rather {han spalial or temporal. for example, one might say, Bu1 one ca.nn(lt "Moses Is read every day in IheJewi8/r ~ynagu.· read Mo=. Mow.. is used in a figurntive "''lIy (0 stand for what Moses Moses is Ihe wriler wrole -the law. There is a logical n:lalionship sinc~ of the law. A IraJlslmion might ,J<)td 10 say the laws .....lIIe" byMo.st"s. It is oot uncommoo 10 hear people say !IeI1lences in English like, "1 listened 10 Bl1Ch. .. or, "r read Shake5pea,." . .. Bach is w;oo 10 menu Ihe m'lSic he comjJQsed. ""d Shakespeare is used to menu lhe pla)'$ M wrole. S<>rncl;mes an object is used in a fiJ,>urnUve way 10 stIInd for that for whkh it is used. For example, MarliIJ &ni Ii",,", by hi' glolle.'i really means, he makes Iris IMng bF boxing. A statement like Ibe foll owing may be oompletely misunderstood if translaled literally Into some languages: The Pro,'-nciai Ccmmi:rsianer jailed alhtfiger~. 111<> Commis.sioncr probably did nOI j ~il Ihern. be simply ordc r ~-d the police to do il. Allhough he did not do the ""lion direc1ly, he Wll.'l reo;ponsible for it The p/tnI.e may need to be traroslated differently so lI.'l not to leave the im~"on lhal the CO!lllI!issioner hi.mllelf did il. It migbt nood to be translated IIre Provi'rdal Commi:;sioner had Ihe pcUce jail allihe fighters The ",Ien~ , The Prime Minist"" barred unskilled Inborers from mtuillg Papua New Guillen. mighJ also be mi.~underto because the PrIme Milliliter simply Initiated Ihe action, but the immigration officials carried It OUl.. An adjustment might need 10 be made in trnnslatioll. An attribute ","y be used for ~Ih object which has the atltibule. For example, Do,, '/ substilwe the g<XXIjor the beSI. Good means good \1"0'* an d beJt means the best ""'rk. The meaning is Doll 'I surulilllle good wo,tjor /I,e besl worl:. Or an obj<.l<'1 may be used for the attribute il symbolizes as in TIre arm aflM law reached r.>Ul1O all ,Xm reT5 of Synecdoche b a~don part.whole relationships are a lso quite Figurnti"e <e!l~ common ill some languages and are called sJ b'<d""he. 'lbis figure of spe0cll is very common In Gr«k, so there arc many occurrences of it in the New T estament. For example, in the Lord's Prayer il says, "Give u, this day our daily br<Uld." One specific lUcmb«, breod, ofthe class food. is sub,tituled for food. The prayer is really talking aooutjood, ""Ijll'll Mead which i. one part of the wbole oflood. Sometimes a part of an object i< used fo r tbe wbo l ~ object. A "","on moy oay, "1 am nol go ing 10 let him COOle under my roof" lWof, which. is a part ofth e hou"t , issubstitUled forho"u. Roo/is be i ~ g used ina f"ogurali..-e .t n ~e. Word is used figUflltiYe'ly in th. sentence ~His ward can be trusted." which means .. W~at "'" sap can be lro$ted" N" oIlce the following addi!ional examples of II part being su!,minned fOT the ,..h" le: d."" Only 8 hardy .o u lo ,~ up for work. 2. Ther2 are a 101 cf km<1y b •• rh <>Ul then. She said It '" Iny face. P"'- '"""" ~ T rlln 'l lating m eton y m y and syuecdoc hc In discWlSing Ihe translation of secondary senses, it was 51.lggested that each "euse wiU probably be lronslll!ed with a differwt word in tile roceptor language since there is Ilsually 00 match of secondary sense. betw«n bnguages (except perhaps belWae\1 dialect~ or Ian. guages oflhc same family). The same i:! true offlglll1Ulve senses. The '" F; TilE LEXICON figuroll hle erose ofa wordalmox! invDTiably will ne<>cl 10 be translatcd with a word (ll" pbrase which l ~ n'" the lit.ral tmrulwioll o;>ftk word in tbe 5001'1:1: language. MA dll&le word In one IMguagC I~ Ukcly 10 be trnnslated Into another langullgc ~ !iIlg almost as llWly different reodllh:ms as there arc scnses. M (Bockman and Callow 1974,104). l 11ere are thttt general .... ys In ...'hieb rnctonylllY Uld ' )"1\«- doc:he are 10 be traIISlaied. F~ the SoenK or 1M word may be UUIl$latal !IOIIfiguntli'icly: that D, the ioteOOcd n)C3()lna 1I\Ol)' be m8£k pI~in so that ~ Is roo lOllS'" :0. rg.nl;~ e teDse in the =p'Of language n:an.siatiQII. Tile 'k, ml~ i$ />oiling would then be 1r1Ulsll«:d lilt waler " boiling. The rrupo,."e!rom lilt floor ",...uld be trllllsihlO<i with something like 1M people iJI lil t audience /"f'spondtd .. lie lias a good ~rtld would Ix translated he ~ Ii good b,,,i,, or ~ ~ ""'Y iNellipnl. Mos,u ;, ffl:JII i~ lAc J)ftagogwe i" lire S}.. ~gou.t TIle ann of would bI: lrarIllated ,he I"", is ~1Id tM law ""QUid bc Ute awlhorny of Ihe law; he .......1 /0 IIu: gallows ...-ould be M...u hallged; and Martu. &~; by 1I.Ir gllll-'f would bc Martin Betlj makes Iris liv;ng IIy boxing, A second posSibili ty, which lMy be retter In rome situations, Is to rt"lllin tlte word in the origlMI, Wtto add the scnu of the word. Ii,,,,, 'fb il should be used ifthc~ sc:cms to be a component of emollons or impac! whkb might otherwise be los!' iii in poetry_ f or exa m l'~_ Mo.m is N:Dd III 1M: ~ might be Ir3nslaled 1M Ja.., (book) - ;tUtt byM""u is ro>d III fM s",~gue. HejliJl gaw lire_Iter might be tnulSlated irejlu/ 8''''I!I '' ><'I!IQIW ,eporl (or .flm!t:tul). TIle world Is mad migbt be tnlllsh./cd by the prople o/!hc ""fJI'Id!Or world; Wl'r ho~r hIlS (XJI'f>I! by Ih~ /rollr for)Ol" U<lm hIlS <:f)IM. He dmJ!i It, drank Ihrct cups oj /ea: and Ihe three elll» migbt be !r.mda~ ftO,'utlmcnl wtl1!lro /(J rt:inlod~CfIA ~ lec trlc eM;, could be tn ~ · laled I~ go\",r..-nl _nltd JO 1V!ltt,l"Odl.et lJt#;CUo~ by ... i~g 1M elMir, The thlrd ......ibilily is to robltitute a li gtnli\'e t:lpesion of the ~or bngIuIgc fortbe figwnti\'e expression of tho JIOlIfCe Iant~ 11 is importanl llW Ihe same meaninals retained. 10 Agul runa ofPem. pan. mean ing " b<ead, " would 11Ol amy the figurative 1IUIst: fo ~ fQO d. bucYlljumol;, which means "nUltl]oc." ,,-,ould. In one IIIngua,gc. lOngtl" may boI: used wIth " figurative meaning of ·-.I'" ech," m an.oIber langu.lge lIP. nlay have this figlll1'lth'c sense. In A&u.lf\IN. ,"""In bas ~«Iric fl "figlll"lIlive _ o f -'pecb,~ l'lIue ",ill also be limes in th~ lI"IIn'JIaiion wbm lhuc is DO fl.gUlal ive expre«ion in the sou.ce IllI1glIage. tu th.( best lramh,ion. will be tile use of a figurati ve e~rnio in the toCCpIOt lanll; OIag'C, For example. he gal'l! I~em srrlc, tmJ~rs might well be translated in Mbcmbc (Nigeria) with the figurntivc expre..ion M pl<1Ie4 lhdr ear.! l '"t;~ Sr.~s '" 0' ILXiNllluM, The goal oftnonslatlools not 10 eliminate 1111 UCODtIary IIId figc rative senses. It is 10 lIS(: only ~ aod figutaliw sense., which are strange oollocapeculiar 10 the .teeplo, languagt nnd cJlmirLllle ~ny [iom or wrong meaning cnuscd by a lileral translation of lOUrce language liCCOfIdary IUld figurativc senses. Idioms ODe cllL>S of fiSllr1live ex~ion$ which OCCUI$ in .11 langunges. but which i! \'ery 13I\ guagc speci fIC, is id i...... IdlOl n. are ",- ~p = i ons of ~. t least tWO ....'Ol1ls wh ich cannot be understood (DeeI:mnn and lilernUy and wblch function "" • unlt I'C tn aJ] licay~ CallOW 1974:121). In EI18!illh. we SQy. he has a /ulrd h~a rt . meaning But thc same expression. " he is indifferent 10 the needs of ot bers.~ /0 /tat.oe a Itard .~aJ>f . in Shipibo of Peru !lIC3DS " he is Ma\'c. Shipibo doe.!. howcYa'. hID·c .. idioll' "" bkb mc:am "be bas • bard hCBfl, ~ but tr.uulalcs" Au Mrs Mw "" 1toIo. In English. we lay • IrlN;Je of a diffae1l1 calor. tu in Spanlsb !he corrcspondin& idiom would be Itarina d ~ un cos'a/ muy dif~nt (flour from u , . ~ry different bag); Engl ish uses itemdl af a clod, but Mbo:tnhe u ~ the I01lSUe of a cloct. l&ngUlIge of Bnl1.iI 11M nlMncr<lU'l idiom. besod 00 Thc Apina}~ body parb-eye••)1!lId. 1rMtI. Mr. etc. Eumpl'" are given bel(l ....• by giving 3 "ery lil«:ll translation in th~ ftJ'lil col "",,, and an idionul ic EngliJh <'qulnkntln m., =:nnd coIlIIM (il am 1965:2). fl LIT ERAL ENGLISH 1 J<>n " hOI.., "'Y"Y" on r<"'I'", a/nflJ)' burllll my ~ lt. lDIO:'IATIC ENGUSH /do~'t" I'll p"1l,.,.., 9't1lJ. f'... ~.-iy"' /'11 aU. My t:ye " IttvrI "" JOIl. /~ _/trW>r o{J1OU. ,. . Ins",.",- My hNd 14 ~t0li. I '.. ~, I'U do it with '"Y Mdd. 1'1/ 00 it ,Iw ,,"t!)Il think /I 1/"",.,./81'01_ 'Muid t.. dOJU. lit: 14 .pt>ill'd. I 1/11. ,~ Ur your _ . ~aWJy. III,.,.., III EngIWt. tbete are many figunWn wage~ ~ of ~ be>! be Irnmlaled u.<lng 1l1'e' in iIOmc African languilgcs. fo llowing eXAmple (Nida 1955:59), wbleh will No!l,~ 1M Figurer;"" Se,~. THE LFXlCON 116 M:Me:s lhe Niloti<: langu:.g.:s To Identi fy psy~holgLu make conddoe.lIb1e U'/e of words meaolog either ~rt" <If ~liV<T (tile laun II; more CI,lOUIIOO). ln AouaIr; til""" ...... iIeOfeI of 5UCh expressions empI0)'iD3: cwilfg, 'Iiv.,-'. of whicb 1M follo"-Ioa an: I)'pkal: he has Bo;ny(hc is hls N'''y i. good (he is gClla'OU'l). his cwil/)' is bitd (he is Ull'lOCiablc), his cwilr) ' is shallow (Itc geu angry quiddy). his cwiny I. heavy (he Is Ad). his ~ .... lny is stubborn (he is bro\"e). his CI<'iJry ,GOd). is white (lie iii 1:(00), bit; c,,·inyi. cold (he wiU IlOl be impolite in eating ilhclSd of othm), hi.! ",,'illy is burned ( h ~ Is irritabl e). and hi. , w/lly Is sweet (he;" happy). The same lransLaL[Ofl pl"inclples apply for Idioms 11$ for ()Ih~'T fl gu~s of speech. Soruelimes it will be ~csary to translate with a oonilgUflllivo expression, but SI)IMt ilfl"s D gO<.>ti rtc 'ploT langU.<ljtc idiom may be used. l bc translmor nero,<; to I~am fO r«:ogni~ tbe idlon .. alld 0(i1er flaun::s ohpeech of the .ooun:e lexl. The real danger comes In uans.ll1t'.n1 M Idiom ji.erally,.ince lJIe "",utI will usually be ~ ill 1M rocqXOr lan£IIagc. The In,ns.b!Or alJO r.-!i! to de"" dop a sensitivity 10 the laSe of id ioms in the "'"P'or 100'.... lIIId ~ Ihem 1la!U<ally 10 make !be translotioo 1i11ciy and keep the ayle of lbe SO\IroI: languago. There wlU oft.., be woro. ill die S01ltC'C langllllge wbich are 001 idiom s., buI arc best IrlImlated .... ith lin Idiom . For e:cJIlIIple. the word IJ'4Ce is ofte.t the Idiom 10.111 do ...." II/1M /re<ll1iD Africa (soc Nidi. trnn!iloted wit~ and Taber 19M;I06). '0:. Euphem i ~m A e lph ~ "l l m ig a flgumti~ ' e exp:ession which i~ in t;Omc ",ny' iike 3 m~tony y. There is tbe substitlni<m "r one word for /I(1¢.h~, or <me exprculon for ;mother. But a ~ uphem is m i~ USl.!d to ~"o ld iln otrens;vc expression. or one rilat is socially ll.tlOCo;:cptable, or roe that Is unplcasant ($COe Beeman and Calklw 1974: 119). All hmguage$ 1In,'c p upl ~ lI \1$00 f ordi~. ln M:angga Dw.ngofPt.pua New Guinea, the eupbcmbnl )'OW" dawghlu'J eyu anr c/os~ d is prefenblc «J J'O"rdtl"ghler i, droll. In Tbe Twt1:lllillage (Africa), he has gone 10 hi.J village mean. ire dl~. Sex In lIUUIy languap is refetTed to flIphemlsllca lly, SII,;h cxpreg;iorl$ ali' 10 /mow, 10 louch. to come fogether, and IO lkfp wiJlt fit",,' 127 are lJ.$ed. OIher things are ",fend 10 ~upbtmjSlcay ... ",.",1. In lhe United ST~U:", old people"", 00\\' c~lIed R~ior c il~It •. Among me 0101 ofMcxlco. a new baby II always tal)..C(I offn neph" terms l uch ISlIgly in order to dea:i>.~ the spilits KlIMy "'00 " Wlnttlle baby. In Cho.lIal, the de\'il is eu p l>'mISk~t)" q Uod oId4r bnNlt~r btcau.c Wlins hi. o.1roc mighT make him thiI»; be was belns""lIed. In Finnish. Mis sJlIillB ill It" houl ntean&"lIe is ill prison. ~ F.u plltmkms will often need 10 be translalll(! by II CQffiptrabie c~phemjl" In the =plor Il\I1.gmge. The Impol"1all! t~inl: is for the Tr3nli,"00r to mcognizc the eu ph emistic nature oflhe 10ll1"re language Cl<p",""lon. and lhen translate with on appropri ale and !lCCe;u,ble exprCl'~m cf!h rrceplor bnguage wLClher ClJpbelll l.<tk: Or direcl. For elwml'l", the G=i: expressloo he i ~ .• I<"lpi~g wil/l Mlfa/her•• might be lJ"'$~ted h~ to hi' .illage in Twl. Howe,·er. ""me languages !nillhl simply My /", di~. and to them it would be inoffensive. """III Hyptrbo~ "A hyJK'f"bo~ Is II melOO)'lll)' or 'yltCCdoc:hc witb mo,e SIlid ,han lh. "''I"i,"" Il\U:Ilded 1Ix: reader 10 undentood. TIle eJtllggcroUOll is ddibmlfely uucI for etr«1, and is not to be ullderstood ... if il W<:re II litfllll d.cs.:riplion" (Beekm:!n ~nd Cillow 1974: 118). For ex:unple. the exprtSSloo Ihry lumM rh.......w upside down is an ~ion. World is IUed 10 stand foc people, In Illis o;:ase _IIY people bu, probably JlOIl all 1m. pt!Cpie ill lire world. It is l deliberate ex,""""'ion. I.n EogUsb, we $1Iy tIIings like l"m S/an.·'''!l mcanJna I"m ""y hI/II!:ry. {"'" froun to d~(Jlh n~ai,& /'", '"e'Ycold; and M'~ mad meaning lIe's doing $i»ftl'fhins: ""'}. fooIL,/r. Such delibemte e:o.aggcnulotls in the source langu'lgc lexl m3Y be understood ." unt"h~ If Tbey are Tmn~l'<Iit ..... lly. Much care must betoken I" be lUre thaI thedesire" cfl"oet i, retained III the reccplor iangu.'l!e but Ihnllne C<'lm>el meaning is 111$0 n!tt.ined. NOli« !be foUo ....ing additional eJUltnplf$ "f byperl>olet (from Simons and Young 1979); Upretft(1111 which substitute for certain word.\, dPl" istlc oial1y io Ihc: IU'eI of "~ death, and tile SUpenl"II.nI. The .lews avoided of God by u!in& 1M Wor<l""' ....II. MOOII llngl.lll&cs IMJltion oftbc ~ ba~ "11)'$ ofsaying dk wilhom \l$in: Ihc: ....ord ...hid, has Ihc: priDwy meanmg di~. Eoglisb \JSCS pass II"""'Y wd many otltcr terms. Hebrew used gone 10 I Mlnt~e . GOM 10 Meep and u sr-pi"8 In.)' Wo be of uxi",' Piji.: =- !k.f0!61:o/i """'" <UIItg evn SlJ$l> .00_ I go i=>Id. -=>n< ' - pW all"'" AlP' (ft tbc ""l:Ilid m this ,\ l u tl, EMn:; ~ """, I:Ulp<Jbul. U. ~ ai. h', not • gvn "'.. &00. )"0\1 <:an Iooat """,I"ion wIlich """",lIy mean" ~It is ~.ry "If., 'l (LUera! qlli .!. " TIlE LEXlCON 128 no FigllraU"e Senses of Lexical )rem, 5. He drank three cups E..XERClSES _ F igUnilin SeJlJe5 of Lexlcllillems A. In the follQwiog. 'InC word or pltnse Is italicized. h phrnse used In Us primary sen5e, a S«<I I!dary figuntin $cn~ ? l. I've got to calC;' 8 (h~ 6. He went 10 the gallows. ~e ! nse, word or or a 7. D<>o't hun his good name. It wh. forever 10 cook this meat. 9. The world i. mad. plane 2. The OPEC minl,teTS had once8gainjacied up !beworld price " foil. 3. Children adopt values and ammde, ofth ~ ii parents. 4. I' m s/llJWd. Let's grab . bile to eat. S. They have the custom "f lighling wiodnw; at Christmas. 6. lie was obviously taking heavy betting action. 10. He was 1081 in ac{ioo ln Vietnam. C. Study the Apinaytl Idiom.listoo above (page 115). How w"uld tkse be said in a language you speak (other tMn u.gl ish)? Is u,el"l": an appropriate Mllom with the same meaning? D. Thefollo,,·lng idioms are from Supyire ofMfll\. WcstAfrlc3. (D.ta from Robert Carioon.) [s there an idiom in aDotber language wtlleh you speak which has the . 1IlI1e meaning? 7. They wl'1"e ... pposcd to ring the office regularly. 8. California seems 10 have solved the problem of iJM c1os;f/gs SUn1Ri: IDIOM ." '!ANISe 9. Who knows the secret memoriC'! he and many of his contem, poraries carry? My .fOm.un gol blad lforgot. My tW<nachfell on it. I,"~mdj. 10. Gazing across the green, rolling llll\dscape his "",ilefaded. I]. Caner '~nl the Founh of July w;lh his family at The Camp David retreat. 12. They areo' t sri""d-lip enough about inflation 13. She wso born in Ihe hearl of one of the "'Of,t slwns In Argentina. 14. The eyes of the world are on those two. oot 011 Collins . 15. We did not know a soul in lbe ~ l a5S. 16. i'mooilil!g moo. B. Identify the figura 1i ~ · e usage in lhe following. Restate nonfigunt- I . My 1M i. peeling. 2. I enjoy liSielling '" 3. Two hundred ~ oub ~Ol . My .tomach is ccld. I"m Iulppyko"lent. l"m In Q hurry. }"'" lronqr<;l. E. Multiple sense, project l. Find three examples of each of the foUowing in a magazine or n~ tively. sweor. My s/ctrUu;h" My n omach Is ...'Spap<r. s. secondary sense b. figurati'·e sense 2. Give the following infonnatioo for each ~Ihoven. perished in the crash 4. The arm oflhe law reaches tbe whole country. e~runp le : the primary Sense of the word b. cl"".ificalioo "" '" wll<...h~t it i. 8CCOIldary Ot figumt;"·c Co 8 Irnn.lation of the cilation u.ing only primary senses ofwol'lls. ft. •"I - <- t < e- -- i • } - • {- - , l ~ ! , I--I-- I •• l~ 1• ,, H ]! :> 1•• I <,• ~ •i l t ••,!g ...~ ~ • , "·. 1M .,, s ~] "- • . 1< e:, • .- s, i; if•• 1] i ,,], ~l ~ .j ~ • .. •. 1·• ., Ii • <.. it: 8'" · " " ~ " i " g~- !i d t, ·~fIi" ~ ., " ~ H r ] ' s:. oJ ~, !~ ~ ~ ., ~" i~ 'il'" ~ 'i ~ ~ ~ .... :.j~ .: < ~ ;g 0 ~(:; P;j" ~ ~ ~ > :C.S! ~ r~ 6' - 5·!'! ~ ~ ] " :i.5~ ~.'!i .i. ~! ~ • E >~ J -~ ~ ~. .~ A" j ~ ~ ~, §:c J; .~ t ~ 00 ' .: ... ~, ." ., ~.Ji ~l 0 ~ =3 <OJ_ N ~ i. ~,.g ~! ~ . ,[ 1.t l " c_____ HZ TIlE LEXlCO,..' J'en;on Spltnlsll .illllular ,"2""I"'"",n plur.1 '" • fumiJiar ma,culine feminine """'''''' .== >osolM! ,,-,r.d "'"'" moseuline 3'" per<O!1 I uSleriu . feminine " I _m Al:lll1ru na .ingtl !or- 2"" ,,""'011 3'~ p..-son ","" , ~ - om' in sight ~. f. out ohig"t ~ ~m dir. nii Display 12.3 You will notice from DI,p l ay ~ 12.1. 12.2. and 12.] that EngUsh, Spnnis!t. and Aguaruna all distinguish between SINGULA.R and PLU· RA l , and also all distinguish FIRST, SECOND, and THIRD PERSON (except for English SECOND PERSON). FIRST Pli'RSON refers to the .peaker. SECOND PERSON to the one bciug talked to, and TIlIRD PERSON 10 someone other \han th~ speaker and heara-. Eveu tltougb there is considerable similarity in the distinctions made. there are some :Klditioo.1 d;'tillCtious which are differ-ent.ln Eugli.b TIlIRD PERSON SINGULAR, tllere i~ a furtherdlv/sion ba ~edOD n ~ w =1 aoo COlLECfJVE. Pame of Mexico has " pronoun which is alwayS used if the person or thing refe rred to io; DUAL. Th is is nO! m>common. Howe\'er. the SlIIstorunga language (PNG) is repoNed to have "iugular, dual, trial. quadrunl. nnd plural ~I.,- D"play 11,2 lot peroon re dis:in<:tion in l.>o!h SINGULAR and PLURAL TIURD PERSON, but only distinguishes MASCULINE and FEM ININE. NOIicc thlll ill the SEruND PERSON, Spanish distinguimes FAMILIAR fro m FORMAL. In Aguaruna, THIRD PERSON SINGULAR is funher divided by NEAR FAR, and OUT OF SIGHT. For "",eh language, the .... will be a system, and ,hi•• y.rem sets up obligatory categories that must be used in translation ""ven if they do not in ( ~ ~ source language ~fl, Basic to all pronominal sy.tems is PERSON ; lhal i •. (he speaker, the one spoken to, !lIld other ~rson. Additional features will v~ry. bu t it i. very common to distinguish NUMBER. NU MBER may inclu de SINGU- LAR. DUAL, PLURAL, "'ru I , Ref~ gender (MA.SCULINE, FEMININE, and NEllfER). Spanish, ho,,;ever, makes a gcod.er distinctions Othercatcgorieswhich are often found in pronominal systelllS are Ihe d istinction berwem At.I t)..1ATE and JNANL\{ ....TE, GENDER, IN · ClUSIVE "eISUS EXCLUSIVE. and HONORifICS. Honorific. r efer to I n<: l u-~Io wi(hin the cOInf'O"""rs of "",aning of disllnctions which relate 10 soci al standings within the society Before a translator hegins hi' work, he ,hould study ca refully the pr()nomin ol &yst~m of the source language OIld the receptor language and make a careful comparison oftbe 1\<'0. Thtre may he meaning oomponen'" in the sour<e language pronominal 'y'tem which are not found in the pronominal system of the receptor J:lllguage and " ~ Ie;: V~rSa. The meaning component. found in the receptor language .ystem will have to be used even lhough they are not indicalffl in !],e $ource language sys(em. for example, there is no ~omptlcn of meaniog in English which distinguishes FAMILIAR from fORMAL In the s«oJld person. However, if one r. to translate into Sp;millh every time tile Engli$b j:fQJlQ\lIl)-'QII ~urs, the (mIl.I",or will have 10 decide which Spani,h fom, he ,hould use. iii or ""sud. He will ha,'c to mak ~ thi. deoio;ion On the basis of the use io the receptor language and not OIl the ba<i~ of th e form in the source langnage. On the otlter hand. if a tr.nslator ;. trawlullng from a I:lnguagc Which has a scrnalllic distinction in the pronouns relat"" to the social cl""ses, and h~ is translating into a rt(;cptor language which does not make these distinctions, he will 00( \J)' to anificially introduce theie components of meaning. but will simply use the nonnal pronolln that would be used in the receptor language, It i ~ inevitable lMI ""me components of meaning will be loot or added in lbe translation of pronouns '" THE l.EXlCON lbe whole ,_ oftbe use ofprn~ Penon R..re .....,.. in the receptor llnguage ;, Ilboo.:pcodc:nt On tbe di..,...uue !il.JUClure of the Ian:u'\geaod tbese l1\.ll' eQ will be di"",,<Sed in thaJUr 30. Althougl> it It\IIy setOn lib nentt. For ~xample. the English woro 1M ca.o. be ~s.d girl next rJoo,. In tran..lating into a iat1$lliIge which doc. DOl di.ting,,]lih gOOlkt in til<: pronQuns, lIS fQI elUllllpll.' in AgII3I'\IW, the component of meaning. FEMININE, would be lost when using the AgUUIIIr'LII prooou.n ~iI . HQw(wer •• ince " Ii Is ref","ring to girl, and th. feminine com ponent. ut 1110 loa 1\0 gir lnc l e~\. Inciusi!)!) and udllsi<1IJ Maoy languagu <l istioguisb between indush-t an<! nelll.in. This Is '"cry com mon In Austronesian language. and In American l"dblll la nguaget . F.nglish has simply one wbject prOll<lllll fot FlItS1" ~IDSON PLURAL, we. We may at tim~ ~ Ullking ooly about tilt speak",. "tid ,,,,.,..."" elw Olhe, lira" 1M he",,,,., and at (JIhe. lin,,,,, lboul tbe and !be /oeJJr'l!/"_ However, in NalJuat of Mexico 111<:", an! lwo words. remamelt mean. we and ,.,..; \hal I" It is iMlas lH o[ l ite M<uer. NeJrlJ1MtI means _, but tIOl ><"'; thet I•• Spc<lW lbe IlEARER is n<ll Included, and Ihis fOf1l\ II, lberefon:, called udu in. 1 ~<hl1in mearui that the HEARER i. includc:d in the ~iRST I'EJ.Sl()N !'LURAL form, and u tlu. in mUM d ~1t Iho: HEAltF.K is nol Inch>dod. ~ the Display 12.4 o f the Isnag(l'hiIippines)p-oIIOOIl ~tlD prescnc:c of illd ..i" ..00 ueh"i.-" woog with Olhc:t distinWons (data rro.n Rudy &nun). in Innolalill3 plio a language with an i"" .......·&6cl...;'·' disWIclion. the lnInSlawr h ... 10 decide eaclJ time a FIRST rERSON fUJitA!. proooun (lCCurs in !be !I(I1JI"Ce tal whethel me ind u si\~ or udsi,~ IOrm ii 10 be lISed in the ~plor text. For tumpk in a ~ lib God OW Fallrer. the ind .. sl\~ form would n«d 10 be used silK" be is F"ot ~ , of people In general. However, io the Lord', Jr.IYC'" where h f<lrm ,,"<luld have to be udusnll l lnc-e says HfuT&i"c", our sill5, ~!he the p"'yer is to God, ~nd he sltould not be included 8$ (l11e woo hI! , i n ~d. MOOit Iq~"8es 'llso have a set of f""OOOUM ",hleh are usually cilioo poac$~i" p!Wl()W\i. The.~ pI'OOOUJI' may bave an DC!ditional COnipollntl of meaning o f beill$ Intrin<icslly exclus ive. FM exampl~. ill ChuJ (lfG ualemala., whm~ver a person ! p e ak ~ (If an item as ~in. poue$~cd Il)' ""<lther PC"""', it implies thut il does nat belooil t(l .'" . two ·t I - per. pi. indo " .bd.!"" da'/ada " '<zd" ..", per. pI. u d. dab,.,1 ~"' W~tm>ol I ~ ~1"'I. si H i . iya' ... .........i •• "'. -, .". ~ ",", ddlocyu ~ ""dobY" J'" pa-. ' lDg. aggina 0 kagginD M 3'" P<r. »I "!<Sid,, '" l:dggidl1 " ~. mcaninz (omponent is lost, Ifone look! "' .• .... .A';oo' 1- fW. d",,1 10 r<:fc r 101M '" Sul>jot' i- p«.•ing. . ome ~ b bcil\l: lose or added . as • mailer of f!lCt, in 'he 100ai tbls Is: noI Ir\Ie since pronouns are simply $\lbi;;liluring fur 0000$ IIIld the nO)\lns thelllS<:h-a contain the fuU range of muni"il comp:>lnt <>OJ«< Empb.;. ~ p .r . pi "'''- 'm Display f]A o;un" time. That is. YOll would not use ...y rMchIY In ll lkl"8 to 3I1y other member of the class bccaw;e it would cxcl»de them. giving 8 wrong meaning. My uacllw would be ~ p protae only when t:oll<ing to persons not in \he cia&&. lD Aguamna of PftlI, the f.... t pefS(IIl. sinsul..- )lrooollrl wi is a iM inlrimically e .lcSi ~e. Lf It pm;on says, Tilt going. ~ this i e ~ 1b8t.l<'" """ ItOl going. In Englisb. Ir we u y, ''I"1It c l<w ly i rn pl a"A"",ri=1t, ~ it doe; no( imply anything ll>ouI the po:rsOll to whom is betog spoi.:e:n. Or if a penon says. HY"" <I~ a Om'MimI , • l hat .... y. nothing aoollllhe .pea.i::cr. The pronoum in English are ncutral .. 10 any rcflUnce 10 anycnt other than the pers<Il\ lllCrIIiooed. I lo",e\OCf, many American Indian languages have. pronoun system w hleb includes an additiOOlli Wlllporomr oftxd"doD. For example, in Huasteoo (Mexico), if one pY$, "J 11M M Amtri(QII, " \I aUo IDc"ns. ~ YQ~ <Ire nol <111 A_,i"""." Th e use of fir.; \ penon automadc.s lly exclude< SECOND PIiRSON. Implicil uchlJlo. is 001 found in lndo--Europc:JJ1 1~"Uag ... , 001 is very oo(m""" in oellel" languag.... - u du ~ l on In Th" follo",ing $/tows the impol'tll!lce of I n du $lon Mu)'llw of Papua New Guinea (Lithgow 1967:14)- lI(lmeone else ~t the tI"" In En.glish ~n . tile focus ofmeaniog ill 00 perSOnt who !Ire IlICluded, .00 the speaker or hearer mayor m,y 1101 be included. There are also idiomatic ulage, in which the fonn wed does not include the penon in fnew. , ,! i '!] ~!.i -; ~E "' .- ::. E":" 0I01 f!"".,. •• is ~"' ! "8 § ~ ~ '.;S l; .;:: :§ Ii tl ~ J:l§~ l!~ ] i":U .. 11'6 "j l; ';;:tI l~· I"~ "tt 'H:; s~ ~ !!! ~ ~ t..: lUI ~" 1! ~:;. ..... aI 6 .. ['.~t .. .~ - ~t-: •~ ~ l;: .sot ~ ~ ~ S I 1 .' ;t[j! < :- d ~ • ~ :,.~hl 'C.;.:; <>. . j'" "" ~ .Ill:..a~ ", ..... ~. o>~ca.g_ ·: ... " ,.., .. "" '" ! .)0 ~l ~S! '" :t: ~ - " :§i ~J!l:t.ia fl~ ] ~" I ~.§ ~l B] ;. - · .. i~ · J.~'; ! I ' 0-' '---. I~ ' , "I ·1'j I ._, ~ I. I ;I·1 U''j"1"1 Ej " t U t b l" ' I . i~- "·;i ,~ ..t'," ·u •• • .1 Jh;'~ '~ ~I dW~iY 2~_ U§E~ : 1~ 1il~" ~ l~hj;i ~U ~ I 1 . i~ ~: " ~ ; 1 1, ~ i r" ~I ,. t 1 t t I., E , !~;, vic;" I ~ " ~ ~] :. 0" . . ~I -5< ~ ~"i:!; ,>~mJ _ "" 11 ~ . - ~ "'8 .e a! .l !':<~ J l"f" lr"' §i~ ~ij ~j ~12(!i ~ - J!-S "- Q ~ ! ii, I; I ...,c !~U s~g8 o:E i' ~ O! .... ~:;.~= ! ~'!IfJ ~ ~ ~ < '.~ J!'!! ~~ ~- • n .... ·!l !i'.~ ·"' ~·' "·- r""c.. t;:a.E~ ll - ~ ~]2 ~ !~ ]~ -'i .,~= e~! 1 I E ! ~ ~ ~= ·'I-§B~iJ !l'~ .' . · .!liJ i!:.8 ~ _ o,:;_~ il ~_e)E. ~! I ·'1-' lJ~ j! 0._~ .... ']~ l=~ ; ~ - '" '" Pt f$OD Rtfrc TilE LEXICON poy my 1M"", .. " It w.:u Iht aOOien.;c 0\11 of fo<:Wi and i$ a way of bei ng sUrn without bdrlij too direct. "If)<>U don't pRy your tax.,.." and impolite. would be '<>Q d j~ TlIere no, oumerous entnpks in Shakespeare of extended U$e, of p«Inouns. In King Rklwd (1.1.141)-4) tile klDg u~ ..~ 10 ralk Moot hln=lf: K. Rich. ~ We w~rc n~ OOltIlo sue, oolto rommand; Wllkll $ince we alMot do til' make yO\! Ii1elllb, Ek ready, as your I \"~ .!tall .nSwer it..." There are also cxampl~ In Shakespeare of n URl) PERSON being used for FIRST PERSO." M in Henry VI (IT.lU.24) w h ~re KIng Henry JaYs, "Henry will to bllitSclfprotm<J1 t.. ... ~wh" rcfenin&tohimsclf S<xne tT3llilations would require a FIRST PERSON Indlcallon in a ... NO! t>l~ p/lrase like "L Heruy. wll1lO m~lfJ>oteCIrb h"'" the ....,.., sceclKl:vy ,*,ge of 1)OUJl'l al>d pronouns. M Translatmg pro nouns "There are ""'0 ItIllItCfS 10 Wll.5ider wilen IT:lnSbUng prooouns. FIrst. tb • .ollle. langU:l8" and /Cceptor hmguag. $ylIClI\S will be dir~elt. The trnnslalO1 needs to know !h. mettning components of tit. IWO systems ill order 10 tran~ laC using lbe right reccl)tnr 1ansug~ felmS. I! is importanl that he nOI I.t the .",-"". language ferms d;"'on hill use of the COO"il'-il'OOl'P'''' language form, Scoood, the trllllSWor must rancmbcr tbil IbeR an: el\tendW usage:< (lll'«IOdary senses) or pronouns as ",ell as ornoons and verbs. WhClle'>'er a pronoun in tb" ~ laBgll3ge Ii' bcill& IISOd in a secondary senu, there is. potential tran:d.tioo IdJI>SImcnI ,,-hkb "ill 1Ia...: to be considered by tile translator. Th~ in the ~xarnples ahove, the FIRST PERSON I'LURl.L proDOUIl of English """"Id prob.bly be translated wilb • SECOND PElI.SON pronoun. For "",,",pie., ~ It' ~ !lIT'" ror ,,' 10 «.oke our mt<lklne.'" would be, ~ l l's time for ,WI' 10 take ),<,,'1' medlctru:."' Indefinite [YOI1O\IJlS arc also often u.oo in dilft/'Clli wny. in dll'furent l aos u ~S!"i, t.:ngli9.h nonnally U<eS Ihe smaulac each. """ry. OM. wifoel'er. and tJJtjJ. b.n many l""guages of Africa "'ould uo. the plttntl form for gtPa'al kinds OrstatemenH. For example. in English one says low your ""igirbor as youmlf; whereas, In Shillnk one "'oo1d \IX a form Lm>e your ... ig ~bort I1f your:w:ll'es usin& llJe plunol. EogIish Be kind to _ a_My",'UUld be & kind to all ~pk In ShllIuk (Nida 1955:58). Thetr1lmhtOJ' mml be: careful not 10 lI1IJlSIate genen.l statements literally but to use !lie pmper r«epcor language fonn for such statcmCJ>(lt, TIlis will often invoh.., a change: of pronoun. n,'. n ~t 119 FI!i:urallw. uses IIr person n itre nrC II wop!., of figurcs of $p<lOClI, which. allhough Ihey do nOi always Invol"" pronouns, In\'ol\'e a ~ a1 figurativt U~ of I'ERSON. The fi~ of \bc:sc IS penonifiulk>. in which iDd HgeoICG or life is attributed 10 in:uUutafc objocts or I bsIn<:! ideas.. FOE" eumpl~, in Enf:.lisll OPe ~YI fk Ita ..w ""gry. the growrd wru thinf)'. or 1M S1/W s"u"l#d. [n each o f these ~ an inanimate object, Ita, gt"OI<nd. and JWI, is pcnonificd. Many languages bl"" person if",.l iDn lIS n figure ohp<-«b In !be bnguage, but In SOme laogwges, th is panit:ular fisure of Ip.:ech caII only be used in legend, and WOIlld need 10 be ad.lw;\oo In ;til other discount MATENF.SS types. H~., .. the componenr. of ANI. i~ being added \0 the m."n;og oflbe object. resultinll in A nonfiguratlvc fOllll may be needed in the =eptor 1""&11480 - Ih, Sf!<> was w:ryslormy, 1M ground"""$ w ry dry, and Ih, .,~ 1100...., bnihl/Y, TIH:re Ie Il/SoD a uCODd ftp. nf spc«h, a pos tr<>ph ~. in whit" iona!.mt~ or .!>stral;:l: lbiDg5 arc !lUted u per.o:>rIS. but in 110. SECClt-lD Pf'.RSO~ ' and willi di rect addreH, This ftgure II often Il$t>d by Shak... speare, as ror example In Lb. rollo-.<.'ing from AoIlloo)' and Cleopilr1t. (V.I.45.o); a figurative us~ge. Wile" alt Ihou, deolh ? COI/fchithcr. come.' COIIIC, come. and I(lUe. queen. .. Notice that tkallt is addressed in Sl'.(X)ND PffiSON. Not aU 1311&113&1$ b.,"ethll ngurarl\'e use of SECOND PERSON, and il!1ll)' be raoc:essary 10 c!lan&e to FllI.ST or n-tlRD Pt:RSOt-l in Ihe translatiou and lay SOIMfhins lib W7ry do T 1f(Jf d;.? Oil 11001/ might d~ I who am I~ quun kmgfw 10 d~ ... Referring 1(1 persons by their r ole Il ls nGt uncommon for lrutga ge~ 10 use role rather 111M J'JKST I'ERSON pronouns. For example, al a b~ I"Si meeting the chainuan of tbe meeting tn.,>, sa),. "'The clMrmG~ rules tltat. .. " r"'tber than 10 his wife, " Yo ur ~ulband nylOj. "/rule tltaL .. Or 8 man may ~>' is hungry,fl He i. really saying, " J:IIl\ hunsrY. The ct>mpOnelII of I'OCliS jl beiDa added here by addlrl& tbe role mber than the pronOUn. In the GoIPC~ Jews oflm ~ f =od to lIilJ)SClf in tbe Tl Il RO pt;1SO~ as 1Iw!.so.. o[MM rallleT thM in FIRST PERSON, T. Thls WHS _pin 10 is !)Ot used In Lbe ~or focus on hill role. If role desl~ion larIl!lIaic In Ih~ way, til<: firs! rer-oo JlfOOClUll may Deed to be: u.iCd in ~ "'-nslallon and focus marked In onolhcr wa)'. fl fl 110 TJlE l.EX/CON The Parne in Mexico avoid tile use <lfproper names by the use of role designatlon_A WOman will refer to her husband as til. elduOf lw(Jd of/he hoUSt!, or may ,dcr to the temporary r ole; that Is. wlw he 18 doittg at the mOffi<l1l, for example, ClilleroJwaod (Gibson 1965,3). Here again. role reference is preferred (0 pronominal reference. In some languages, it Is 1101 uncommon {O oontinue using a lem porary role in referring to an individual, even though the role is 00 long<:r true. For example, t!J,,, Biblical record talb Df Simorl 1M leper a.'1er Simon had been healed of leprosy. h also talks about lhe blind man after he had received his sight. In Greet, a temporary .... Ie can be used f<.>r designation of a parlkipanl even after it i. uo longer rrue. However, when translating into ;moth.,. language, one should be '-cry careful that the receptor language "Iso ~ If mpo rary role In thi' way. In Aguarona. 10 say Simon Ike leper would m""n (bat he still had leprosy, and il is necessary tollllnslalC with the phrase Simon y..ho had bun a le~r. Bhnd lIIan ",ould ha"e to be lran~1ed Ihe mi<n who had bun blind, and 00 forth. In some languages, once a perllOD is introduced inlo a narrative, he i< referred to, n(J( by naw e, nor by pronoun, but by lm n)le ~ l atiQn~h p to the one in fo,llS. Tbi. is true in t/1e AmIJCSha t....guage (Peru). If Ihe main panicipanl of the &tory be referred to as h~ SOli. If is thefather, then the SOil would aJWl)'~ the mlin parUdpanl of Ihe Slory 1& the ,on. (hen the fir/her will be ~fend 10 as hi. father. espar ' ~ play. King Richard tbe Sccood, King Richard In S bak refers to himself by hi, name or ev,," his chonge of role (lV.1.218 ·221): K. Rich. . Long maY:;1 Iholl live in Richard' s soat to :lit, A nd soon lie Richanl in an eanhly pil! God sa"" King H""'Y, wud ng'd Richard says , And <end hIm many)'WI' ohWlShi,.. d ay.! Role dtsij:nat iOil may need 10 be adj usted In lran<lation 10 fil the oMural US<.'Il in th e recepror language. Ibe wbole matter of when a /JOWl is used v~'n\lS wben a pronoun is used versus when ... Ie: des ignation is used is different for each Iatlguage. The translator will n""d to N familiar wllh Ihese matters. }Ie should not autornalica.Uy translate nouns. pronouns, ood roJe deslg na tion literally, hut use them according to the natural panern. oflhe receptOr language. It is alwft)'ll important 10 have in m ind who the lefe:unt is and how Ibn! referenl would be I81kcd aboUI in the receptor language, (For additional discuss ion of extended use& of pronouns see Beekman and Callow 1974. chapter 7.) w Perso9 Rdp.... nce EXERCISES - Pe nDn Rtfennte o mh. ~1 A, CDmpan the pron speak. What meaning co1Upnel~ !lOt occur in tlte other? ""0 systems of languages wbich you are .ignaled in one whicb do B. In eaclt of tile folloWing. Ibe first version i. the source tn l and tlte second Indicate! the =plO! language fOml. What :mjuSlment w"" m.ad< in the tnmslation and why'! Example' SL : The professor said. "We",.., going 10 talk about .>1rology today. .. RL: The profe.sor ,aid, ~I am going 10 talk aboUt astrology today: ' The fi rst plural prooO\lO is changed 10 singular "mee only one person IS speaking. I. SL: We have a ],:)\ whic h ..... want to teU you. RL: [ha"f a 101 which I ",an! to tell you. 2 SL: Why sh(>llld my Uberty be detennined by <)Ihe. people? RL: Why should <>w liNrty be <ktetmined by other people? SL: Teacher. lYe are going to Ii.ten to a story now RL: You are going 10 li,ten 10 a SIOf)' now. RL: (What addiliooal9djustmenl was made in the following?) I'm going to read,W1< a story now. 4. SL: School principal 10 teachers: The adl1/in~o decided to carlcel classes on Friday. RL: I have decided to cancel classes on Friday ha'J S. SL: I 'm going now (implying thaI tlte addressee is going to waul to go also). RL: Let ' ~ go now C. How would the five sentences in B above another language which you speak? ~ t be translated inl<> D Rewrite the follOWing, changi ng tbe generic word or words to PLURAL, and adjusting olher words affectoo by the changes. THE LEXJCO,V U1 L Be kind to onc /lItO/her. 2. Wnoowr Is rudy may come with us. l . Give to~" as much as 1Ie~. 4. £\oeT)O:>/IC wbo «>nIes will hur a grt:ll $pco.:ocb.. 5. If, fJ"fSon !o"e$ me, he will da what I IISl; Ibn". E. Would t10c . lnaular or plural be !be best way 10 translate tbt ua!~,.es ill 0 into • secoo<I language whkh you speak" T mnsllltt Ihc:x tent<'I)(U, Whai other adjmll'nCnt$ did you J'K'ed to Innkc1 Chapter 13 Lexical Items and Situational Context In cha pler 4, Ihnoo kinds of meaning were di~" - REFERENn AL MBANTN(J, ORGANIZATIONAL MllAI'ING, ""d SIll]· AnONA!. MEAN IN(I. We IIa"e now discu .. od o:eferential m Cllninr; in some dcuiL The . itualiOR in which " 'ords ~ used is also aucLtl110 !be full mt:illling of worok. The particular word Ihal is chosen will dt)l'nd OIl variO\lS f!\CIon of II.., . ll uation In which thecommuoialioo is m",10. The tl"ll " . lfttor must be a,,'Me oIthe 'rIe\lI1lng1lofward l whlcb arc co nditioned by the 5it"lIliDu . Cun nolation ofkxic..1 items factual infonn aUon by reFer"!>CC 10 la lIddition to cort\~8 1l{INVS, E:VE.'HS, ArTRlBl.flllS, and REI..'. liONS, words abo ",Oed attitudes and emoTions. For example. the wOld motlrer hs 8 1}OS!li,·c and rnlCJ{iona] reiJXllU" fOf most people. The word """"'''' on the Oilier band, is m<n Mutml. But the word "'iuk would be neauJ\le ror . be mljority of EngIlm rpealen. Words brl08 fonh &II mtOIional r ~5f'O in people .00 thi s = POCl5e has somccimc:l been ",fer~ d 10 m ~ (1" i"g . In th ~exa.,pl e nbc",e, the wonls ..unh<:r, '''''''''In, as ~ "' 0Ii>~ IUId "';It~ might or rui&ht oot be leferring to the iWIte person. However, cvm whal a ...-ord doe!; refe.- to the lMlle mere-III, lhere may be various luteAl chokes based on conUlJoI8livc or emotive meI'I1ling. For U&IJIpic. lilt: wonh/m,,". daddy, dad, pop, and lloeold "''''' are aU loxiQI i{ems whlcb refer to ~ tbe kin who is of the prt!vioU$ /i:cnerntiOtl, male, IltId HneaL" lbe wOld /Miter has a ennnotalion of respect; wh~ r~u, daddy has a eOllnotat1on of intimacy. TM oi.d "'dll shov.., _ l:><:k of n:sped fOr most ~ p ea keJ"5 of EngIiIob or misbt be U>ed In jc$tin&People do "'" Ihink of wools acc:clfding to lhelr RF.FEJt\:..,'-n,,, L MEANING only but Ilso react to t11<'1 n em<>l.ionnil y. C nn"o.alh·t muninp !1l"C often. clIltumlly conditioned. A word whiclt has a po5 1 v~ eonDt~ li" In one cult"'" /TIlly acruaJly hAve a ntt_ i..., IOCIllIIola!loll in MO!heo-, lIS for aampk. the EnxlW, woro Iri«. In some parU orabe world, "hnic groupr; .-:I very pMllh<ely '" 146 THE LEXICON walfl milk (>r Daddy loves )"u, W~ i~ immediately know that the speaker Laicallrcms and Situational COntext EVERYD ... y LA..'<GUAG& "M """jn (oo"cr) dyalngan M<idywould probably be ch<>sen rather Ihan !lIe other lexical chokes mentioned above (father, dad, the old /tUT1I). Mo"""y would be usoo in English ruther than mother, In addi lioo. voubulary would be rathe, limited to suit tbe understanding of the child. In many wcieties. teenagers de"<:lop a .pecial vOCIIbul!ll"Y ",bicb (hey use ",ben talking to ollC :melber. Allbough under:sl00d by the adults arOlmd them, this speci~1 vocabulal)' would not be used by the adults. Also. in any group, there wi ll be vocabulary wbich is still Wldewood by 010.t oflhe population but only ""00 by older [>COple, since the words an: 00 longer part of the vocabulary used by Ihe majority. It is, of COline, obvious thallhe IracSlator will "'11lIt to avoid vocabulary which is age-speo;lfic an d use the vocabulary which is c()D notati<.ln. lI!lder>tood by the majority oftbc people without any ~I:e by ~ l ~ e hokes in the uoleu thesowcc lext aUlhor intends to show ~ge origirol . In some languages, there will be diffe,""""," between 1l1Cn 's speech and women' •• petch . There will be II difference simply because men talk: about different thJng.s than WOOlen do. Men wi\! ha'·. specialized voc"bulary !<) m\.k about the won: that they are involved in, such as house construction, business, . hanWlism, religious rites, and so forth. The Wom"" ",ill have specialized vocabulary for talking about the WOIX Ihat tbey do in the g.arden, sewing. cooking. lind so forth. 11>cre are certoin words which bave the connotation of being a!lsoc inted with WOOl.trJ and other! wb.i¢h will ha"e the COfIlIotati(ln (If being a,wciated willI men. Cocama ( rem) has dlfJeren t pronominal .cts depending on whether a man o r a W(lu' an is speaking. Dimn (1971:436- 37) r ~ pons a difference betw""" overyday speeclt and mother-iD-law Ian~lge in north Queensland, Austmlia. Every language mtd speaker (If Dylrbal kn ow. both languages, !he r~ "gular !he speo;ial language us.:d in the presence of relatives who are considered taboo . (Th" tenn Mmother_!n·law" is used \0 refer to all 1<1000 relatives.) Completd y different vocabulary is used. For al'n p ie. in Display 13.1 there are threoe word~ wbich express ways to cui ( Dixon 1971'437). I S · L\ W '" ~ ..... NGUAGE addressing a very . mall .hild, Ora.! oommunication wilh young children may iOl'ol"" special grammatical construc l!on9 such as the examples (lIed ab<.>v~, (II it may involve the usc of sow'" changes Or the choice cf special words. A mong the ASl"'runa, it Is common to hear ~ woman who is rolking to a baby change all of lhe voiceless sounci'5 (0 ,·olced. For example, w,mlTU, which meall. "banana dr i nk, ~ would be prooounC«i chamau when talking to a small child . When one hean an adult making this sound change, one knoWll immediately lhal n small child i ~ addressed. In talking to a small child, the ""ord OTliER· gunlxm (cut. pi= out) dyol~gn banyu, (.plit 0 log) bu.lxJIlu<n Di>r:'dY B.! T his languuge presenlS an extreme example, but It is 001 Wl_ corrunon to have vocabulary which is u.>ed in speo;ial situ.alions Or wben !alking 10 cenain people. The translator must be aware of the.., restrictions in cboosing I""ical equivalents to avoid w!"Cog connotations ur tnisudea~ . I.e,·eli or PUlllt'flc!IS an: very Imponanl In rbe Jopanese culture. "Japn~ ., has a oomplex imer-corutecled system ofltxical selOClion IlI1d verbal constructions " 'hieh vary depending on who i. speaking, 10 wbom one is speakirtj:. and about whom one is lpeaking~ (Hinds 1(7):)55). In his article, fI.lnd" gives lexical item. which have thc sanw referential meaning but differ by the added meaning components of humble, honorific. aDd neutral (.oc Display 13.2). El'GUSH HUMBI.!'. "'if~ kana; ~hm'" II<ma .. ~" "'0;' ~tabl '0- ItONiU~ t C NEUTRAL ~." D1'play 13.1 The humble word is used to refer to oneself and to someone or something immediately connected wi1h oneself The Ironor-ijic fonn refers to another person whose status i, meant to be eiented. Levels of politeness are also used in Sl'lecting veroo. Note Ihe following examples (H inds 1973:1S6) =",g£/"II \0 give 10 an equ;l] of higll status I)[" tu 8 SUperior of high """us ""'" ""'=- 10 give 10 all "'l0.t or superior 10 giw 10 an lnlirrJal' or 31\ inferior ~ to !iv. 10 tho opeaker (deferent;"t) 10 give 10 the spea1;er (noodeferetllial) IS' '" THE LEXICON Lexical Items a",/ Silu"I"'''''' Come-XI Diff=t cu llu res have diffprenr foc u,(lS. For example, the cullure. o f New GUi nM focus on garrleQi'IJ;, fislling. food .. trees. plants, and cerernonie.l'; wheren•• [be clIlture of America focu~ .. on working, indication of why, this ' ni gbt be m;,sunderstood; if in the soun:e language culture, nodding the head meant ye~ . and in the r eceptor language culture, nodding of the l,ead 1wI no pankular symbo ll c mutdng. It might aloo be thaI in .ome other culture, nodding of the head would indicate n~ at i \"e rather than ~ i th 'e response. For ewmplc. among the Cbol of Mexico, wagging one's head from side to side indicates an emphatic 110. and w~gin it up and down signifies joy. In ..""e culture s, wagging thehead is used as a symbol of derlsioll, bin to show this ,anle kind of deri'ion among tile Witolo of Peru. a person would Slick out his chin. In most English s pealing countries, a person points to himself witlt his ftnger towanh h is chest when saying t. first person, but this is not true for the Chinese. The word for I 01 me in old ChInese was L<eu which means nose. In China. one still puts his flng.,. on the ~i<k ofhls nose when saying I (Encyclopedia Ame~kl"a , Vol. 12). If the fonn of an action is amady associ:tloo with a different function!n the re",,!'Ior language. it is difficult sometimes to know I!<wo' to lranslale sym bolic ut lon •. lflhe intended meaning i. simply made explicit !Uld the word ",~'<Sing the action is kept in tbe translation. It still may not make a 101 of ~se although in some <lluaU"",, Ihis WQuid hdp, For example. if tI)e oource language te xt '~ [lSI. the transl ator cou ld add i ~ angu in order 10 ,3Y" :shau oNe clarify the meaning of th gesture. However, if shake one '$ [lSI i..o used in the reuptor language for some other oy nloolk tne ~ni n g , this could J:,., very confusing to the readers of the translation. In slIch case!:, it mlgbl be betler 10 drop lhe speclfie reference to the sy mbo lic attion completely and simply make explicit the meaning of tile action. It miglll be poosible in some inSlaDCeS to u~e something mOT<: sencric. For example, instead of .aying h£ ,,/too! hisf.:;1 at him one co~ld say M showed that h. W/l.T ""'Y artgry. The important thing i. that the translator be aware of the fact that . ,-nloolie acl io". often han dlfferenl meaning' in the receptor language and in the source language An adjUSUncul may nced to be n",de in order to avoid 3 wrong mCIIlling or no meaning at all. HIDing money, sports, schooling, ;md marriage. Some societies "'" mute technical and olhers less !ecimlcal. This difference is reflected in the amount of vocabulary wb ich is available to talk aOOm • particular (epic. ThpJ'e may, hO""ver, . lso be both tecbnical and nonl<lchnical vocabulary to tal k about the ,arne thing within a given soddy_ If the l .ociC l y , it may . ouree language text originates from .. highly (Cchni~a be much more djfficult to lraOSiale it inlo the 1.1nguage (Or a tIOnl«holeal soci,ry. For example, to tran.lat" the Hebrew Scriptures into tbe languages of Papua New Guinea or 11,. languages oftbe Amazon of South America, there will be many problems in \'ocabulary havi,,& to do wilh <lid thing. as priesl, lemple. "acTiflC~. and 5J"'llgQgu... If one .... ere translating a book on social science, dealing wit h African culru.res , it might be \'e1:Y difficult to fInd equivalent words for items of these cattk cul m!es when nanslating ror Papu. New Guinea bmg uages or for Amawn jungle groups. Tile same would be true in lTan<laIing documents about the Eskimos and about SIlO'" for the Arnbs who live in the desert. Y,"'en the ctl lrures "'" similar, there is less difficulty in translating. Th ~ is because both languages will probably ru",e tern). tbat are more or less equivalem for the vluiou. aspects of tile culture. When the culn=s are v ery different. it is often very difficult to tind equivalent le:tical Item,;. The ""llUre Is oftcn n:t1e<;to:d in the figurative usages of words. FOJ e)(illnple. 111 America we u"," sheep ill a figurative SCJ]se as " one wlw fuliows Without thinking. " In Papaa New Gui"""... people use c.asw"'/l/Y In tiguratlve ~pech, but lIlis would never be uSC<! figurntively in America because there are no- """.",,·aries. TIle matter of tile ftgurative USes of obj<'Cts of til. culture wHl be discussed more jn the cbapter on . J1elaphor •. The Importanr thing 10 note here i..o thaI the object is tbe ,ame; that is. jfwe are mlking ahmt aplg in Papna New Guinea or a pig in the Jewish culture, the objeCt is the same. H owever, tbe meaning is quite different since in Papua New Gui nea pig signirtes food and wealth, but among Jewish people, il has a connotation of unclen/1 and is .. norifood Item. S)' mboHc :octions In every cul( ure, there " 'ill be certain action. which will be .ymbolit. These will OCCUr in th" SOurc e 1~'Uage teAt. usually without any indication of what ;., the significa.nce of the action. If t.be action is simply translated litemlly, it may resu lt in zero or wrong meaning. For example, various movements of the head are .yrobotic in most IangQages. If the \ext simply says he nodded hi" head, without any m THE LEXICON E.XERClSES _ Lnkfl IUe .... J A. .... d S i hlat;o~1 Lexk'" Context SUite lire fmot i \ ~ eonlnSi between the foUowina lislS ofluital items whkh have !be sam.. undorlying meanlpg. In wtw _II I <'GIUel! mlgbl each be..red? I fiUher, daddy, dad, pl>p, tb e old Ul3ll 2 die. k~hc-bul<et, C. How ",ouId )'OIl Ica.cl \0 the following word1l Rate the'Ul 1· 5 • ",ak: "ilh 1 Mln& good and 3 being '"«'1 bad. school colonL'Ili,m ""'" -"', mother • •n prosIilule '"'" = 8. wa"c ofhand towards oneself ofhand, no direcrmn 9, "'I~ 10. IMIllippioa hio hat II . .:hill ptotrudin,g I ). I4lking <>Ill of tile ,id/.: or the mouth B. List all of the ",ord~ which are used forJather, die. 3I1 d spt'ak in OIher lrum English which you 'I"'ak:. W tllll IN Ihe a l;Jgu.~BC dilf~.:nc In «IlI nol:llllon beI: ....~ member.i within cae h ~tl which you have Ilstcd'l ""<h m ""d Situ" tion,,/ C<!m <':tl 12. amlling pan 3w(ly.ica"e lIS, expire J. speak, preach, 1e<:11lrC. .hare, talK child GOO "_& 7. chest OUl, shoulder bad Q!l blood ""'.... vQlnit tmitor D. Find the dlffcratl l;C:IS orwords in a langulge olber IMn Englisb In whic.b the membero of the selS have essentially the S ~ I ( ref.rrntial mc-anlna bill one bas :11 1:<'00 connotalion, one n bAd (OIlIlOll lklll , and one 1uI~ a ltulul con notat.lon . 14. Stomp oflhe fool F. Whic.:h of !he at.c!"c symbolic action'! are ulOd In your culture? For ~ ~ h of these, wrile a Sentence you mlghl IRy with ncb of these symbol;" ""lIollS. G. ExplaIn ",·by there are three dilfcrmt ways In whieb lohn Sonilh It addrnwl in ~ foll_·ing: I. Hili nclgh.bor p<ISSed him .... ith ~ quid:, ~Ood nlOlfl!ng. John - JI1l3 said, ~I f Mr. Smith Will pI_ come forward 2. ·fbc C~ We "ill pmcte:d M 3. Thl! pmldcnl of!he ooI.lege 1OddW. " I'lofCS$()f Smith will be presenting the 1000ure:' II. In what tOmnlulIlc . lioD ,ituadon mlghl -000<'1 morning" in Engllsh be 8c-.:ompanied by each of the followina: I. n s" I"~ 2. u hand sh."lke E. Wrile a senlenoe you might say in English wilb each of thcu s )'J'Ibolic Ictlons. You may change tbe lense the verbJ. Use or 3. l$mile narund F.naJbh: 4. a stowl I. wrinklingup!lOSO! 5. a bow 2. r.>ise<i eyebrow 6. a ".101: 3. stuuaof$houklcrl 4. nod of head 1. "W:l\'e ur ibe band 5 clmchlJd lteth 6. had!; on hips, reCl aport I. Would tllC$C Joarne actlom (H aoove) IICCOfI"IP<'O)' the veetini: in lbe O<b.er Iquage which you ~peak? In ",,11M 'l u~li onl l ~ , ~"6.s · =]:H e," ....~fi,] .,,, <>"',<; ~;5 ,j "€1!"'.ifa_:;-,~ , ~ ,<§'S!;I,!i ~ ". ] 6'oJi t'§-g e~!1 ~ ",, 2." .... .:;" ,-SJi~ >.g 0 o";--:a 1 , 1'2 ~ lo~" ~ .~ ~ - _ ~ ~ " l~ f -- ~"< §_.. oS-.-::l 'g- g .~ , 1l.c~" ~lg': ;E _~<£ ~ z.s .. ,~ "l""o,:: O. 5i .8otl'i~": ~ ! = ",'HiiSJll':!-s: ~l'-s ' ~l "S~E§l= "~ ! l .5 O!= <.-. o~!' .!'l Z~·!'l 5 ., e;~ti,j3!'lJ «l ~:; ~o ..• ! ]• , ' ' ~!5 Ilt VJ '" ~ , ] ,£c:t."l'g 1 :ie,,, s .s§~l! "'; t'B~= i. ! ~ ~i § co '" "'" >! "., <> '" §" ,;J.:2 "''' '" ~" -,. ip·1] " tl,i:!;~ . ~ '-", ,~ .!~e; l;~ ~ ~E :;':;: " O:l-,;; ~ ';: til i ~-. 8 3 ~. g .s .~ •, ~ ] ~ ~ ~ • "l. " ] .~ ] .l ~ ~ ! , , 1 •! ., ~ h ~ij =r5. "'-.., . . tl1!~oS&(; I ~ "£~ ~g:·irt; a!2ci~3.],:>-tl ... t,:! g <,=, .ij.... '8~i±1 .~:!i§ .• .l'IH]~ ... ,~a ~I:i. 1 '~n:i ,~ h 0 !.nUH;'~ t; ~, Q . ~ -':; -:05 _ e e] .!<l E..,il _.9" , •• .,, Ii , . .,n ~1 " Ii ~_tl: '" "-" '" .., 'S] ~ i ! ! I .z:. i ~ j t • ••,• 1", ,,,• •., ; • i ~t ~2_ ~ ~8 ] ij: - g"o; ';' "' .. = Z! ! § 00., :; ~"5 < ~ ~J;-l e" 1 Oll .,"~5: ~'6 ~= .~; J! ,I oJ ,g5-g,:::; 1, •[ 1 i • ! <~ j ... ., ., ~] Q' ,-, ~ j ,I ~ ~ .:It' ~ i , ~ 0 § ~.slE OQ "" .S .. ~ <> ... "~] - '" ,s''' ..:2i':i,-" 3 Oil , , ! , ',e.. g .!3 .. ~ ']'->< t<;:!E~" ! 1 ~ £ 6 ~ " ' ~ ~ :~ 3..l1 .., - S oil ~i ,eo 8 te§ .~:E!l-]Ss '" ~. " ~ ]~ .l~ .5 " ] .~ S ~: H ~ ~'" • ~l " .~ :;."~ .... ." • ]P;l !m = "' ... a~ § "•" - ~. .: ~ 8 lf~1 j~gil .S: 'Vi 2! J:: '0 ",,,!!,,,;:; •1 c~ ... "'.5[i <>.~ :E.s '_. ] ! 10 ,1 ~ r •" li '" § •t, 1, . ~ ~ ! ~21 • , Ji1 _ eo -<'i" • . ~ i ~ • ;• ~ "' l~t " Itl]:E; • 1i, ,l I, ,lo i' ,i " ! "§ o§ __ · t: " B ~Eo. ~ ,j , ... ';: -s8 '6 't;"'~O6g !: " ! ~ ~ , ~1 "! • £'a ~ :.: :=.!i ;: - ,§ 1H ~ ..: ,-.- 1, ,,t i ,! , , ~ " " il8~E5t e2! §-~ l05 ;j.'!~ ' - :2a'~- ~ '~ ~l: !; lil- ~ t; ] ,, 1 » .. ,,_ 0:1 '" '"41 "~,s:;1 iii ",l!l "i,l~1 8 0 , ,,<> " '" '" =8 t.""'g;;_ 1it-i~ .... _ ~ 11,,"5 ~" ...~ & ~. """ e"'" ". g.": ., .. .. " <> "]~1!;-§' I ... .Ei;:0.5 "E 0 ."","',,,,,,, .. 1'! il,~E ~ "v l ~g§18 '= ~] . s~.{§z "~ ;: ! ,I " • i• ~ ] ] H, , • ~ ~ •j"• •• ~ · .• ~· r· "• ! 11 ] , ~ " fl~ -1 3;1' ~ < ~ ,'Ph~-1!:'i~g '" " I is ·' P.,i ~ " g, tl H. !'r "O' h "·' il! :§~ •~] I !l,"'~[]j~!. ·~m]' -. £1'-·= P " j~li'H 1'0 0 Ug; -=" .5,!2 '0t :~h t~H h" .. .,~ 8 ~ § ,;1fc~ l ~=. - li~!~LH ~t:; DO,J"T ~§ ~'I 0 O"' tg.8~] ~ "O -'II ., ~ ". :!l i~; ~-;. UF~'! ~ .s ~o} g ! !~L §'ij .•• ~ B" • 1'.[ £~ la ""e ij j . " " ., ~ ~ ~. - Ii; ~ ~" ~-5 , ~ = . . .: ¢!r;~.·=§ ~ 1' 0"111 .• l,· i i ~ :il s '00, 1 r i~ ;~'~ i ' _" i~ · i!~ :;; P" E' '~ " ,::: 5~ ; " ~ " Jl'"1: :; ou!':c~.§! -E "'<;l .. .;~ i~ ~-" " '5 !l. -E ~ Q ? o ~ i~! uo~ : :=* ~i'e . 1I:~ i:-s0 " g8 ; .. .. 2 ~ ~ " ] S:g t <>"' <>~ li ~! ~''::OJ ~ t~ a. . ' ... " i!..... ~ S8 'o~" '-Ii-' i~ ! ......= ~ ~ 'i~ ... ... -:i" ,? .. ] - h l: oS II' .,;. , Ie ~ i~ ~:§ .,~" ~ ti ~]% ~~ 'o.c¥l~ ~ ~ -;ii g]«i"~ "~ g~ ~i o~'5- q~'1 <I •• ~· • ." .. ~ j e: §~ . tl..,·!1 *,5:2 ~ ~ ~: " _ 'J:< ~ !"~:C'i .' ,. T'" . .'. f" "''' lt ,.,.- .. r' ~1 =' -.. ~ ]~a)i ~! ]oi , ~ ~ ~e ! .. "! g~ r_.~ 0 .;~ :s! ~hi .! . ~1 -an H~' S" '~l iO c ..,!! S O , ~ ~ ;§ ] ~ ~ i Ol ~ -E .. ~ !>B """ , • '"\i~'~i o.g ~£] . ~l o "' ! t '''i ,11 ~ "1 I!li W·; 'o!~ , '" THE LEXICON Collocatio" ud COItCorilDlfce of Lexie,,/ IUm.< For e:o:arnple, We mentioned above that Amuzgo has l>W words for low, on<: fo r higher llalUS 10 lower muus and (ll1C for lower s t at~ to upper status. If the sour<:<; loX! has one word /eve and the receptor language h.as two, the two words w ill nttd to bo used correctly In th e cootexi t(l IIle rigbt meaning eve n if there is less ~on crd ant ~onv as a result Greek ha. >eVer:l1 words u> ",fer to the meaning included in the English word for love. The translation from Greek to English ll'i!1 be mort eoneordanl than the w uree text ~3use be w«l to 1IaI1S1ale senrnl. ooe word will There will alway, be some loss o f concordance in tmnslation However, the important matter Is that the meaning ,,(the translation be equivalent as nearly as possible to the meaning of the ~urc langu age and that words "'hioh arc themalic and inteooed by the author to be concordant be kqll cono;onia nt. if doing so docs IlOl distort the meaning. Thcr<) will be some gain of concordance In ca:;es where alternate woro. used in lhe source leX! have more or less the Silme meaning and are lr:lllSlalcd by a single word in the receplor la n guas.~ 4. I stop by the bookstand in th ~ v~ li ng I "'9S stopped by the policem.an. I sat by the fireplace. . '" B. In each of tlte following. the word fired has a different n'eaning depeooing on the words it collocate;" with. If translated li ternlly 1 clash into anoIher language, il is probable Ihal a coliatn~ would rt"w1t in Ihe recepior language. 1bink about how each of these ,enlences could best be transbted intO the secon d lnnguage which you speak. 1. The man jired his stove/furnace . 2. The oossfired his ~etary . 3. The manRgerjired up his team. lp<eparation) 4. The bookfilM Iti. imag ination. S. The hunter jired his gun . 6 A. 1. Foytjired up h i' car. 7. The stu<\altjired offa letter to the editor. F.,.'l::ERCISES _ Collontion and CODCOrdUce of Lcxiu l Hems A In each of the following, there is n <ingle form in italics, bul wilb different meanings, signal ed by the linguislic context (the whole senlence). Whal ls the meaning of each usage? Which meaning Is primary? T he bill dropped fro m his wallet. The bill was "eJ)' small fo r such a wrgc bird. He received a bill for the rent Th e bill passed by a small margin . 2. The hOllse passed lhe motion. H i:! hou.se is 011 the ooge of town. I belong to the haute of I. rae!. A boot was Olt the lable. There is a good table In the book. 'IlIey want to table the motiOll. S The catcher fired Ihe boll to second """e C. For each of the aoove in A and B. lell what collocate in the lingui<tic conleXt belps Identity the meaning. What is the relationship be1.ween th~ word and the tollou te? eX. The bill dropped from his wallet Bill refers to money because it occurs with wallet wbich is used to carry motley (is in the same semantic domain). D_ T raMlate the senlences in A into a language other than English. E. The following lranslation into English has many colloxational dashes. Tlte wrong Englisb word was chosen in the translation into English. First, ,""write the paragraph changing <)tKb word thu! bas a number by it, using a word which would collocate better and be mOre natural Engli>h. Aller you fi nish, read tlte notes below the lext 10 see If you found all the changes needed. (Data from David Stronge_) , .'. ,• i -~ • i,,]l -~' ~ ~, , " 1 0.:t"'<9 [8 ] ~ !1" -. ~ r' '0 .. , i g-li]- ,, i," ~" -o,' ,, 1 ~ ~ ~ g ~ ]= :E~ '> ~ " it -' . !; ~ ." L ,~ ~i ,~ !,"0 -' ", " ~ 0 0 "" ~ ~, " .' . •• i,." , n •• h .' , . '. :, , ., .. i ~ ~.'i" ~ '1"' . l' ij"'" i ;l:: ~ ~ ~:=] ~.5 .5'-9 Hn ~ , 0 d's ,~i ·l• 'E0..., ~ -~. ]~ iii i 0 ]~ !~ ,", o • ~s '18 0 o· ~." .si ..;s 0 " .~ ~ ~ '*:M" Ji ,. ~ "] .' : i fl1;' =, ., ': =~, .H ,< ~. ~ B 8; " , " .s-i " -<= <. " ~• "' ; ~ 0 ~ -. 0" ~S'i! N ~'§! 'i!!::;- 1,>XI .! 1 , "' l. ,~ ., , ., "I ~ >, ~.; ,~ .f ' , ~] .5 :: :;-:1 c: "e , 0 "I ;i ~H' ~j .~ . . lUH r'.. 'or 'I ' g "~ .~ g.] ' s,~g. "sj . ~ ',]1 t h'P' ~j1 ~ _ " .0 ~j '" of the lex! and ueed spe<.:ial THE LEXiCON trulment, In this chapler, the first will be discussed. i.e. , luk.1equinlcn t . ..... holl the concepts are shared by wic(!/ Equiva/ell/S when Ctnteept;.· art! Shared In the two laDguages. In chaplers 16 and 17 the otb.... f\\.'O matters will Ix discussed. IlQt a~pect concepc$ 10 be represen (ed the same way in tbe receptor ianguage !IS they are in the SOUrce language texl being t:raflS!81ed. Since the lexical structure, of the two languages are different, the way the concepts are e ~pres sed will be differenl. NonJifcrnllcxicai equivalents Descriptivc phrases As pointed out in the jmVioU$ chapters, even tbougb most of the concept! which occur in a panicular tex! are also found in the receptor l ilI1g~, they are expressed in difH:rrol ways. There is an cxtcnsil't between languages. core of meaning oom ponents which are "h~red However, total matching cannot be assumed There will be some concepts ".-hlch occur In one language which will be Ill'lknown in the ;eoond l lgu~c. But.. even when the sam e concepts do occur, !be way in which Ihey arc eX{Kessed In the £\<'0 language. is often very different. As already discussed. languages combine meaning components ond grouped difT.,.-dimMuly, and meaning compomnls are d i, ~ de .... lly in one language from another. Til.,.., is usually complete mis match between the secondary and flgurative SCflW'l of lexical iterm; between languages . A n idea may be expre.'<.<ed from a di fen.~rt perspective; that is, figuratively in one language and nonfigurativdy in an(){her, or posilively in ooe and negatively in ooothcr.· lnl ight of the 1Temendm;s diversity in the leXi""n ofvariou< languages, how is il possible fOI a transla.or 10 choose the best luiul eq uivalent fo r tile lransla(ion? First of all, il is essential thai tile (mnslator accept (he fact Ihat a single SOUI<:e ',,"guage word may be translated by one word Or by a number of words in the r""cpto. 1""Bunge, and that what is se,""ml words in the source tex( will sometimes be translated by a single word. Oft"" tile <OUlCe laugw ge words will be mmslated by a completely differenl sci of words. That is, the transllllor mllSt nOI expect that the,e will be a lit.nl equ"'.lellff. There will be times wbn words will match bem·cen tile two languages. Thi. is most often true when a ;oun:e language word is being used in Its printal)' Sense and the receptor langu"g" is lilely \0 have an equival ent word w ith that s1lIl\e prima!)' SenSe. Even "'hm d.aling w ith primary <ensel: there is not always complc!e IlliItching, but there is likely to be more matcbing. The translator should retnrnlber thaI "how many ideas and what combinution of ide ... may be combined into 001' word is a longuage~ tIlat only occasionally w rresponds between unrelated specific fealU languuges·· (Beekman and Callow 1974 :1 76). lL should be remembered lhat languages difT'" (1) as to tbe number and ...lection of combi ned in a word, and (2) as to the seUlanlic mcanitlg coml)O(1~"ts inlerrelatiom.h ips that may exist between words. The translalor should == In chapter 6, the semantic cornp l e~i ! y (tf word:! was presented and kjng · ' the meaniIJ{l componerns of a w ord in tho ne<"ssi ty of ~ unpac order to Ir=late in(o ano!.ber language using n phrase or da Ll\e was discussed. Ik<:uuse many of (he words in any (e~ t arc setnant ically complex, il will be expeeted that many limes a single word will be translated by seveml words, tliat is, a d n criplh·e i,hr ..., in tile receptor language. Th~ meaning is.till equivalc rrt. The single Greek word =WOJlO'f,ao.J1o; was lranslftled imo English as recr;j""d /.>y rradirkmfrom your ja.rhert. The word glulIo" in Engli,h mighl ned to be tramlmed o~e who ears roo much . Or pNJiye might need 1(> be restated to read, say.<, ··It i3 gooJ. ,. The =00 example ,h""" lhal word.> which im ply speecil may sometimes need to be res(aJed by expre"" ing them with direct speech in the re¢eptor language. The lraru;lalor net>ds to remember also that the ~es of "un_ packing'· (res(ating) semao(ically complex word.> sometimes w(lrks in = . ~n;c . Seve",! words or phra,es in Ihe original may becO(l)e a slngie wt.. one lexical item. w ord in the translation, i.e., they are ~bundJo" W e hllve already gl'·en e.>;amples of !hi. in tile previous chapters . for motley term, i. (1ft"" difficult. F inding equh'alent ( ra ru: l~t ion" For example, uickel is a CO;l! wonhji'l' ctm&. It is no! hard to Iestate the meaning using words of the .ame system. The com plication ~omes wh"" these need to be equated to word:; from another money ry.tem Sometimes it is possible to give the equivalem in an amount in the other syslCm. For "xa m pl.~,five dollars oould be 1",",,11IIed as One hundred pMOS, Iftbow lIJIlounl< were equivalent Th. problem is, of course, Ihut the value of monetary units changes over the years, NJd it is very difficuit 10 be sure of lUI e:>:acI equi".lence. The alternative is (0 borrow (be lexical form fro m the source language, w t lms wOIIld m ~ an almos( nothing 10 tbe reader of the rerep10r langnage in mOllY cases. In some cases, even thoul!b a opeciflC ooin i. named, the. ,·a1ue is not in focus. The name in (he source longlLage could be kept, for example, a ty~ of money called peso. When the value of the money is in focus and it is imporlallt to Include this, it is sol11cdmes poss ible to equate the va lu ~ in (he receptor culture by talking in ter m~ (l f~ so many days· wages" or "(>tnc other reference (ha( will make the value r ~lativey clear. 1Il this cas., a dfl crlpllve phrase clarifies the amount. The matter of money is simply used as on example of the kind. of problems the trnnslator finds, and delO OllStr.rtes the impossibility of , m THE L£XJCON lLziaJ "" ........kf,ts ....e" C~{IfS Ihen) fqui,·a!elltt. No ooe-",onf·f<.lf-<lfl<l-woro tnn:;:lation is possible. Such . literal tnlnSb tion would DOt tarry the meaning. The meaning must ~ ktllt tbe AIIlt "i1ile the form ....ill cbange-ooc ....'Qrd for Ill'-'Y, many words for one. a IIOOfigunll;\,c expression fora figur.oIlve O~, a ftgUr.ltl\·e expression for a lIollfigllJ'3live <Jlle, a ro:i]ll"OClll form for a dirtet form. Using rd:o .1 ~ 1 etC. words as eq uiv.. lenls til chap!cr 7, equivalents involving 'ynom~. antonyms, ""d roclprOCllllcxicaJ items WeIC discm.oo, T wo t""guagcs often do >lOt huv. a rrulIch lng ofoYllonym. related to a given concep! . For example. Engli$l\ has a nUOl~r and v/rl~, \Ii"",l,' be ~\e oftenru such as g~. hali~es. rig/lleous- i;oJl "guaruoa has only one word, pt'gk~. which best eqUivalent for ally one ofth~e Ii)'llooyms, On the 0100 if 000 were translallni Aguaruna into ~isb , one would ,II!ed to eval uate (deh COl1to:?l:1 of pegMg to decide whkh of the N!'.!3. w,nd, IYtOly'~ II.'oul<l be the bcstcholcc in English. Thcchotce "'ill do.."JX'l'ld on !bo collocnlionaJ range ofcacb of the synonyms. Although LhC1'c il ovC1'lap ill the munlng oflhe 5ynollym5. lhC1'e may well be ralridloru of ooIlocalloo wbicb will MOld to ~ """"Wewd in cbc«ing among the 'l'.oll),ml. AI50, Ir5 mcmioned in chapter 13, thl: wnoolations (If tYllOllymt _ dlJll1IoCI and need to be till", lnto consideration. The words pol~ omd oop arc synon)105 but CIIIIIOI be ~ Inter. ch~bly in most conICXlI. It is also w:ry common'" fInd synonym<lUS word. or"Xpn$.iom used t og~u ooubi<!b. A doub"" coos;sts 0(110'0 near synonymous ",·otds or phrMcs " 'hicb 0CCIlr a. a unit, fo r Q;ample. spols wid bkMlsitu. holy altd righillOld, and !UrlJl'gtn and fi-<ignt'N. Tbo: SOlRC ll108uage MedJ to be $lUdied to dUro"cr me nuron fOf the ~ of do lib leu. It may be simply to cmpMs;zc!he idea or to modifY !he lIU ofm<:anlng: sUghlly. It may be !hat doe uu DCdollbltttl is >imply for stylisti" ~JOlS . It will not 31",...)", be poii!iiblc or !ilylisIlc:ally lpproprlate 10 k«p bocb. Some Ianzoraccs Ilso tlO''''e doobku ",bleh arc bo>GI on ~neri., tpec-Uk rdationshlp. f or example, """" Ianguagoll.likeGm:k, will usc: two $ptoking wmislOj;ethe.- such M tJ1U>wrillg ~Id, " .. here tJ""'-'I'f'iI,-g 15 more tp«1fk and SIIid Is more I:furic. If this is chara<:tlristic of the: !Gun:., li11lgUo1gt' but 001 of til<: ~por language. the tntnslator should not rtialn the doulliet btlt ~ the naturol quotallon opener. and clo~rs ofLhe rec<:ptor bmgonge. II may be Lhm. fo r .ome =ptOf l ~gC$. doublet~ will .......:I to be Uied wilen the source IMgllIg., doe. not use them, in order to follow the nalural style o f the recepor language. The mCllnlng <lf tile dOllblet Is lo be trnnslaied failhfully, us1ng wh~lcn., form is n~t natural in Ill\: roccpIQf IMgtI!Ig¢. Lexical ~u i\'l1 ""' Sioam m m1S may alw ilOn1edtne.- be found through tlte USC of ncglti~ latony .... lben: may be 00 dirocl equlvnlmt In the: receptor language, but tbcrc may be ~ lC);ical item with RIl e:uet opposite meaning, and by negmllIg ellis, tile desired mcanln& lnay be omlned. We have already u<;ed the exampleofbod being tnIIISlatable into "'guarun!l only by pegugchau ' not good. ' When \ISing. " ",al ecl anlony nl as • IUieal eqUivalent, It I~ importanl to cbeck OUI the collocation to be sure thM it will be IIPlWprilite ill tbe COU:~ln wblch it will be used, For exampl e, in IheCoIo:m,do languageofEc:uador, ,he wnrd good is n highly generic w<.mi and collocat os witb Ioeallh. Howel'er, when good was negated it could no longer be uscd w ith In Colo mOO. /".:a/lh; th1t is. it W!IS oo! natural to> "IIy 'W/ good ~alh In E.ngU&h,. we 'illy good htalrh and poor Iwrllh. The collocatl(mal r-ang~ of. wnnl and its antoaym (and tIIu. it. n<galod antoym).~ seldom id... lical. Neverthele<., being a w .... e of an tunym. (and Ito"", rqattd anlOl))II1l5) in roth lIonguagc:s may ltelp the transwlOf fine! 8 oooded equivalent Tho use o f it r«iprOl'al ,"xi""-' it. m II!l PIt equiYlllcnl is .uo\bcr po5lilbility whicb .. discul:<ed in chaper J. For ."umpl.,John gao..- ..,t Ihe hal!lf'ld f rot:i~ I"" hat/rotll.ItJhll wOllld be 'KipNiul eq u j,..• Inls. The translato.r needs 10 be open 10 the poiSibi lity thlot tbis will t:Jt, the best lexical eqOJ i ~lI eot inxomo situstions.lkM..,..·cr,!he ' H.iproul IIll1Y M.v<: " difT...rn torU;IO3liv~ mt31ing. B diffcrenl collocational range, or a ~h3:igc OffOCUL for example, in chau&inl; 10 the rK;p r9Clll the: grammatical form is often ehartgod from a<:tiv<: 10 s-oh'e. Ho ....,.,.".. l*si\'e may hl\'e a special function 1>01. i,meoded in the!lCl'JrOe 1m. G4:nnie--llpecifi" word.s l.erlcal equj,'8lCtll$ involving teaU'it or lptlC'ifll' t(t'IIQ is anothc:r por»i bility 1>'1ti<:h ";e u..-.., mcntioocd ....-crnl times and whlcb f;OO be extremely UiCfuI, A 101 has already beo:o sNd abOllt tile CC'...,nc...pccir", ft'lalioruhlp of ..'OCtk. 11t«e are three problem!; in tranSlation .elated to ~eric-spft words (lkoekmPn and Call"", 1974: 185-86F I. Th ~ IOUI"CC 111ll"'V' lui may use Ij!merle ........ bill lIle receptor I... ~e may only ....·c. true .pct.ir.. _ In I!w .arumtie oma; Th ."""re<! longuage lOSeS a .ptdfl. te .... but 11>0 ~pIOr lan" ... se only lou a ,e.uK "on! availabl. in ti'lot .....,..."i. =;ttr 3. Tho repo~. word ll«d in the 1nJI,Iation I. inlc:ndcd to be understood in a ,ellen •• n ••. but is int"'P~ by tho <ecep\Or longuag. speak .... in a . p«iflc •• n~ . ~ '" THE LEXICON (otlowlna idk)lR,ui., f1 gurati\~ t.u:kirJ Equi.-aknts ...~ t lr CONUpn al. S~"m phnIses in fOUl N'lgcri.>n languag<'ll (1'Iida,100l1lre ""'lOS); IH(1II wllh Iwo hMrls _" Wifh rwal~1f ~'$()n RL: Someone in lbe depmtment M<! The moocy. 3. SL; The baby's ~ Wa.'S nV!Ming. RL: Hi e baby's nose was dripping. 1I1/b wilh rwo _hI In the TOiorw: language of Mexico. a word meaning a nw--wtmi.,d 1, u.ed for a hypomle (Nida 1947: 132). lIe . hared bdwttll the soorce and receptor When cor l cep!~ languages, tbe important rule for th I1'amla1or i. to find ' he mO$l '\IItl1rn] and ReCurate way to communicate !he .arne meaning In the receplor bllgUag" CIS was intended by the author in the 5OUJ'I;e langUllge. Thi, ll\lIy mean that I very differ<=m form ",ill be used in onIer 10 insure «Irnct ~ OIl<! ualuoU e;t,prcssioll. £Xi:RCISES - wk:tal [qun"I Lclltli ..... eu Con~s lire SlIvtd A. Below an fWO"cn:lons,!be SOUIce Lmguage (SL)and 11111 ~OI' Ih3t ""'" o-'e. in thl< 1:>I181.111g," (RL). Due/foc .m- PdjU6~ tnlIlSbolioa. J. 51..: Th~ RL: f'eopI~ '" 7. SL: Someone in !be depwtJtlmt "",bezzlfdTlH; money. /ips mil" ....ith rw«l mouth man ",h~ 6. SL: She g/ancm III !be teacher. RL: Sbe looted quickly at the teacller. I{l. 51.: They were suppo,ed 10 rilrg Ihe office alkr nine. RL: They were supposed to telephone the office DIRT nine. B. In each oflhe followingpair<, the SL Is glvm Ulenlily Qnd too RL is an idiomatic English tmrI:';larioo. Describe the odjusmell' II)"d" in tb. Ir~ulation. Hyphen!l in the S L Indicate a single word. (Tbese are no! <or\$e\:Uti,.., sc:n(eno;cs from one text) I . 5 J.., One penon fish-hook Ihrowing-in su"goinS-OOwn hc-"oIo1f:!"lI. RL ~ to WIl5 roo. a maD "bo ""erll d<w.... to the river on. CI-"<:fI.inI\ 2. 5L: Toad bnulhing...,rrafter-lhrowine-him-iWl-"lIler he-left_llIm. RL: He brusftcd the toad off into !he waler and left blnL ...oeaJlhy li\lt ber<:. ..-Ito ~ IDu o{MOI/ey Ii.... here. ). SL: He forg~·abut 2. SL: The....:>{(snatcbcd limn and SC3Itcftd them. RL: The UI"IIg< !lnilftQJ SDilkbcd!ban iIIlIf ~ oe.,b-dcsir·~lt:p them. · iI bouse goWg-up1hal fi-os after-utlna (oad---fIlso ~lng­ person arm'ing he-weot-up-W-hiln. RL He forgO( aboul il md "all up to bi'l h~ . Af\erutillll lbe fiog, be tried to filet p. 1b~ toad Nmed inlo a person """ came up where the man w"' lI)'ln& to 'I~ p. 3. SL: No f_ 'Ittut .... people """'" Iaol night. RJ...; AI/e(m iero people CJlJlX lUI night- 4. SI...: MIllY bo"owto the boo!.: from JIIIOOS. Fo~ quidly fl!;b grabbing_Iou CIlIning-oul he·lald· tbem-doWII. R.L: Fex came up quic];:l~ with a great I1lIIIl)" fl$h .....hich he l~d OIl !be ground. 4. 51-: Rl.; lnmcs l""lfM the book to Mary. S. SL: cVtryb<xly 1$ talking about what Is ~QPp"nig. Rl..: Everybody is Ialklng about Ih~ high e"roln IMeol/ese· (Understood from the <ontQ t) 9. 51.: The boy wa. sitting at thefOQ/ of the stair'. 11.1-: The boy WilS sitting at the boltom oflhl: stain. e~t <U '" TflE LEA7CON Lexiclll Equ;'"flk"u ..~n Fo rm and function trans lator is col\frn~ wIth words in the soun;c lnnguaSc As ~he which have ~ocquj\'alen t in tbe receptor language voeooo lory, bis firil I'I:.\ponslbUlly will be to urxkJ'Sland clearly the nw.IOiI'lg \If lhe word and tile usc: of Lhat wOld or pllJ'1ISC' to. the COOle>;! in u'hkb il <l«un He will ask hirn~Lf; ~What IInl lb~ most impomm meaning cornp<>- oelllS of tbe word or !Druc beln, traosiated? Wlut a u d tor U)'mg lo COOlmUIIH:atc in thai parUculOl' con1U~ j, the original Same1imes me auth<:>r ;I.:onccrned with lite fonn of the THWG or EVENT, bu( scmetlmes the fionaion i ~ more Importam, lbere will also be limes when the IllC<llling oflhe word 1l~fi nO( as in,porulO! as the effect which tlie aU/ber is trying to emt". The nandaror will Want to find a the impol1arll meaning. COOlPOI)(!IU oflbc: word lIfId way to ex~ u phrase; ,hal is. 41", onc:s ","ich are in fOcus in the context . looked at from the pcnpect" '" of THI NGS and EV9.'TS can thc (wm of Lbe llUNG or EVENT, or from the Pl'f"Ipox:Ii\"e of its function , Thb distinction I, v"'Y lmponalll in looking for Lukal equl\'. lcnts. For exampl,~nci htU lite form ofbelna 1ong, poi'lI~d al one CIld, made of wood with graphite in the rnl<.ldle, and usnally Iuwing an ctaS~r at ooe end. But the flllldl .... of~ pencil i~ to "Tile. A quill ...111ch Is used fOf ""rillna would have the UI1>P flladi.... but a very dllft t"tnt form. to desaibiDl the (orm of. dot, " 'e "'(\\lid talk ahruc lIS Jiu. obape. color, koc3lion of eyes, ears, .:te. The faimoDS of. dot!: In some cu!tura ....ouId be hunting aDd parding properly. In 0Ib.er cullures. the (u"~ li Ol' m iglw; be sJrnply 8 ~I to keep om company. Form ha:!i to do with the pbysical "'rects of a particular THING or EV!ONr. but the function has to do wilh lIle significance, the re'1101l for, Of" the purpow of thc TI IlNG or EVF.r.'T. In previous .hIoplers, we h~ soown how an cqun"3lent ll13y be found by SIDling the meaning compooeots ofa word in a d ~crlp;n phrti4l' . For CJWDpIe. island ml"'t be ~ 141m mrroruukd by "w.".. In tOO lnlbWoi of the I"bilippir>c"i, tile natInI u""",,ion for island is small place i" tltt: Ua. One possible way of ftndinS equi'..... lenlS for w,known c"ncep' l~ by Slnt ing lbe mCllIini CQJJlPOIlellI. of the "DUm: IUIguage word. When th i!! is done, a scnerlc wotd plu~ a d<:jcriplivc modification i. used . For cXllmple. the word anchor does not """'UI" in the vocabullU)' of lIIIIt1y Iaoguq~ . The phn.sc> rfuo}' weighed arw:ltor migbt be IlUslaled loto one of these Lan~es with a p~ ruch as lire}' Ii/ted Ilre /reo..,.;,."" _iglr/7 ,lot}' .-d 10 teep (he boal nlll. Or. if roQIe anim:ll slICb as woif"'I!J "'" Icoown in the CUlIDU. die 8~ ; c krm u"ilftQl.od tbe cleso:rlpl"e modJrtcnfie"", Or ...·11d a" d clcg-lite might be u>ed. Thi~ kind of e./jui\"ftlmt ha~ amady bt,en disCUssed in pm-ious chap t ~'!"S . However, 1fl deci din g to use th l ~ "* CUIIUpfS _ V.ol"U)'K·" '" punlcul", IcJnd of equlvalenl, it is very IlIlporll101 Ihat the tnNlaI"r ' Iudy the context 10 SOl! whether the fo rm or Ihe runctio a of tlte leJlk: a] Ilelll I. the foem in Ihe pa,sagc. A descriptive modification "fa generic lenn IIl3Y include a dcscrlpti<.>n or thc IQrm . 11 description of Ihe of both. fu ndilHl, m" a ~ripto Sotnelllnes 11 eanoplrisol. wlll adequaldy carry me IM3Iling . As alrelldy mentioned, Ille fo rm bas 10 do "'illl any feature or charlcrerisLic of 11 IWII& ruclJ as its size, Jhapc. quontity. ooIor, tas.le. tempcn.ture, subsllln«. lind !Ilamal, Of \he vl.lblc "",,'mlWIS of "" e\·rot. The tuftclion .... fm 10 \heslgnlf'l;llIlce of lbenmm or EVENT, Ihal. Is. tile reason for it or iI. purpose, or In SOTn e cases. the usage of the TIUNG. Not every component of the ,ouree language con«:pt will be slgnilicant in the context. "The dncrlptlve modif,cation will not ulllke explicit aU of tile compoomt'l buI &imply those tbIIt art sign! tlC3lIt 10 11K ~ . Ul!dersmnding correspondence of fGr1ll and falleticn i$ crucial 10 finding good lexital equi...al~. (We are IJOI talking about linguiMic form. Il'l disc\lS$ed in chper 1, bur. phYSical fotm.) Thne an! rOUT possi biliti",. First. a TIliNG or EVEN1' In OIIe language and wltun: may bave the s.me furm and lhe same f"n etion in onodter limgu"lle For example. car wilh lh. rll nctlu of /u;{ui"8 is the same In all cuh ..= and lmguages. Second, the form may be the wne but the flinch .." may be difl'w :nt. Bread may be foood in two cultures en<l. word ft)l bffad In both. n",,'e"\<cr, in one cull_ it may be lbe main food. !be nopIe that is eatco 81 e"\"Cry rnQl; ...-hcreas. in anoth.r cullure il m ny be a lpeclal trest IlIXI served ""Iy u dcosert or as a food fOT parti • •. The form Is. Ihe s:.ne but the (""<"1ion Is different. Ina con:~1 like the Lord's Pr~yc: "G ive US lliis .my our daily bread," the WOld brwd with the tunctlo" of"pany food" .... ould not be appropriate. It w(M1l d be bdttr 10tra/lSWe with 11>0 morO ~rie " ..ord fOD(/ 10 av"id • wrong signiflC1lme. A third pouibility is that the same 10/"111 does noI OOCW", but 11DOthc:r THINO Or £vm.T wiih !he same fant1:ioD. doIs 0CClI". rOf tJ(ample. in roe 1:Ul~ . />n!ad DUly be lhc "stafT of life," tIlai is. the ......10 food. In anOlher, u among t!)loy langwtge groo.tpll of tile trop lcnl fO«lSt area. tile "sta ff of li1i!" is ...""ioc. Bread and ...anloc have dlrt.. renl fornll, bul they have lbe , arne 1undlo_ in the m'o cultures. A fowth poHibilll)' i ~ tIlaJ there may be no correspondence 0[ rorm arA r. . etlo. al all. 1l!e "'"" In the ~ lext may ",fer to lotndhins wllich docs DOt ~xist In \he rt:«JlIOT culOlre. rmd \bm) is 00 OIber Item whkh has the II3f1lC fanctloo as Illis Inm had In 1M SCIl.In:e cui",,",. For nample, s,"""p m: rcfened 10 in texts from !.he Middle EaM. In s.omc instanees, ~ep bas I~ fundiott of being a sacrifICe for sill. HowevCT. amung lbe tropical f ~ I1fOUptI "fthe Atnnml., the 1&2 f"~ TUE LEXICON OIIlimal shcep doe. not occur Dor is mere II comparable animal sacr{(= ~il_ The~ i ~ no e<>rre<pondence of c itb.". 1orm or funttjoD. The transialioo wHi nred to use n descriptive phrll'iC fOl both the form and lne function. So far, aU of tbe e~amp l es ha.'c been " fT HINGS in the source language. The correspondence of form and funclion also applies to E;VENTS. For example, ron in i.t:! primary SCIlse has lhe same fonn and meaning ;n all langw.se". The form is /lWving oneself from OM place to anolher by rapid mOvement (If the leg.<. The funcl ion is 10 gel from OIU place /0 anolher in a hurry. Form and fnnef;<Jn are the same ill. all b nguages. The ;)Otian of be(llillg Q'''' 'S cheST has 'he function of showing remorse or repentance: in Jewisb culture. In another, as among the Ofomi of Mcxle<:>, this same fDnu ha~ the fUnction of s h(lw~ anger. The form is the same. the flmcdon differem. The Korku of India have a woro meaning to carr:folly plant g rain in rows; wherem;, $Orne omer b ngWlg<: may ha\'e a word whieh meanS 10 semler gmiN OlW rile [/CUI. [n both C~' , the r.. action I. d,~ """'''. to pkml lhe g . ain = that /I will gmninale, But the form is different_ The two ways of planting are not the Same. There are, h ()\!,'ever. $Orne i'>Ctions which do nol occur ill OIher cul!Ur<li nOr is Ihere any oIher action with the ••me funct ion, F"r example. in some cu1U1res, Ihere is Ih e EVENT of lallOOirlg a person's face a1 a cmain age. and Thc flI nctioa is to sbow that thc pel1lon is now an adult. But Il,ere may be other culUlrts where tal/ooing doe. not occur and there i. no word for it. Also, there is no special event which occ= to indicate thai. perSOIt has become of age. There is no colTtspond<mce of either form or fun d j on of the action UlII()Q. The funclilm of a THING or EVENT is ofton C\I!tum[[y unique and ,mknown to other people.<. If the ror", is retained Without <brilYing Ihe function, wrong meaning may «'SUIt Wheru"'er there is no corresponderJee of fotm orf'u nction, =adjuruncnt wfll beneeded in tlHl tr:mslalion. The lJ1l1ISlaror mll!>l: keep in mind the following two principles: (I) the rorm tOOt a word makes reference to may be subonituted, omitted. d<>s<;rlbed, or otherwise adJusled to avoid wrong. ZCIO. o. obsrure meaning, and (2) ihc funclion that a word makes rd e = to may be made npllcil 10> avald wrong. zero. ar abo;¢u,e m"'llling, The implications af tile .. principles are now discussed in detail and illustrated I><:law , Eq uivale nce by modifying a g eneric "oro We haw already seen in previous chapter<; how il may I><: oecessary to translate by using a generic term and stating Ibe Olber locica} Eqli."I~nt3 whm Concept1l"N! UllknO ..-/I /83 meaning componcots dearly; that i., by paraphr..ing_ When words falUld In tho ~= language do not <>CCUf in Ibe receptorlangulll;e, il may be espectally belpfu[ 10 analyu the source language word to discover its gencic component. the comra<\ive com]X>llents, and the funclion ofthe ward in its oonlcJ;:t Then from this analy.is. an adequate equiw! cnl may be fmmd In the receptor language When a generic ward is to be usOO .. the cquiva[ent lexica[ item, and mooiftcd sa as to carry the COITOCt meMing, tbere _ fam pmsib!e modifications which may be made. Theoe are 1. by making e~pldt 1h< form of the item, 2. by making .~plid' tho f'lmctlon of Ibe item. by makin, explidl holb the (orm and !he functio n, or 4. by modifying v.ith. com_JI'I""'" \0 <OJneTIliNGo>f ~>'ENT v.-h!ch do<>< ~ In ""0 receploc lan~u,ge. The US<> ofa gen<:fic wald 115 a bas<.> for constructing an adequato: equh'oJenl is e~LrCmly useful. Sometimes lb. generic term by itself will b<> rufficiCflt if tbe f<>cus is not on other !1Icanlng romponrnts ar on funcl lon. B~ many Urnes, IJK>re nee& to be added in ard~'T to mak e clear the IorIO or f .. nclio .. , or both. Notice the foU""ing e~ampls which have been used by translators 10 trnSlaI~ words which do> not haY~ oqulvalents in the second language (selected fromikeknian and Callow 1974:1 94-98) MODiFIED WITH FEATURES OF FORM ((he g"'''ic word i$ in italiCS): - I",. of ".luabl. thlng< (Maznhua, M""i«» ....j'" f..,...mod g'"pt: juict (Hopi. USA) ...-iM "rong dTjnk(fri""", Muico) Ire<IJ1ITIl "". illUMe n ", \<Ial~r (Wan\O;1l.. New Guine.) grounddry grajn (Sierr. 0 10011, M."ico) 1/1111 which mJOkes ond i. frogront (If"S'''''. Philippinuj Ii i ~ ~ ~ ;; < 8 ~ ,, ~ I , ~ -; (! I > ~ ~ I , •ti 1 •i , .6 'i ~ ~ r. • i~•• <' fi :; ,J ~ , l ~-5 ]' ~ •• H ,! i~ " • :1 i h to ~ ~ ,l f , ~ I n !1 I t t ! I ! ;; ;..! I ~ ] ii 'i ~.§ oEi'~ .5 e < 1'"' iI ~5 "011 .- ·~l",~ ~:;! :::1.8.l! ~ - «>.~fi1 g~ ~ .~ E. ~.9 ~ 2~" ~'o£!", ~ ~?' ']~I e~i"Q 1~ ~r ~ •• -a'a.- !I •• t ~ :I] i Iii t~I.' ] ..." .. "II.. r-H., ·8 '0 -= ]~'8 Jl. ~g ;1< :.., ;;& ~ .!' , '. ]> g~ i! .' g'1 1" .R iH ~. ' i !H lit . ,• ~V ~ •0 .!'l~ i~ , p -{I ,e 1 I ' ~ ':-5 I 'g.s " il < ..1!~ :<- ' j ~ 7.; ;~. ~.a .< § , :§.e ~ . I:i.s " ~E hi ~ 0 = ""0 I ':;:.; .s" E~j$ . ';j~ "fil~ -l ~ ;.; ~ ,~".:13: .K~" " ~1 . " '! ]0-9.;1 '8 -S"€.Ol ~ ~g ~ ,~ 'a t ~"Ilr5 00- l" &, =~. i£ '! . ~ ~ I• ~ I - i.s !;! _to ~ :l<.s! 1 . ..t p._]o='H.i Ktao~ ~] ;' j ~; 8" -= ],j' l~ ooUl'-Bj, " ~ . '-] ] ~ ' ~ ~ UJj ' i! " "'<>15 'i :i ~Q, .... ~': 8 : "i~.e]16 § ~ ~l ~ ~:2S ~ .S ~ ~" !B~ ]! = u~" ?'g"~1 S'Q ~ ~ ] ]J ~' E "'; b S ~" l ~:l" ~ :g~ .lJ "1l 1i" ,g 3i~ ~ ", i g 'OO1li,i 1l' 3.] <; ._~ ~] .. ; se.;":3Ii~a-!'8 , -- < ~ ;I '3' ~ i :~· ~ - · !li ~ .; -~.- ..., . :"<>,- 0 .. 0 o~ il•~i !'~ u"" t' ._~:s ... 'II ~ at: ~ :< 5§,, - ,< ,, ~ , ; ! ! ! l , I ,~ i • i i] .s .. , !o~3B '-["'-l! .~ ~;_ $'~ • t~ ..•~.",j c ~'lc ~ 1 .J!-S I~ ·- ~ . -~_.o! ! II. nj,.."~ "H ! °t -5 • f~" .. ' - ~ .):i " ~ 1 • ~ ~; J~ :I ,! •, ~'= ~ Il 1 1 ~ ] ] f~ .°• • • ]1 i J • -to h , II ,I ! i ~ ffi ~ ~ ij o. • "~" ~ • I~ , ~ ~ tlI. • • • <§ ~ ~ :I ~ 11 h t~ H • " • "" ~ ~ ~ ] < ~ ~ ~ ~i ~ ~ ], fl o . 0 = j Q' ~ 0 > l [ I , ! ] Ii t i i 1 TilE LEXiCON 192 '" Uxic..( Equiwdelltr wh"n Cot/upts are UnkllO""n foll ow;og li 't (a-o), represent a D. The two paragraph., below (b~ ~sourc language tcx t~ and U SUpp<.l£OO "translalion n oftha! tnt into ~o m e r"cepIOT Iangulige. Certain words and phrases arc italidzed in bolll JWllgroph'l', and in the receptor l angu~e paragraph, the,. is a blank: after "ach italicizod word or phrase. Referring to the list below. put . l.ner in each blank toshow what kind "f trans fer has laken place betwern the source b nguage and the f'e!;qJtOr \angllage at thal poillt For ~"=p l e, i ftl~ particular ilalidzed word or pilIWI<' is an e>;:nnple of a loan word plus a gen<.-ric term, mooified 10 show fornI, then put j in the blanl::. Em,h of the leners will be w;cd atl""SI: once. SOliRC£ LANG UACE: Oall<!, a respect...!, groy-haired rnunog, arose and spoke: "Brothers and sisters, OUr Wlcesior3 canw h= from Kolango, guided by tilt> mUDa&". 1bey plaJU(Cd wifeat and vlncy:mls, and also brougllt in maws and gU/1ll and made pasrw-cJ/ for them. With their 5ic kl ~s tbey harvested the crow, and the wmc valS w"", fulL But, as you !mow. Ihe Duricharch.s have a1~ op~d Ihe munags. and now Ih~ t opposition has developed Into open rebellion. They have r<>fused 10 wcarllle IlInic.o, and they have broken into the l'(Jultt8fid renwvcd the tolem poles, which none but properlyco:msernlled monaS" dare tOllCh So," Oal ifi conlinued, ~my judgmeot i. thai all Duricharchs be fined twenty beshges, and that their !e:mcrs be put injt1i1 for six months:' a. a generic 1C11l1, moxlified by eompariOOll b. B nonli tc'J'!Il equivalent remlerlos of a COtlCept already known in the receptor language RECEPTOR LAr;CUACE, c. a iOilll word with no modificatioo Oa/in ------'----' a ~pectd, "Brolhen a~ d sisters _ d. a culturnl su bsUtute e. a 10m word along with a ge t\~ic term, modified a.< (Q bolh here from Ih form and function grey-hailed munas. arose and ke~po _ our ancielfl grandj ~ counlry ojKckmga _ _ f. a generic Icon, modi fied 3S to function pl an ted grain _ _ g. a generic tenn Wlcd for a specific tenD. without modification ., _ aTh ~rs ' , ~ , guided by Ihe munag.s. They and grapes, and also brought in mabel (0 n'de and 1M'" cow-liJoc animals called geela1 _ _~ and mad. _ _ fot them. Wilh their machete. _ _ pa<1"rt!~ h. a literal equivalem rendering of a concept already known in _ _ they harvested Ihe receptor l:mgu:>ge th~ a generic term. modified as to form U5ed 10 slOrt! w,,,e in _ _ were fulL But, as you know. the grniilllM grl1pe5 ___ and the hole5 in l he gro~nd ....hich Wert! a loan word, along with a generic term, modified as to form Duriclwrch political parfy. compoud ofpeaSI1n13 a~d a lo:m word, modified a, to functIon ovenhrow ojord(r -------' ha,'c always oppose<! the monags. and now a loall word, along with a e<:nerictcnn. modified by compari- thai OPPOSitiOfl has w'eloped i,,(o an '00 m. a generic term, modified a~ 10 both fonn and f ~nctio n. a spedfic term used fo r a gen.eric term, Without modificulion o. a loan word with a classifier refllsed to Wear Ihe fo~g tile places where ml dedir:aled 10 the open rebellion. They ha~'e ~ahi garme= _ __ and they have broken into e; art kept _ _ aoo removed the ontalely- IX'n:ed images called 'wtem }JOb ' _ __ ",blch none but properly con~ated munags dare touch. So ,~ OaHn continued, "my judgment is tbat all Duricharchs be fined twenty sllvu-dollar-liu coilfs _ __ and Ihst lheir leaders be coofmed for six manllls in thcbuiJding ,..her( criminal. an pul _ _ _ " Chapler 17 Special Problems in Finding Lexical Equivalents For eeoch pgrlkular lfWlSluion I1"Ojed, ~ will be: 5 tJ1n~ unique r-obIellls ofk~cuI equh-alence. Ho.... ever, Ihere are aIoo soone UJIIUCrs which Qle likely 10 present ~J1cd aJ problems In any trat' s1;llion. E,"try I./"IIIISlalor i. faced wllh rmding adequt ~ i,"lm !S for !h. key-.wnis !n the soura: CellI. Th.re wiU be: some worm " 'hlcll at rust sean 10 be adequaae C<I ~ iV\lct ts ....hlch w!ll tum CIUllO be/ Ill" pills. TbeJe \l;ill be Ibe problem ofJoso of some mCMi", coUlpunmts IIIwl the goln of oc.hCfI - 1M problem ofkttp1na I OOJ:ww;e be\ ....eo:n ....hicb eompono;nl!i bealo;nc implicit and whi<;b arc made: upliclt . Matlon 111Cb as thc§e will be di5(:USse111n this chaplet". KeY " 'ords Almost ""Y lUI ""hlell or'" miglll wish to 1r1lll.lJ.tc will have some key ,,·vrds. Key WVI',h are words wblel, are u~ eVer and over In the lext and are "...elolIO Iho Ihtmc or topic IIndtr di3cusorion. A tCllt may ha,'& sevc:nl kt")· ..·.."h. The tnMlalor IllU$I. Identify the key ,,'01'<1. and as much 11.1 possible U•• 3 .ingl e receplor lanb'lt:l.ge le:rical item <m each oocurrence of the key w&rd. Kty words are mo5I oflttt word!! "" hich nI~t an --.tbl or btLsl<: COf>UpI o r lhe IlIlIt . lbcy ' " ollal tbematic. Iu the> uanslat.or studlt$ tlIe source te~, he sboul d nOie the 1,:")" word. and glv. spocbl equivalents before bea:inn lnll attention tn finding adc<jualC Jelk:~1 the aetual dnfting proceu For exalllpte, If one i. tralUlalin& an acricllllunol buUctln about Irrigation fOJ a IUl:""ge in which IrrljPlion 11M never been eon · u1tn: . Il1o l e ~i equ.lvnlmu for ployed u a way of doing a gri~ the ","OI"d5 of the .aurcc ~ nll alf:d 10 the p'CJCe6 of IrrigaliOQ ,.,1lI ne-cd 10 be worted on carefully. There will be 8 number of 1ISt4 "'peatcd/y in Ibe source tellt for wh ich leXical equl".Imlll should be dtltTmined ""fon be¥innin& 1M translat;"" of the: = '" •" ~ , 1 • .! ] ~ ~ j J I I ., ~ ~ J , ", " ~., 1• 1• 1 lit •• 1= d I, ~ ~. ~ " .. ! j e i, • • ] ~. ,t ~ , It n "'j ,. ! &. ••! • •I~ 13I, e~! g3 h ~ ~ ~ E 0 ~ r~]'Jli - ~ ~ 5 ~ ""'C' !fo';.: .. '~ o;- ~ ! ":'il il>.;'! ~ ~i.. ;1ij~.B8· ;~ "'l°6 ij~ 1 ~ :; 2 5' 'OI 'o_e,,:r- H~1.' - "' O "B'· - §c~.. ~ ~ "_ ·_';O';;o",.g lIJ!1~ ; ¢:.,!! .sQ "-S .5 R ! 1 t l•• dlt· 1, 1 ,!o -f.s Clg ~ , 1'*~] 8j .:'l'~ ~ 1l:!;t.8 ]·~s,., 9 ""H " ii -r· " .~ <. e&H:. .~! · ·-!: %~g. if.&g i,! -s!i! _ fl ~ ~ .! i ~ .~ - ~ J!I "'11 hd 8':;:';'] ,, fl! ~"E ~ ~ ,! 1]] ~ r g,J iJ H S 'il l1 jQ _':: j •• it: u- ~! ~~ r~ ]i' I ~ Hf :. • ;'~i • ~ ~ 'i ;; It f L If .II , h , 1 I 1~ Ji I Jl xl 11 ~, J~ , ~i .'1 1 ," ,;J ~ Ii .' ~t " .i: 11 '" THE LEXlCON Sp«ifIf ProIJJeHlS;1I Emili"g Wic,,1 Liu" "I'l' word, which ",moo 1"'"" urtJ,e materj~l cUlture are umally not tOO difficulllo tnl,t)Slatc. Socia.l and pollUcaI Il'lat iQllships may be more complkllled. However, lenm which deal with !be ~igQ\l$ MpocIS or. cullin ~ urual1y die most dlfllcull, bod! in malysi~ of the IiOurce vocabul:iry and in finding lhe bc& receptor language equivalent$. The real(l/' ~ thai these words are inbnglble, and many "tlhe practices an:so automatic Ihnr the speako:n: orlbe language an; nol "'I" CQus<:iou, of II .... ,'lIIious asl"""t' of meaning In""'\-oo, Here "sain, it i, ofkn helpful 10 corui<kr words In $MS rather than individually. In lookinc for !he bes: equh"lllent for ptWl. lbe trnnsIlI10t would roruider the whole ,,),Sle:In or relit!iOll$ activity Mdlly 10 march up Ihe fU!'>Clioru: of each pcnoo ",II() hu a religious role In order to find the one thaI "'ould DlCISI closely eq.oatc willi priut. 1\ Illi,lu be neeesruy to make a modi fication of ""me 1:100 to the ..."Old ~ In order to ~ more aCCIJ",Tcand oonvey the same Il)¢IIrting lIS tl~ source lUI word. WMt at finn mi~ t look I ike a ,oodC'i"ivalent, may acmally re~nI 8 pcfS<Jn with. '"eO)' diff....,nl roIc in 1M 'w<> wltures. For """",pie, the fun<:tiOllS ofa Jewish prieJr in (srad arc oot Ihc 1'Olne OS those of " llrahrna prial in India . This would probably oot be too in ~ lexl$. Howe ...:r, i.f impol1:llll In IJ'an<lating "'" word ~ prW.$/ Is a k~y .. on! in the soun:e lexl of . II3O!.h.tioo belDg made from Hebrew Imo a language ofl"dia, care ful attenlion wouM need to be given to the teml used. In Ihe JRVlous chaprcr, tbc: possibility ofllStna: B 10811 w<lrd (a word from another language) wu dlSCU4.SC'<l. This rnay 5Otnel:ime:s need to be for key wo rd.. Loon word. =y be necessary when the", ... great Ikal of diff<.TmCC !let"'em the Iwo o:ultr~. Tb.Js ~ be D$peCioJly "f'P1ic:!.ble for nJch ";o"b lIS the names 0( "'''gll)W; and poIi\lc.1 groups III'Id fQf ,ei i,iou. <>mecs. 1\ is ~. tlUlCli better to use II loon word. IUld moolfy it so as 10 communicate lbetia,lLl meaning. Ihan 10 fry 10 U$C I reuptor \an& .... gc lam .... hlch, a1tho..gh. pa&1ially ",·.rlapping in meaning, bas COOIpone<lU wbicb will ,Ive" vcry m~W!ing , For uamplt, if the word for pritst had ImplIcations o f 5OrCC1)' or Idolatry in !he recep:or lanava,e, it might be: bener 10 II.., the source l...gua&e word lind indicate 10 the cooteXI through rnodif~t lilt: role of Ille source culture p~s l . Somcthnes il is pos.i!:>le 10 use the re<:eptor lanluage tCml and modify 11 to COl'Rct (ad; of ""«peablc equivalence. "UnguagC$ can in new WIY' 10 tltPfC'i' new coocepu 0. 10 H\'oid c(Jmhine Icn~ neg:>tive denOWions and COImoltins~ (Bukman 1980:38). Whenever a 10lIl1 word is used. o r a new combination <Io: .... lol"'d, f()]' a Uy 1"""1, even lilougb the lnn"l or IXlmbinatioll Is: new. it m~ be: com pletely natuml both "maolica!ly MIl gramm:>tically. Thai is, ,wne "'Tons I~ , " '" even Ir the CO>!lCqJ\ I. new, the IlWUl<'r in whkh the wonls are it will be w OlbinN should be completely rotural. O<:ClSioMI~, necessary 10 ..... . rocq>Ior language II:rm wbich j, mis!<lng some <.\c.irabI, compooetll$ or wbkh bas $OIlle con'IpOI>erIU of llIeaning which are not dc!:lrabl•. When this is (rue. the difference in loul meaning will need 10 be cared for by tho! correct!"" inllUCll<;C of Ihe COIltelCt. lbis is prderred 10 1o,," ...-orUs for most kq IH"D~ In lOrn" lexlS.!ben: will be ~tokc u " · onJs ~ which II1C besl kept os loan words. These "rouJd Include 4llCIt th.inis lIS ~ lh e clilnlC(erlsUe ""'ords of a time period thaI dcnoI. a f;lC\ of eNUizBlion. sucb '" the IllIIne of. fashioMbte dress, • oew product or in~ · cnliort. or • ClI"n~ fad" (Ncwma/x 197":71). ~T<> k c n .. o rdJ~ "'" 01\00 IJMSIi ICJtltN in order to rC"lllin II sense of time tn h;"OI)', This is often done in novels and sb<Il1 .. ories. For example. in tnnolatlog Span,"", nowls mto English. words like pla-..Q and I.R often wod 8:S ~ l>ke " ' o rt b ~ 10 give a Spanish fl avor 10 the traos]:"lon . HOWC\'8, words IholJld 1101 usal~ be: transliteral.,.,J In ",11&100 •• pol itKal. or bmorical document,. Nf-"l-': makes the following Sl1&if-SOOll concerning kll'Y w<>rd, (Nc ....mm 1981:U) ""riD ...The awopiate <'qul"a1"",o ror keywords sbO<ll<l be: SCOlpuloul)' repealo:d Ihroggltoul a 1eJ« in • p/lilosophicli lUI; Iheme words are the wrlle,'s main C<Ir!~ Md \elm! ofar!; in Utenvy worb, the styliscic nJRrken I.R Ukely to be an author's chmo:cerlUic woM!: ... iD lIII.d"emsetnalL..1hey may be roIr.en.won"l$ .• . In a \JorI·lilct/ITY text, there is • <;a$tO for lranocfibing M well ... translating any k"Y-"'OI'd fot liDiWsti c siptificanoc. SymboHe word ~ In lMIly texts, there will be: !lOme by ...om whi<;h wi ll acquin: oy..1>o6. \'aI .... The)' <XIIDC (0 I'I>l1Y figul1llh'. or lnc&trDorical m~ani g M w~ 1I as tne basic meaning ofdl<) word, When this OCCut3, It may be necess.ary 10 adjU'lt il in tbe trMslatioo, Ne'AlDW (1981: I 53) >!ales that: In imaginative writins ftli k.y ...... orM acqlJlre symboUcai val"", and becomt poIenliai mcte.pb.nnl a;roundc:d In tbc: culture. Like koy-"'ords In B ted\nology, thc)I ""' 5vdden1)' forced 10 boar figuratv~ lIleaning, When such words are translated lhey IMy ha"e 10 be $Ilpported with M attribute Cll!tural overlap be!wCCII SINIU and unless ilIOn is .. ~g target languzge countries. 2" THE LEXICON Spcc;ill_Probktm i" FimUng 1",.xU"l Eq,.jJl(J/tnlJ Special aIlention need:! to he given to key words which UTe also ,yrnbollc word. >0 thai the me(~pb<>r i ca l Intent of the source text author is 001 obscured "These SYlo bols may be retained in th ~ translation wlthoU! =rificing meaningfulness by giving a i ligh! due 10 the sense lmended of by aocompaoying Lhe imagery with its nonfiguratiw sense" (Beckm:m and Callow 1914 :\36). Religious and political documents are ,'cry likely to have key ter ms which ha~ 'e mme idiomatic fonn. If tb. literal lnmslati"n sounds plausib le. me tran.lmo, may miss a bener rond"ling. For example. the l«era! Iran.lalions tUlml infantry and ",,,r jleet migh t seem all right for English, but the more correct translation would be marines and IIt1vy, respectively. In lransl!lting tuchnical terminology, where many word combinations of this kind oceUI. the trMSlfttor must always be on the alert so Ihal be does not fall ioto the error of a fais. literal translation. sym bolic mean ill;aswell as liteml menning. This may occur in other liternry dOCWllet1tl "" welL and the translator hoods 10 b. <;QllScious "rtllis .ymboli( mUll Ing as be tran~le< ' " as 001 to diminate the symbol by translating ooly with the direct meaning. Word combin ation s and falilt' litual tra nslation In mW! languages. th . ", are grou ps of WOI'ds whicb function in the same way as a single word. for c",amp]e, the French phn..e livre de cia...,,, (literally, "book ofcla,sH) Is "'Iuiva lent to Etlglish le.ubooA. TheRu<.<ian expression for desk is pis 'mennxi s/OI (literally, "wriling tabl e'"). In languages wim a literary history, many ofmose C<)lJlbinalion' come to be entries in me dicliooaJ}' of the language. A glanoo down a pageofan English dictionary will reveal sud entries asminor premise. mint ju.lep. m;tws sign. and h<m<e of repre"'/ltatiws. Eacb phrase consists Of lWO or more word, and may involve various parl' of .peech. Ilene<:. 11""" are oombinatiollS $lICh as miracle play. home loon offICe. pale blue. and lock up. Words also combine to fonn compound!; in mHny languages. A compound is a new word wbieh is created by 'trlnging log_ther simple word<, which are me constiruent parts. There is almost no limilto the kinds of combinations which can be fonned. Some \lXatnples in English are armchair. driWlWOY. horsepower. pickpocl:el. outloo.k. kindhearted. baby5;/Icr, II1!del'1ilkr, and overlak. German and Hungarl"" bave an unn,,,,,l propensiry for comJXlUflding and pUrSue its possibilities a good deal funher than English. The aoove IlI"ntioncd types of word combinations deserve the dosest :rtIenrion by tbe transistor. The meruring of a combination as a whole cannal always be detemlioed by the meaning ofth<: iodhi dual constituent )X\lts, For e)!lllIlple, a translatioo from th ~ French fX""m€ de l€rre would be palmo in English "lid 0"\ the: lileral apple of earth suggested by Ihe French. The Dleaning of lnany word combinations must be learned. as if they were individual ~imp l e wtlrds. For example, a lr"JIlSlation int" English SUited lhat MBtllgoria is D"'" a sYl1Oll)'Ul of Olll" inclu",rial might. a rrmjor center of black melal/wrg)'." This combination is meaningless in English. Iron OJId S1eel industry woold be better. Sometimes a translator may settle for th~ Uloral mmslation of a wotd combination because be d<>cs not know that thore is aDOlher. '" False frie nds One of the major causes of translatIon crror on the lexlc...1 level. whe-n lranslatlng imo relat~d languages, is Ih:It of f. lse rriend •. False frie ndli may be <kfined as word~ in the source language which loot very much like words tn the receptor language because they are cognate wilb them. but in fact mean something diiferent. F"r example, the Spanish word t1$istir is a fabe fr;"n d to the Spanish -English tran,lator because its ",al meaning is te a/lend and nCll 10 Msisl. But to tlSsl.st I. the word ""hleh immediately OOmcs to the mind of the translaTOr when he first hears or r~ads """tir Dut it i:! tbe wrong !neMlng. The Russian word v;zit is a raise friend to a Rus£\an-EngUsh lranslaTO' because il Ieully means official call (as by a dOCTOr or clergyman) IlOthcr tban any ordinary visit. The trlll).lator must be careful not to assume thai because tbe words in Iwo lall2uages look alike Ihey have Ihe same tneanlng. In the development of languages, the meanings will change. S(lme or all of the semantic features of the source language word may be los ~ They may retain ooe .pedal feature or may change m eaning completely. False friend. are most often thought of in terIns of languages which are historically related, But in addjtioo, m"", may be fa lse friend. "" a result of oorrowing. For example. many of the Amer_ Indian langunges of Me ha ..... oonowecl Spanilih woflls but ofieo t he loan word then shifts in meaning from the original Spanish word The Spanish ""ordplaza refers 10 the 10,"1' square. But alnong the Mixes It bas been oorrowffi and rders to any group of people gelfiltg Ii'ings. This Is becaU!;c moot of the selling of goods tak es place in the TOwn square "n market days. In the .. me way, the Cbols have borrowed thc wcrd p<ll;o, wbicb in Spanish r~fes to nn opm C(}~rly"J. [n C ~ o 1. it refers to "pl= for drying cojJu. Th is is because Ihe wealthkT Mexican homes "ftep U!;ed the patio for drying ~olTce. "The t!>lnslator must be careful not to <lSSlIme thaI a loan word bas the sarne meaning as the sarne word in tbe lang uage from which it was oorrowed" (Beekman and Callow 1974:198) xi"" '" TilE L£XJCO,v There Olay abo be some coooeplS in the source 'ext wilich I)toert\ ilar to lite concepu; wh ich are I<.nown in tile rt«pcor ",Jrun;, 1M whkh. 01\ closer u:u:ninalion, may be fomo:! to h3\'e ''erY different funaiollJ or slgnl ticanc:e.. The sprakeR of !be r«~pto bo~ "ill interpRl. these in lithl of thd , ""'"0 culture. and llIe meanin& may bcaJolle distorted. Hen, aglin, the importaJJee of fantl and fIIn.ction comes ilIlo play. The form may be tIM: same, bill i f !he filnctioo It diffeunt , the meaning Dlay be lost ill the 1rallS13tion prooest. For example, II t ...l [ wh ieb lalked about CUllins bronche4 j"roIr! " fa and sJJ'Mding IMm o~ tile roadlO honor an Dppro.1;chin& persoo was eMily to be ~im trnnslatcd InlO n entaln Afrk:an language. CullinK bronchQl aNi ~pre tJdf/ g lhem "" 1M roadw"" a /amili3Cconcept. But in tho African culture, It Wll.'l l.$$OI:inted ""th blQCklflS: Ihe rood to pn111t'"t " " u" ....onlt d perMm /1"(;m appmoclti"$' Hew....·.... in the . ourec text the significance had boc:n 10 itollor and ","'come mmeP,", comins down 1M road. In rite Af.iC8ll I~nguae lrandation, the wisundO<$boding Wl1! tinnily ""meted b)' $fIyintl pal", broncha and lndi01lt blg tbe furn:lioo. Implieilllnd u:plk it eompoDen b of meaD ing ThrougIJOI.II Ihcsc cMplcrs <l<I lexical cqai,·a1ern. it has bcc:ornc dear 1Iw 11:0. IQlcaI Il ~ " nf t/oe \lOlQ""Ce t..>guoge .. ldonI mootcb euctly II:o c te;cieal irCQU nfthc mcepUl1 lang1.18gO\. II would :oeem tlw then: i. more: ml:lmatch thm matcb. Hew. l lIt,~ is it p<)Sllble In tr.lrulial O 81 ttll? Tbe lIIl$\Oo'er CO\llCS in ~ fact that it i$ noI the word that i. be;", Ull1,sllliOd. bul the l,ot,,1 muuill!: nf Ibe wu. d. in cumbillllilon . Tllln 1$ " 'hy, aft .... having ~se.d lMical Uiuivalenl!, We have only begun In dlseun tn...,lation. The nO:XI pIIrt oflhl t luI will deal with larg.... unlt9-Comblnatl<lfls of words into clauses, SCI'lenees, pow,lg<uph l. and lexlS. In d i $c u ~' lng cla u lc~ and sentences, Ibe mauer of ImpU.it IIIld uplidl In10'"lltioli will come into fOCUll agai n and apin. BIJI it i. aliilO Important to m~lin, befOOl! leaving our cmphasb on lexisane cootponcnla of cal lIems, that In the trmIslahon meaning of !he: $()Uf"I;e leltl wl U 00 looger be expll<lt IIIId lOIlle compoIM!"l\l$ whleh a:e 1101 nplicir in doe ~ Int will be made uplicit in the tnII1S!adoo. TIo is i§: becawc of the YU"j nMIIrn of languages. Ca!.eg~ irw:luded in "arious !OeIP3IlIK- lets will be diffem:;1. SOll.e wilt be obligatory in me Ian~ IlIld dift"en.rn otlflS obl igatory III nnotI>eI". In ord.". \0 fond an eq U ;YaJ ~ l t IU io;a.l item, u'c lran.blOl" lIUIy need to mab rompooenlS of mt'DlliIlg uplidl whic:h m Implicil in tho) 1KIurc<: doc\Jmm t. Therc will a lw~ys be some: Iou and some gain of meaning. No two l1lJlguage ,ys!e",., mlltch eXllClly. ..-ocess. Spn;wl Pro bl "lIt~ in Fi"di"lJ Lu/to/ l;"quiWlwnfS 10 .~ Howr:ve:r, a ,,,,,"da!Of, woo desires to CQlnmUllicale III<' same Infonnalkm ru; found in lbe SOIItcC tut, will CQR\I: close to I'QCttIng hi$ goal by ~ oonscanl. ""'arwess of !be d.l fm :'nC~ he!v.'em. languages by • card'W analysis of tile $OOGC !eXI n~ boIb refcrr:nlial and sitUlUIonJ,I, """ by choosing ooIy n:IIllrat and dear fo rms in the r6CrptOr language tnlmllllio:m. EXERCISES - Spttlal Problem. In FII,dlng Luk,,1 &j uint,"lS A. Find three s\Ioflarticies. olle In J m a.ga>;ine. onewhich is a chapter in a boote, nod 'lne In a ncwspoper.ldentllY t he key word. of the articl e. 1I0w wight tbese key "orlh be trumbled in a language which you .peak, 'lther tlian English? B. In each cfthe foUowinl!: lr<IIl<l.tJoru; Into f.nl!JIs.h. th.., I!alici:l.ed words have been translated lih<rnily and H,ay or may nOl be idiomatic Of correct. Evaluate the ItaJlcil'.ed ,,·oul:< ... ~atiO5. Improve tbffll if you c:m, Ilibstituling ,,"Ords and, if t1I:CCSSary. ch:snlinC e.rammatieal otrucrures. I. The agrarian reform ~.:oIled land. fDr 1 ~ dUlrWuJion of the 2. 1101. WII$ IIIf./ilfor drintilfg wille, . 3. l..e1 u< late • look into the fuTUrt. Tbe)'C-ll j, 1980. VilooM. the immonal oo.:.utiful t>don ~n en t ofS nfill, Bulgaria, has boon made Imo 2 national park with numerous hoi$/..J. four bares. hOlel s, and n:sUlurant •... 4. In 1961 Galati $Iatted OOildiuS n "",obel- of com pletely new micm-di$,ricts. We WCOl 10 _ one of thml, Tig l ina, noted for the wide use of ind\l.strud build,,,, methods .... Two )'eaJ1 after IOOIIwuctlou bcptn, QTIC 18,000 families wert Jlr=ly 1I" mg here. And aIIolhe:r $ucb ...JcrrHIuirlcl, T iglina 2, is goina up nrarby. <=" of the following 1fIIn!lllllions from Frencb into Erogtido, C. In the l!8lici=:! words han be<:n traoalllled li ~n.U y and may Of inay not be idiomatic Of CQITOCt. Evaluare Lhe ttalic:i.tcd words ft.'I 1fflIli'lllkln!!, in each ease, compariDg tIlftD with \'anOUSnl1cmative a"xu the best tmrulltions whJch are given III P"«'nl~KtS. 1rans1allon. Improve them i(you eM, substi1111iug words, and. if neccuary, changing grtIInT1U'lll",,1 str\\elW"". T PROPOSlnONA L STRUCTURE Prop'Millo"" S<.'Jllanlic un!! CP1lSisting of concepcs, Qne of which is central and way. For example. the proposition John hit Peter might be l1:1!1slated into Eugligh "ilb any oflbe foUowing forms, depending on the oontext in which il OCCUrs '" the others dirt<:lly "'\ntcd in the central concept. For example, the concept' JOHN, PETER, and HIT may be combined to form propos;tion •. The action HIT is t h~ central EVENT concept. What !he pro[>OsitioD communicates will depmd ()f] the relntion.hip of the other two conocpts to flIT. If JOHN does the hitting and PETER is the one who was HIT, lllen the prop<.>:'I ilion would be John hi! P~ler. If JOHN was the QIl<O who was nIT, the pl'<l»Ositloli would b<'! P~Mr hil Jahn. Even tII ough the difference In English is signaled by order, In the semantic structure, the order Is unim portant The important !.bing is that w e know wbleh oonceplS combine to form the p .... position and the relations between the concepls. Th.re are many ways in which the semantic structure ofa proposition can be symboliled for e~amp1c, a formula like the following might be used to . how the difference betWOOll a ~ Ilg~D:'ot the two proJM>S;II"n J above. n t:JOn .. atthity:lIIT. affc<1ed:Peter or ... aecivif),H1T...ffH lfl1:Jo!m In the first example. JOHN has an ageDt rdalion t<l I:IIT; whemlS. in the =nd, JOHN is the affected and PETER is the agent. l l ,e CJfoo. in the semantic structure is IJ()( important but the relations {a!:"n!, affr«cdj are. Some i:lllb'llagos will hmd to encode Ihe agwt firsl, Qlhers will tend to pW it atlhe end, after the adivity. In the grammar. the semantlc a ~ Dt is mom oilen expressed as lhe suhject of the scruenCe. On( knows who hit whom in English by the word order in tlJc grammar. Otha language, will ha'-e the opposite order, and perhaps nddi1 ion.11 mar!; ~ ~ to ind~ale the ~gflt and the .ff«It'{!. Fo,example, a nllmber of languages would lise the order John PCle~ hll when JOHN i" the lIj!eol. [n order to talk about semantic structure. it 1. necessary to choose a form fo r writing propositions. Since 1h is lext book is in English, we wHl arbitrarily cboose the DOnnal English f<lnn (0 indicate tbe ptOpoJltloru:. In more technical matelial, fonnulas could be used. The Engli"11 f<llTIls a... simply a way of displaying the lnfonnation. The tran>lalor must choose Ibe naluml forms of the r«er«>r language in the IfIlD, IBtion and not IClUlSlate I'rop.nllions literally. Anyone propositi<ln may be encoded in vMious ways in a given language. The translator will look for t~e best way; (he m<lst nalural '" Job" hir Pe,.,... Peler '"'' hill:ry Johll The hilling of Fela by JolUt. Pela', who ,,'", hi! by JOM .. .. PeUty, 1M OI!e John hit.... -~ -' Wbic.h grammatical fonn is used In (he trnn:slruion will depend on tlte relaHon that Ibe propos ition has !<l other prop<l<itions and how the receptor Jomguage (in this case English) will most nalllrnlly exiT"Ss tbe p ropositions and the relations belw""" them. be desc. ibed aJ; a <. manticu nit co>n<isl_ A 1.ropo.ilion. (hen. m~y ing of coocept:s (TliINGS, EV!1)'1,'TS, ATIRlDUfESj In which <Inc coneePl i~ crntml and the other{s) related to it through a ~ystem of RELATIONS. If the central concept i. an EVENT concept. then (he propoJilion is an ~VtD P roposition ; if the centralcoocep! is a THING <lr ATTRIBUTE, then the prolM'Sllion is a State Proposition (Seel . mnn. Callow. nnd Kopesec 198/:52). This difference will be di!cus""d after the method for identifYing prof1Oslt!n~ within a te;t( is discussed. I d e ntiryiltg C\'ent propositions IdentifYing e"eol proposhlons begin. by dassirying the COn cepts that are represented by the lexical item, in tile lUI. For i~ firm nn ruyzcd by do:termining exrunple, me following ~ntec whkb words represent EVENT concept<. which represent THING concepts, and ",bich represen t ATTRIBUTE and RELATION cooc<:pts. E 1h de.1rucIi~ EA T ofthe dry WtlS piG"ne" -...:11. TI.en, Ihe grrummtical ..,ntenee can be re-expressed in proPOSiliotlS with the EVENTS 1IS the center of Ibe proposiliops. There are (wo EVEh'TS. deslro)'and piaJ! . 'J"M two proposlt10n. ere: " 1. 1• , ., J {li~ .: ~ .:s§ f.. l~ 11 ]" m.- l I. 1 .~ 1 1 f ti ~ d ~ " 1 it ." I ,,, " .! ~ • 'E' ~ " ~ . • ·n. · i II ~ I ~ ~ ~ ~l! n' 3 :~ " ~ H' ": f ~ . - l' . .! ; i' - "~ ~ ": ",..I!£,.. ~ qr < '~.;! :! ", '1 " 1 ~ 'iO ~J .... ·2' 1i B! - · . :l;~! i ~ ~ ~:; 0 .. . f: g " ~ . a.!l ._ . ., 1; ~ '. !. I! !~H 't., I- ,I I 'i. "' =: ~ ~ ~ ~ji J ~ §s ;.: ~ n:; Y ~·il ->. ~ e o:< Q,-s iP ~t ' - "' '1: U.- ] ," .· .: .! . .!i -S . ,g ;93-J8~1f P'- · i.r' Ii <_ '= E 1 ~ ~ ~~ g Il ' . ~ ~ "~i "v:t~ s~ !o]"-" ~ _ ~! .~ jO , pO>l ., "~ • •• ! ~8 j ! ' !~ I~ ~ ~ .,e:'~;Q " " i ~ -:3 'I. I!= • ;J Hi I. U ' ~,; w i ' i" ]" '~Dlse" '):, lI ~ l3 -= :< - ~1fil <> S ..ls§~=-. .. J! ...... 1S..o .. ..-< ....- ct .. iHl ~ 2 ~ !. l fl 8~ ]. ~ :n< ic~ • .. t§e ;~ 0 1 ".'Q, t"~i·- :·"· " !i .g ,, '. "!j' - ·'= .l 0 ::: 2",• __ g !!Z"'!i ~ . l ~ r S g ~ ~ , -o i e'il ..t H t ..f, ~] ~ iPt~ li". ~ 1 :l il~ " :;~tJ!1 ,- ~ ~ ~ ~ ""!< 1l J1 ';:j .. "", 0 8 B~ ~f · =Z g g b O I~ - ~0-. - . "" o r' ·'~! J l l~i [ I:' . ", ~ ~ · ~r ~iJt' "" 1:: - " : . :5 >. - ~ ;- ~ ts. i· .. I~"" J,i .g- ~ "·H~ I ~~1 8 ~ vi °:SF,.~ ~ 8.g§ J~ I · : '8 s] , 1S. ·~ a. "' "'" .!~ oo .. j C J!B~ ..0: . ~ -"' ., ..c ... .. '" ' I~ " · S g " " :3 ,-~ " "' .' , . :~ 0 !i l. i ~ [.=i l 8. l : ~ ~o.!:; ~ i .. l!~ [ ~ ! [3 .e~ -£ >' _tl"•~J! ..~"s. " ~- .~ 5~<iu _ . -.8 i I'~8c j JS.8£~'» " .. ~i •~ ~, ~i9(l. l! ,!J J jll ·1~¥,I !~] -. ~H >~ •< ~ ~ i~·s ~.8I>s ~g- ai~- ~ . ~ J l ~ ;e !~ I ~ ,;.c~& J:l ~ ¢: l!I l~ " ~ ~]S -f: .- .. ... ~ ~ ~=",] a ~ - i5~ ~ '; .2' ~ •• ' ~ •• ~ ~ =, "• ~ "-.:~ .1 0 ."i .~ ~ I "• "• •~ § ~6 >8 _ ·o;, <; .!!ie -5 <"' c.8e. " ~~ .,~-2 I 1t l •-, ~ _ •• ~g 1 2 -...~i ! • ~ ~ ]-[] .= ~.E ~ if ~ 05-~ ~" ~ }.i ~5 g~ '!" ~lI.!:i -% 0 _ ~ u~ ~·- ." ,g ••! i! i ~,, l! • • ., :;, ~_ ' li ~ g ••• ,•, • .t '"! ; §8,0.., ~ . ~]i" 05 ,~ -5~ <> ,cf: ..sit .... ;-£, ---..,.~. 5! ~e. ~ ~ g J:!i ~a ;-·g ] .c8i: J: "'t ·~ ' ' i~-5 - '" ~B ~5o ~ ~C!b F *e= ,~ e ~i .... .5 :s . -.!:t 9 .. ~' ,..--, '] · !·I "I:l .. ~! 'O. ~- J _ !~otl]iE ! ~ ~ .g.. ,.,°6 ~.;:j=8t' - ~ ! •• ~'oQ" ~ ~ ~ ~ - · "'1 l i~·'~I "'_l s.g,~ 1 ~lJi ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ .. ~ ~! ..,.Il h;~ ~ O .. J:~·i.8 " ~ ~ ~ .~ ~ .- _ ,So)!= .': !i ·il1 .. ·... 8]!!_ ~ , ] _ p.• :! l'] ~ .s ~ smil 1 e~ ~ ~ i:d ~l d 1- 1 ~ ~ 1 ~ ," I .' .. ~ • "~c ~ f ti..., ,, fE ~ 1! • ! -< ,~ ~l' ii .'. fH Hj ~ .~ :.o;"S !. B' , " < ,[0 I, "I fi " j Hl H _. it iU '! !j, ~ , ~';l ~.l J! ! } i j! ,; I j •e , • " ~ , .g 1e • ;]~ 'jFi.! IlL . ... ~li! ·2 .sl~ ~ ,h - 'i .! c ~e c '" _ •• 5 -I. ~ !~ V ~l> r' ,g!~"l t"H~ ~ ~§ t E~ = ~i ~~ p~ ~ 1 & ~ t: ~ ~I3s "'tl ~ .o( ,!5 ~ ;~ 211 '-. < ;a ~ g- i l_l . " ... '" .. .. ~ ofl-0 ~ ~ .- g i .. 1U! c : ~ ~S .'.. ~ ' "~ £'; .. ... £= ~ .2 .. - '~ ... 8. "E. ~§ " " ~ :1 - .. :;: .. i~1 ' -r ~ c. ~ .:; "" I i rqp; ".-8 if ;e." ] . '"/5 ' o-a .. ~ c ~ ~ e E·_ :l-.2 tig"§ . .. ll ,,'i "' s '~. ;: IO- :se: .,1. ':>' n"= .""Pf'!ii' e - ~l i;l j .:~-; t tl1~ li J : ! : ! ~ i~ f ~W ~i!h ~ l~] ZU"i ._ e. . 1~ u L<! ,. . "d~ ~!. ~ ... 10- l~ "" ~ -7.. 'otcJ_ !ii ~ t !-'c ..~i ,.~ ~ 101 ,. .. . ~ H ' • ~8.'; ~ § .:=.s!OlJj ~ '0 91 ..:! IO- ~ .. " .- I iH~!·j · .!~ h·h· ·;:i ~i i~ ~E'H f ef~ ; = ~" ~ ~ j~ ~ti . ~ ~ 1 ~ 11 ~!l s ~2c .iI' '" Q. .! 1U PROPOSJ110NAL STRUCTURE L <.. , p<IfitMOd-r."N 2. do, rido l" '~ PrupositW", m IUtOC-<>Wll<T hi..-....ne 3. diru:lor l!I.-~oeMr_n<» John t.o...-in 0Ia)'S 5. loIuI bi,-;J 4. lbex same propoutklnl ..ould be expressed .,.-llh 1M fol lowing in OImnl of Mexlco, and Gahulu of P apUa New Guinea (dala from Rlclwd Blight aOO Elli. Deible!): '" The referenli.lll ""'anlng i. tbesamc, but the usage i, d,lTerall for each proposItion. Both E~rnld Stale Propositions may ~wilb any of these thm: ,ilUalional meanings. These ....~ oftmcalJ.d the il!oell l;".a.,' forotf!S (>frt.e propositi.,... In writing proposilionl. simple English &eI1Ienoo: and Engllsb word order, and plU'lCl\Wion may be \ISed t(t IndlcllI! tin, Ulotullou ry rorce oflbc propolitloai u ,,'X doo.e above. 11l1(lnlOl;Oll ofi"" 'odic.l.,.. illox .. t>Ooary fonf in onol EoiIish. N_ Ihe follO'Nir1t! exampI",,; SIruC{\Ife$ 1. This i. my cor, 2. Dog ~il .. "",«i tho !''do. 2. Dog ",,,uo-(,",,.. -do'~"k.) Fidl>-'" ..... ""t. Jolla hY... !bere iR tho IrooIt$&. bill tho jollA. J. Tho .erna:\lie ~ruc My..;., .. ,,,•. I. l . 0; ........ b.... IJ·...-roed!he ~. SIiIIO ~Ii" G,I.[JUIW OTO.Ilf l. O' ........ ..". D1P!n .. <losure- onarkerj Mr. )OI>O, 4. lU"C, 5.ldor~ Joha~_.;lsure-mIc ""_-Il .." .. -he. ...) is-bc. or Vo'in& a ~lItMN . The propoIili«I "web is d;"grammed below i. Ihe same for eaeh of these Ihre8lW1ges: .ae...L. JIIT_ ...rr«leol._.1IAU. JoIu! Illt doc 1:&11. Qu.,rico~: 00 Joo o hi' lhe wll1 Commud: Jolon. hit tho ball! 1l1e dc>$ il in (You) run fJill! E,..", CpoccssJ prop<><iIion whidl DId !he milt liour'! E,·... I (e.o.pai<lOCc) proposiIioQ W. be:R dlc:-.ncI. stll"" ) "' niftl,!9 of propositions SifUlllionlli me~ So fur, ,WI h a~ been di5CUs~ Ihe . erue n!ia l ".calliIIK of tI,e proposltlnn. SuI" proposillons al so must be looted at rrom r~ point of vicw of Ihe "tution in "'hieh they an used. Whnl is Ib.. anlhor ( ~ peakg") try11li [0 do with the proposi!ioo? Whal Is lbc autbor'$ purpnse1 TlIc autb« uuoy be: ...Jdng 0 q"ut;o~ O. wakiQa • 1f1l11:_fIl. lOID<... '"t bam . SIIILc prop<>Oition whicll SIal",,· 1:_.,,1 (1<'llc nJ pr-opoo;li<>n "'hicll commalld" "hidl WI is, the propoJitioD. remain! the SIU"M, Hd"crutial .. ~.n1"S' YOI' b. "... byl Is Mot')' your ,;!II.r? ~-". but each lllttgua&" w!ll express Ihe p .... position "'ilh dlffercUi Ij.I1IoIn_ "'''Ileal fonos. St.tmoeat, v.1licb <OIll",.atIl" San. p:opo<iti"" ",hleh '1Aost;"." In lite grammar of """ue langUSS<l$, tile UloClI\o)na.,. fone is 0110"'11 by wotd order. i~ othen by speda! panicles, .lfIXes, 0( word,. TIle Illocut ionary force I. often eu~ by m!>Od. Each proposition I. eitller a STATEMEI'T. a QUESTION. 0< a COMMAND. Thi$ will be reprelented in the tranllallon by the Mtural fonus of the receptor IMsn_ge. A propos ition ha:I (01)' referential menning until the IH DC ulon~r J' (01"<:. i. added. No real communioario .. can be Cllnied 011 without tIIis .itualioro1 meaniua bcinl/lnduded al ... d . It Is po$lible 10 mow the coocepu which m!lO;c up a )ll"opo- slt10n and llleir relation [0 one anolhcr and Iilill not knnw what the . pcako:r mearJ$. Fot" example, we might Il.a,'. the EVENT eat. the "QF ~ ~T I~', and th>: AffECTED /Ta",,/e bo..I stin n()( know whal the spuhr means. llIll= ..... know ",hetoo he is auerting ,. f.." (The /iV' lite 1M tTowkr) or asking • qUC$tion ({)id Ik rige, ~I 1M lI"II,ele?j. lbe itlfent of Ihe .~er In .'lIOylng $OIDtdti" g ;' . therefore. pari of tbe communicatiOll.. SooI.etlmes the HlMutio ....,. rn~ II stated by \he ' peake•. IJl.'JIMd nf sImply laying. "Go!" as • command, l ptrlIOIl might iIIIy, '"] command ~ fa go!"' In this ""'Iemo. IOC Illoxulln.u ry foree Is actually staled by I COfltlMltd. Noti"" tho rollowl"S: j I ! I I ]ji ,.. ;J ~ ....: i ¥ .. $,.., Chapler 19 Case Roles within Event Propositions PropOSiti""" arc combirJ.'Vion. of concopts, lIS WO 1uI,'c noted In !lIe preccdlng chapter. The conlbinal ioo ii slgnificant ~calSe die ~pcs are lUliled by $peC\lII rdatioQ:$. They ue .. unit. A grollp of C(JnCepIS utake$ IIj) I proposl!1on. 10 E'"<SIt Propcl$illons, !he nliNG """ ATrn.I BlJrE concept. I N! relaWd to Ih crntrn] EVEI-7 ooncrpc by relation, which 3re often ClUed u .' " ... Ies. In SW~ IToposltloru: thete ~ "' l ~ rd' lloGs ....h ich rela!~ a TIlING 10 anod!er THING or ~ THING to an A111'UStrn::. Rdllti<lRll found within E\"CIlI I'roposItJons will be d.iscll=d fo.rst. """ 111(:n those found wUllin Selle Propositions. Cne rok. defint'd I. The It:en1 iJ th~rnlNO wbic~ doc~ or th~ object which I, the doer of tile in the following propoUtiom: lhe ~VE"'T. ilCon;tha is, tbeperSO<l The _gent i.4 ill italics John ,." fl$t. .Jt:JM read til< book. 1he ilea- }mlp«l 11 .. ~"<l' 0\"01" the f<Jl«- flowed .",ltll). Tho d"lr ate tI>e mc;lI.. A. CIIII be Seen in the abo... e .,.,amplcs (when there l'I 00 mismalch of5<>1Wd ics and 8J1IIDllIar), the Igell! II encoded as the subject oriM S<!nt~". The _gent C~ ocellrs when tile EVENT i. an ";(1 01}. rttud. jumpt:d over. flo .... illld tu l """ act;oos R,~. 2. The u lln r mlY 5tQ1l very much like 1!:tD.t It first. The difT""",cc Is that tile U ilier i.o lheTIill"O wbich Insdgatu the EVEJ<.'T TltJ"" thao ilCIuaUy doing It. A person or obje<:! caust$ lID ~ion or pcoeeu to b:;tppeo. Th .....1IS(:r is also mcOOo:d as subject of !be ~1l 22' PROPOSITIONAL STRUCTURE sentence when there is no skewing boetween grammar and semanlics Note the following in which the ca user i. in italics: I'uer made Mary cry. (Pele, TIu! pol~ ~ MOly 10 cry,) strengthened lIle h ildini. (The p>le caused the building to boron>< strong..-.) John made Pder leave. (John cau>ed Perer 10 lem:..) MalaTia kiUe<! h .... (M:llo.ria c.used her to die.) Cas.. "'" Pedro nah ~'" klnaJi. CaQ,o·o!lam o you Peter MK you ,aid-It. You c""oed Pet... ro be shamed by what you ...id r..... i< the ... u•• , and Pe"'-', in thl. CMt. I. the arr<ded. i,e" he become ashamed ex~mpl", : Tho &.g At< the "",at The tr« fell "" tile Iwuse The buue' melted The waler e"oporoted Mary smelled the omoke. JaM bec.me sad. TOM ••w the mate m Jobn ""let Ihe ""'" for .friend. Mary bou;h! ~ present foo: r"", Jane .''''. the flow .... to Elizabeth. i~ in dose 5. The acco mpailiment is tk lHlNG whiell partic assoclatioo with the agoo.i, causer. or affected in au EVENT. It is like II lttOnll ary .gellt. cnnr, or ulrect .... Note the following exnmples In which acoomp.nlment is in italics: 1oho "'en! (0 the park wllh hi:! dog The ice cream melted .tong with Ihc hutu, (the i<:e cream and also (he bun", melted). _1JiiOgO hi ina "" i,..,icI: MK moI"-, his. 1. lbe Mf ected i , the THINO that undergoes the EVENT or i, affe.led by the EVENT. The aJTected refers 10 the one who experiences an EVENT or the person or object wM.h undergoe, the EVENT, that i., "fnls the dted or' fl. The dfl'ded i, in italic, in the following wiI/,;" 1,,,,,,,1 PrOpo.'iIi(JfM 4. Th e beneroclafl' is the TIflNG that is advantaged Of disadvan_ taged by the EVENT, The benel1da'1' is not affected os dtre<;tly as the Illfcc1 ed. For eXllmple. in (he proposition Mary gaw I~ boot If) her mOlher Is the btnerlCiny . molMr, the book is the aftecled and "e~ Note the follOWing e1Ul1Jlples in which the ~ ndlary is in italics: p<l11Vll14.. .., .lruJn all PalfiJaMim la Pi<:.."..you oo-thal you""awe-to--<oow MK Jobo III,! PI<:as< in form (lit. you""oose·hlm·!o-koow) John th'" his moth .. [. sid. II",. again. Y"~ i. the uu •• r and Joho i, (he a rr..,ttd ' When then: is no skewing between semantics ""d gnmltn.ar, the affected is encoded as the <>i>jecl of the verb when the EVENT is an lIelroD. v,'hen the EVENT is IlIl expet"ience or procc,s, il is encoded as the rubft!cl of the grammallcal.sentence in EngIloh N<>Iice also {he following eU1l1ples of tl u ~er from Kiangan lfug"" (Philippin .... dam fr(lffi Richard Hohulin). (The ,10" "MK~ Stands for marker, The font! marks nOun" fo. certain syntactic information not crucial in these examples.): .. ]mpabai. Ro~. 1 ato dinner with mywik. ~ fori< w", on the table "'iln the *"if~ and SjI()()n Wil}, is a oonunon grnmmatic,,1 marker for """"""tnniment in l';nglish gromm •. 6. The re.ultUI is Ihm which is produced bytne EVENT, There is always a dose rdationship betw ... n doe EVEI\'T and the .."",han! For example, SOIne languages have Similar fo rms for The a<1ioo and the I"flllttalll '" In ~ang a SOil", howse·mlMk a hor"u,/enced ajeJ1ce, de. Note the following proPOSiTions In whleb Ibe ~" U anl is In italics and is tbe result of the EVENT , Mary sang o/Wn: ~ boy. ran 0 r~ The ",telie", fougb t a ht:rtk. They playoo 'game. - Cas, Rilles "";,101" Ewnt PROPOSITIONAL STRUCTURE 112 Whi.'fl there II no d:ewing berw ...... g.r:uwnar and rcu lla nt is "lICC)<\e(! lIS Ihe object ofthe verb, scm~ tics, Ih" John prnyod I hh th~ I'roptMi,~ LQ God. aid: .piMlll>efo""', 7. The i.s lnu.." nl is the THING used 10 carry 0111 an EVE/I.'T. It is usually an Inanimate object. Note !be followtrlg ~:mIplC& in which Peter IbClO' "'" rod<", Ib.fo..,. po4 !be lnltrulDCfl l ia in italics: J<>ho Iiaogh"d Mary wrcle M"')' CO\-~!he wilb. h.ffo.. ohild ,",lib 11>/4nk1d. 11)(> ... o(truen widen«lllllo Jalul ......" rood ""ltIl a bul~r. J ..... ""nod 31 the piclw. "'1Ih her fl~ . furocTions. 3. The locattou i. the T1UI'Kl whicb idcnliflcs the IplttW pIacc:'neIll of an FVEroIT. Ihal II, Ihe IOUIee, !he pllIU of, or the deslinaTion Of llll EVErn". Nollee the follC>Wing examples In whicb the lotatio .. i. in italics: 10 coIl<ge IIIF«.....,h .go. They ...iR co.... at u.- "·dod-,,. r"""""",,·lh. _ ..ill ...1nc. Soo" """'<OtIC will com. for u.s. I I. The ,"unn is IbequaliflCalionof the 1o"VEN'J". It ;$Ihc manner itt .... hith the ACTION, EXPERI IiOCE. or PROCIlSS """ turied out:. "'()I.e tM IOU""'1ng examples In whicb the ma n n", is in halics: The m." run quiddy. ~ butler melted ~ John "'.-- !be len ... r-frdy. Jane 0'lII Po'ay fr., ... ""-- TIle baby ~ new in from Chkl!f(C. The "'001 POICr w.lk«l 'b"""llb the p.vt. .r..py grl>li"olly. "ew ,..,pidly. 12. ilK: /2IUJure is lAc: qlWlllflC31ioo oIlhe EVE.·...,.. /'I!ollce the follOWing examples in which mtuue i. in ilalltl: Mary alttycd in the IJoo<H. J_ ..·.. II!() the .1",",- h Is abo poMiblc to divide Ionliu. and be moll: 'pcdflc as \(t ",helber It It the ;ouroc 10000ion, the <kscInaIion mc.tioa. or the 1000ion at whicb an event i' (lCCurring. tl uwC\ler, for our I""J'C"ItS in Ihis Ie. ~t , we )",,'f I'll! them togeth",. as loutlet n, ~. The goal is IhenUNG towards which an w on Is dit'tCIed. For ,,-,ample.. in the proposition hultol t he arrows allM l:Jrgel. 1M Q17fJ'In ,,_ld be the afJ«ted and 1M llUftCl !he Coal e:wnplr;s in wMel! lhe co.l ts III Italic", f't:tu. He! moth« "Iy«l for r/lr« ..uk.. Willi i$. COIlIm"" ~I.al markar for Innl'llmeDI in ~;,h IV"'Ilmor. NQ(J oe In number S above thlll It Is aho Ihe fotm tJ>Od 10 indicate :Kcom p lni nlut. Tbe one fonl'l, with, bas 1'010 scnulRtic Jolm lit 10. The lime ldenlifies tbe Tt mpoml placement of 1M EVI'~l T .lt td b wbell Ibe IlVE~'T took pl4U. Or it may indi,ate tb, dunUon of !be EVENT. Nole the following e.l'.3lnples in ...hich lime isllt italics: with " pene/I. )o/m Cullbc ... ~ m N~ Ihc.it ad;!itiOQll] Jan. ~ ' f~q"ildy. They W\dmcd me road by MNy foci. ",. com Iuod grown ltn~ fll(-M.. Skewin g betwee n c\'enl propo5itio n s a nd grammatical rornu In all of the examples given above, Enili$h ,m1enca In wbich the JCntcnce i, cquallo the semantic proposition are used. That IS,!he m m PRQPOSJT10.lVAL STR UCTURE Cuu Role$ wi,hin £ ""nI I'ropos;riollS agent is the subj e ~t "fthe sootlID:C, tbe a«:ompaaimcnt OCCllJ'S OIl the object of the preposition with, nnd the location occur. a. the object of the preposirion from. in. and through. But as we have poimcd OUI Whidt form is chosen for English. il lUSlIatoo abo".; will depend on the COIlteX( In which the projXlsition is t..ing encoded, The poinl Ihal is Important here is to understand thai there are s,,..cral fonns which encode th. same pfOpositioo Now looking al il fwm anOfltcr poinl of view. languages will also sometimes have one fo m , whieb is used (0 encode seveml caSot roles. . the following (examples from Frantz 1%8:22) Notice, for ~ample ill which (he preposilion wilh Ii used: before, there is a great deal of skewing between form and meaning in any language. In addilio;>!l, the forms whkh eooroc the same meaning nre different for different languages, $.0 there is a dou ble problem for Ihe trnnslalox - the skewing betwc<''11 form and meaning in the s(mrce language Bud the differem skewing between the form and meaning of the reo:eptor langllfige. In analyzing the source langullge. the trallslator i. straightening out the skewing in tha t langtJagc. But once he has oone this ond has a semantic analysis, he is faced "'ith the job of reconstructing in the receptor language, and thai im'oJ"". again incorporating skewing betwcen tbe meaning ODd f<lnn by using the skewing which Is characteristic or the receptor ~ lIgua!:e . which will probably n<>I be tile same as Ihat of the sourc~ lang""S'" We look now at some examples of the kin ds of skewing that occnr. For example. one case TOI<: may be encoded in several ways in the source lnngnage. depending on lhe wnlexl. and in. sewrnl ways III tbe receptor language , The fonns mayor may nO! match. Ihe banana is For exampk. Ihe agenl in Ihe proposition Pelu al~ Pc"". Nolice Ihe different way. in which the "gelll is rncodoo in Ihe following: Sh bjed: p.,.,. OL>j ect of " !'Cpo,ilio. by.- The b<mana ",as eat"" by Peler. Th. e:diog ofm. b<in""a by Peler.. P~IB •\ l odllitr' Sbbjt<l iu ... t ~ ti " t The above t ~ amp eating of th. banana .. . '~ Tho banana which Pel", ate .. . <tau"" l os aI. the bon." •. show !hat Ih. proposition may be trn:odcd in different form, and. therefore. t he IIllcnl will be encoded by oc<:urring in dlffetcnt gt"Jmmatica.I positioru;. This ;. IJ'U<l of all oflhe nI.., roles presented atMwe. Notice that banana. which is the a ffecled in the proposition, also is encoded ill U <'arie\y of ways' Objed, 1'<0;..- ate the S.bjw: Tho ban""" WItS ealc:n by Potor. Tho banana which Petor ole. .. Obj."" orIh. prcQS i ti~n : The .~ I jn g Pet.".'s eOl bano"". ofth. banana by l'eIa.,. of !ne 00mma i n~ 1. I Ole i« cr<am ",,';th my""""". 2. I Ole i« c«om w;lh my wife. 3. I ate i« ere"", ",,;/h my pie. In this e.xample. the wCtI'd ""itk is u,ed 10 signal thru different . RELATIONS. In the fi ts!.. with signals ihat myspaoll is the jll. tr .. m~nl It tells wbat Was used to do Ille ealing. In the second, with 'igruIl. :licrompanlmu t (lfthe a ge nt, It iudiCMCS lhat my wife ate ice C"",m IIlso. at the same time and place as I did, Le .• J was accompanied by ice cream. In tlw third, with signal. Ihatpie my Wife, and we bo!h al~ is an a f ~ ~ted and that the pie was accompa nie d by ice cream. 11'31 Is . T ate pie. and witb II I also ale ice cream. And . 0 we .oc thai one ease role may be encoded by seve",l fonn IIl"Y ~ used to encode several case roles. It forms. and that ~ i . this c()IlIplexity in languages that makes trnnslation a complicated from the task. The skewing of the source language will be dif~rem skewing of the receptor language. This cau..s double compl icalion as rnentioncJ ~fore. It is Impossible in this book to give examples of all tile pos;>;it>ilities Or even mention them . But an awareness of this skewing should alen Ihe tnmslator to be ready for multiple etlcoding of the semantic &tructure and, the reverse. multiple meanings of grammatical forms. One of the reasOnS why literal translation. do nol communicate is that g.in The skewing in the ~oun;e 1ltcy keep the sour« Inngll8ge ~ k"w language will not rlUItch the skewing (lfthe receptor Innguage. This i. w hy it is helpful 10 think of the ""'nanlic Slructure (the uleaning) rather lhan the grammar ( forms) as one t rnu;late ~ . For example. the tluu sentences above, whic h contain "'ilh encoding different meaning<, would be tnln,lated by Ihree different f<lnns in most other languages. In Aguaruna (Peru). ( ~ e forms would be: J. t Ice cre.lt1-{objecl marker) "'Y"JX><>!l'(in>trulnem marker) j .al • . 2. My-wonum-{aecomp:tnIm",,1 morter) ice crnom· (objeC\ marl<..-) I-.te 3. Pi."", cr • • m-{objeC1 marker)_.I.., I-Ole. ~g '6-a.~ ~ ~ '" < ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ " ; ~ · f~ ... I: tI ~ E ~ .g i :5.c: .!: ~ ~ g~ i~t ':~ i ~§5.1! j- ~"' l ~ -3~Si£ ... E~]'!.J1 ~ 'i a_" ~e ] .. .. :l:l .. -= ,s .....co f "::: II~ l! ~ ] ' = ~iE2 O ~ 9 , e rs:a§ !'.: !. - ~ " < .o:ii " " . gt -M co il ; .e[ E e-~ ~ "~!i't- ::- .=0;; .~ - " ~ i ~ ~!: 5 ~ t ; ~ § .. :E;,]~ ~'a." g ~"'-= -g !i' '<: :<; ~!l .I1 :; ~i 1§:5;~ -<:8 _= .. :;S f" ® ~fil .;,a~tf - ] 1:: ....£g - il' ~hlU ,g t ~ ~ ~ " .a. • ll -i"! t.:; t: 'El~-= , -~!i I ~ { ~ .... .- ® .::: ]8.9 = u -S1 ~ ~.s1 1 ~ ~," i " . "'1"1' i;(l!'~ .: ..t tl ::l ..... .- !:I~ ~B "~-=.8 .x ; -5t) >1_ 't: ~!lj I'l ,;! '- E"_.51= "1~tl 1: ~,O.5 ~ 1r~!:>l ~ ! ~ ~ ,,1' 1 ~ ~ -i ~; ~ t :.8'* .IlO.s J!il>-g ~ 2i j ... a tl - " lg-. ' " :S 1t !n":l~d u H'!~I r-:; .; .Jr,~o .., ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~Iitl a2: ~ :~-i lI~!·r:g1 0:1 01 Oi .... ;; .. " ...... -5="":''; f2~ q.; § ~!- -.< {H!~ -'ri"~f~ "!§h a ' .] ~j a '.. "~ ! ..!!g.DJ!~ ... .• 0.. . i!i! ~ l! ., ' ;: =- ti ~ .. t!! "§. ' ~! .. ,- 'r .!: t'! ~E e ,.Os ~' _03 '~ ~ - _ • ,,il.,~ iJ: c: ~ !i-" .- :0 !L. "" E , " .- ~ -', f . iH "~.: ] :;' ~e l o l g: ~Unm ~ .gJ!B .. -~.f i g_'o~t" .~ " a 11."''= ~ '3c tll5., "''' .= •, !, dj • -, -" i , ., h ~ 1! • 1• H -' .,~ I .~ ~ .. 01' .''. .~ ! ~ i .1 1 .1.. ] F = i Jl ~ l, ~;' . ~ d _ 1l'v ~ ~ 't ~ .~ ~ <l! ~f q .;, ~ .~:> 5 ~" 'a'a' 88 ] ~! ], ~ E8.!'~< H o , ~ .,~· ~ ::I : ~.. .. ~,:.sl<:{)"i5.!-M~ < ] .. l .!c:.., .. ':;, ; H~'!d s., !~2h'olK_ · i:_~ li~ .. .§ . .. ~' ~.f; ~ .z8=!~"'-; ! '.!~iR jl II ><:al! ... ""a,M'.. tS E'6 ~lS:;i.s '<:-" .. i;l ' - ' i3 j~.,! -.. _ " ~lo " . =; ' j" .. ~ M ~. ·"1 ' .. -I -l! ...... :; B~ '"' _.~c E i"c o ~;§g ",:g :::.l&-;;1e .=: ' i • ~.5 '" ;~: ~~: ~Jl ". OP!"" ~l" ,-~ g,h;L !,~ 'C B ;'!1n; ' ;-~: - .. ~&.x:; " "S lO~.!;S:8&g] P'C-!~{i.l_ .sil.s-= ..,>.':: c:~ " ~ • l ]!- ~ ~ !~r.HU'l ~ >'i ,!·Li h ~ , .< l! !"'~i ,cp .. -, - ,flii'h -6 'o-; " !1=·d~ .~ _ .. -· ~ g-=i~_=~. i ~ ' §~ ji :i2 511 il "'_ ~ 5] 8. S';:: .". .5~ "~li o'fil~ . ~l;: t,2'2 w~.W!;l 1. ~ j:;a: ~-.; ....aj___ ~-5 .•/ 1! di ~ -=1;:: ['"=" .a · = : ",j~ . !3-2';i1g<" !:l~gi. = ,8"0 ""'j! .... c:" W!li IHHH '!!a<"J d "; " ::r. ]-il ... _ O~ 1l' j< !~'oli2 :l.J2 ~§-5 ~ .-.8::: .. -", ,&~ . - ;::t"!! ,,, 0:= e =g> <>".".!l ... 1~@B;!:_ _ .. :-@-'§ ~ .i ::;:; ~ · ~1l'8.e§ ~jJ < ~o_ '£ e:. . ~;1 " . :-5S!u • -\l ~ ~ ~ ~ , .H' u ~ It 1:.:.3 ~ .~ 7; h· l ~ ~i I' ! H , !! , .' J' to 11. il 11 • ,., ~ t ! ! ~ N " • ti if " !...r. is. " f 11 .;J! H , ~.! ~ - ~ .~ lI! l~ ~.s' ~ ~< • ~$ 11 ~ ~ .!! It H ~ ., ~ A.i~' if >- fl'i LJ .1l :H l-z Ii u f i~ .; Ji!. t']1~nl, ~ .~! ~ !! ~ ~ ." '. ]>-.z:~_ ,-"lEn.:: ri~ . I ~ if • '"" H i! ~ ,,''f .!~ I'-::ii·i ~"iHP1 • .! .r f , .< ifH I .~ .. .; d t n I! "~! ,. Hi~ ~ h II h ~j ~ :t" -1 :af I!~ • i r 11 d ! d H, , { t1 U·I f :u-~ II .. .. L"~ .. , 81~ ; r~h f?~ · §l~ G;1.s,sR .!~i <> .51::!!\i r! ~-E tt "" ' ~ ~ I~ y ql·~"[ u<>"tl S ..!. ~-; 'gig-§- ,~ 58. ~';inhl! :9]~ ~i~ .5 -5 .. .~ oS'" "-5 2·rJ: - ~ ,1,- t~. ·-::] w<:::' . ,,!>. " .,-!! l • ,"C IC l!:li;>--!!j .. .. ! 'E ~ ~i- := ~ ~] Il=~ -::Ji Ts ...: . . . ::: :i m PROPOSI TIONA L STRUCTURE "'w 10 nm/ugh<.< to Go..., Roles wil"i,. EL¥'" Proposirio",' rip ,<>Ok Ihree da)". Ilefi Wawa,,,, a.d wen( up ri= 10 TUn/up. There J ."wlol. (}f~opk ",/tom 1 hrui """'" ~ beJon me peoi~ tMn mid ,ltall ,<""ll:eir reloli ..... J "'m A / V/;fl. 1hii ""i,E7'" tj.r,hll "'Y w; ami I jtaylng ,J.., ... ,with them. 17uy gaw '" tau () "food an<! t",,/< <an ofmy wife. They drank IclS ojm<lmoc didn 'I arin/; fl. m B Rcv.'rite the following propositions wilh as many grammalicM structures as you CUll lhink of in English. Then write them in which you speak in !IS many f= ~s yot! can MOIher l angu~ in thar language L John ale the apple. When "" had jiur.,hed visit'''g. we rY:l..,."eJ ""'"",, killing a deer on !k ""Y- f w". happy 10 b.; Itom~ . 2. The little boy ran away 3. John saw the big blaek horse. R. My "'-ifoand f '" ~isj, we~' in /h< r" ..· ~ ofTuntulf£lau. W~ lefi "'" 4. The butter melted "'''-'n whICh " cali" Wa_'m. "",nt up ,;wr, unp"'8 th_ H",u "" tlu! W4)'. a>td arriwd In Tu~., W" saw many peopM whom "" had not Ju1l previou<ly. very !taPfY $/aring tM~ with /h~ people of r~Ig",. "JMy said IMt _ a", fflQt!""'. "JMy ,oak go-ad can of"'y '"iJ~ a,od g~ '" bOlh lou offood. Thq ~I"es dn>"j; a /"1 "f ",on'<>e W~ bu~. we", ""I "'Y Aft",. 'lfe~ a..a I did. ~)cin ""i;",& """ !"",,.,,d i ~ 'he drinking. S. hne sang a WIlg. c. What proJX>Sitiom are included In the meilning of each of lhe following? M""'- OM Ih,. WD)' " " - I killed" My walch is from SWitzerland. d_. I arriwa back 1M W""";,,, wryAappy 2. My watch i£ from Scm. My walth is from my Dad. K."XERCISES - Rdalion. wllhio Enol Propru ition. A. What i, the case role of the word which is italicized in lbe following? D. How would you 1ranslate each oflhe _I""" .. in a language whleh yo" ,peak, other than English? E. In each of the following sen!~ identify the semantic role of the if.alkized words as agelll, affected, or ~nefldar}·. I . Mo.ry likes fried bananas. I. She heal/he carper. 2 John opo.ned the door "'ith a by. 2. fir.. dish broke 3. hl(r 4. Jane s!Ulg a $008 for h€~ mother. S. Jane ex=ins twicf:" Jay. 6 Jan e SIlJI!! Mory >ang for Tom. the Car in Ihe garage. wa~hed 3 SOMg for her mother. 8. Peler went witll John. 9. Ll!ler he will com~ 4. Pr:tcr wn>hed hunied!y s. Th~ Cm"pC1 6. I re«ived back. 10. John opened lhe door quickly. has been beaten. leller. 0 7. Jane made 7. The candymelled C. above. into lre~f a dress. 8. Paul boughl 0 Datsun. F. Translate the Aguarona text eaUed Trip It> Thnl1lgkus given at Ibe end of Ibis chapter, into a language other tlum English. Use tile natural granunalical forrru; ofthal181lguage. Cboose those form~ ..... hich ..... iIl must clearly oommunicate the content of (be story Chapter 20 Relations within State Propositions In chapler J 8, we dcfiood and i11ustmtcd Stille ProposiTions. State Propositions do nOl bave lin EVENT concept as me o;enlra1 concept Ralher. they eonsI" of THINGS and ATIR1B1"I1U; whieb nre ~Jated tilt ()M to the Qlher by variOU'l s t .t ~ rdatiou ,. Eoilim U5<'S fom~ of d", verbo>bc and hG"" W upress m.... y Ilatc rtlatlo.... Other looguages 11$1 affilln or spocioJ l e~j cal items. In analyzl", Ih. JoUrce 1eXI, it is helpful 10 11M: lnInSIaIor W idtntl/y It.. il ~lt rellllG.i can:full)l since they are M' lilody 10 be tnmlaled inLO anotI.eo- \aniuat..... ill , a literal form of tbe vab be or M~. For exanpl ... In F.nglisb, one ")'I Job is i1t tlr« " - whm !be ~Ial ion belWeQ] JqM and """'" Is localioo. But In .....UUUM. !be ' ·ert. is could JJOI be used. rill ..... tile ,'m ....h ich means //whuIywould be ascd. """ the for", ""Ollid bcJoJ... iIowe-in SlD}"- Be. in Agu:tnIIlII would be lIS"" o nly 10",f"' 10 1Qa/\lma1e DbjecIS. The purpose of this chapier i~ 10 acqu:tlDt the 'NdMI .... ilh the vllrious shU ,..,Ialions and point 0111 JOme of Ih. 5kewlna betwotrJ StaI"e Proposition. and Ihe granunaltcal fom,s wblch encode tJM.'U\. (MOllY Oflhe eXllmp]cs in thi s chapter arc fn:on ~' ..mjlli ]977 ,) State rdalion, defined A Sl.IlIe Proposllion con,iOU of lWo rolln V.rtl and Ibe relations \>e(w e ~n Ihftn. Tbcse TWO pam arc the lopic "lid the (o ..,n, .. nl. The 10pic: is the THlN<J or A1iRIBlfT'E beinS talked aboul The ("",nllllni Is wballs bein8 uld about the topic. A number ofutllllpies are givtJI io Display 20. 1. Notice !hal ~ topic €onctIplls given in thI: tint column. IIIe ,dan.", Ct>tINpt .. the ..,.;ond, and 1M roInment €Oltupf io !he !bird. An EogIisb SIlrba:: fmm tefn'Smting (be propositioo is iI\"oo .. \be fourth column. For !he \A1l$11UOJ". the importllnt lhi", 10 mo<:mber k that " State Propositioll$ will be ""'Y nrIl'ordlng of fonns ~ IttIpful in fmding Ihe ~ Ir.In<hllion I'qIlJ\"aleru bealu$C il will make up/kit the rfJ3t ion between tin topic IIlId the ronlmcat. For example. the [ollo"'J", all have the ""me gDll1ll1atlcal foon In F..ngll.h ; (bat Is, '" •~ ~l ~t!lP ~ :nll!;" , J J • ~ ~ ~ ~H I! u.~ ~ "~ •"8 - !WH 1jiqHt·.!U,;~l> ~!'a ~ 0 .~f till ~ ~ d~ E .i ~H :~] ~! 1 ~ 1. JH~ h~ n~ ~ it ! -,;, H !' d ,. •• ~ 1 I;: ~i ! .~ Q ~ ~ '1 ... 0 .. .. i o· ~ ;:~ ~; ~ ~ ~ ; , g .. t 1 •, i i J1 PI · f ~ i t PH 1111 , i • I I '..- 'Ii ! ! ~ J , i ! ~ ~ ~ i: I f •• ] d I H 1! ~ l ~ , ~diH j i" ·- 3 t D i" "to ~ "t. .~; ,"ii'S • r' ,- ! II Ii" -.-~I .!!I! ! ! .s, -. :H. ••• .!- I i h • it ! ,I eI "! I ~1 ~ ~ f,;; .!: ' il l " 6..li.!. .:l .s.!. ~ r! ! ~~ • iJ~] •• • H a ~ IJ ,E ...• , ~ g •"< ~ c 0 0 ~ -i~ ~ • !1 h " 0" N ::: .~" ,s" l! __ J~:; Jl.! ~o Jl :I: .!.! -;: .! ' f =~ r!" ~h8 ~1! §:; ~f !j~" . ijJl~" B • 1 '!"i~ ; - n.pi .. :S.§~i !'1 • !11 ~i-"· ri. if'; i! ·i 10 :!l sa ,, ,~ ·"' ' 1S . ~ 00 p ... ~ . O!, ~ s ~1 ~ , oS ":; . ] °H _ l!! o!~ .. .10 .!'s~ '-=8 '0 ~! ~ (' ==... .. l5ij.l!- ·§.'3:=!t! a . .a_ _ J!: ~c ·f • !'i" ",uS .. ~':; 8 h~ ~r _'! j' c= c~ 1 ]gS.!3~ J!!"' i"'' i !i ·1 - ]t! 15 .... ~l 01.., ! d 1'1 ""::O ~il ," :; 11 .g: ~ ... j.s »8';;-1:1 J ~ ~ ;$1j~ tlo:::!! " ••• &.9~ i i ~!-, ~ ~ "1 l I ~ .s: j ~ · i · !l ~ < .. . s:£.. Q! -!;5If S~b ip~] :"-I i i:~ . -! H!~ , - -1 '" ~' l! ::i .. •! ""~~-' i £~ -g<:::""""'§ !i"~ l -';oi Q. ~ .! " H •= orE'. I] o i.f T- j. ~ ~l l j ~ .!I .rio t <>= 2 - Is·e; .s ~ .!!jj ... :::> ~ \1 _ _ I. :8- g:It! g3", .~ ":! .E.I ~.!'r 1$'8.gs~ .=::'8 e ~ 2;'8'" ~: E 5 ~JiBI< f~ H ~ c ~ ._._ t: fa ~-=; u~ : .~ . ~ . ~. , .~ .Ii ~ ~ i:;·~ .~ ~t • 0 I if7 H ~ .g ~ ~M .h 0;; ~hEi'l § 1:E " ! i. 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"1 •• ~5 ;: ~i ,. i~ .:t= .:t!f ._ :ij_~"';! 0 ~! 12 Il!~ ·pi!<~ O's 0 ~ij""< ~ H ._;;; <]", ~ -~ I= ~; . :;!J " ~ 0 Z 1.; '" .. : ~ ;, -~ g~l,;':<in i "1="2 " \.Ll ~j ;:~ .,9 '0 . • .~ ill ~1 '!- . ,8 _I i~ '.I~ ~t " o -.£ci ~ ]ii !-~ ! ~ !li:); ~= ~;i :is <'" ::f: .s ~'p 1"~ .!1"~<'o § ~ , B E"-5.!f~ ~ .;;;c ;!. ~ ~ .. ,g ~2 i!t1<£tl - ...::ll!:! ~ e~ ~ ,· ~?.8 h n· ~'m " ]~;i ,- " .. tJ - .8g8:<~.c -" '.l!l ;::~ "ii'.s ~ <~S]"i ;~1 ~" ]~,- i ~·.! . ~§ !';l~i ~ ~ ~;:da 0 . g':;~il ;;; Illl ! , j 1 0::O"'§-~ i= ,<>J::ij !"-"e,&=-e '":E ..<! '0-.. g ::I< ... ,s5!l "'''oS""'j .. ~ ~ ! ~ e Si!iiiclii . :~ ...~ t.~- ~ ';i1j; " " " l !& I:.]J~ ~IH'ol ;; <: ~-5 • ,;; u i~_ 11 01 =.:! 'i!olSE~ e_ <'I • . _ ' : "".'- • 0 ;iI: C UJ Rt/.lio", witll',. Sfi:lt! I'ROPOSITIONAL STRUCTURE Smten<:fl 2 ~gJ" with the EVE.'IT SEE b\II does not Ind!CO'Itc; in the Aguanmu who does the seeing. The EVEI'ITS WALK. MAKE NOISE. and HEAR aU lack .~ nb a.I well. D ~< play 20.2 fR$en1i a SIIJ!iCSfcd lis!; of LIllO prop:rsillow oc:cwring III tIM! texl grwptd by the Scnlcnce in " 'hicb lheyoccur.lflhe propos ition jsaState Proposilion, Ibm !he reiatiOll ill indicated 00 [he right. h o ~ ,il(J IJ UJ n.. owl I•• bird. It I. ~ bi! bini. POOIlk do no! .... ,...:10 w11m In.:y .re "<lIking ..... un<! in !he "" /IDle. The,. _ tJ.ro\ at nlY'" They 0100 hear them when lbey I>00I. lb . ....1 io .. ..,.ty bhd ond ,..". pI~ I, li,-........"" Of ft den", WOD<lIt .... nn. in_I>, ~d ~ h lou big eyU. II has a ar<: opa;u..i _ beat. A"" iIS 2. Th. owl I• • I... ge bird whicll ill IICOn only,.1 night p~< harthom 1. featb." hoci bUl I.loon _ tbem. Sbt. PI'Oj>OOiIioo L The owl I. . bin! ..... i<;h II bi~ 2. _II (People)"" - ..bon ~peol) walk " ,ile (iI) i.,,;sh' rim. lh<oplo) " - 1>01.. .. hen (owl) nw.\:'.,. m<)j.., ~o"' ~. l l ul;, n1 1s;:f:1>' ....lch (_-bc:>ulifi.".. ..... Ith 1< "'" ( .... deoorated) Owls lIyc in OIVO' --Owls II", Ii•• in woods ..ru,h an: d<me 5. Owls ..l ..... 'T11ey .... "Sly ldd plain ia ~ d.amfj, • ....., .-. tn.teou.. :tn:I ~trOdIC. . <IotstriptWn <l<> !lOt ... owl. VI-hon t ople) ..~I ' ... lie (n) to day tm~ (I'eo!~.) R.bo ll.. ,,- doa ifi•• ti.. "_riptioa d_ ripM" dacriptllHl m...ru. 6. Eye> aro big eyel .r~ part of owl Beok 10 <I.IrV{d 8cak I. pI'ItI "r 0,.,[ F....... In!~ foalh<n O<e port of owl III\d speekled f<al!.ers. They ~vc L'{ERClSES - R.:hotiolll " 'id, ,n SII It. fTopostrions A. Roruming 10 !he (ex. jllSl ~od o:ach proposllion into a 1"lIu~ge <"'-<¥ •• p"rmin DisP/"l ;10. 1 The Aguarma ttlt oould be tran.dated into fIIglisb In a nwnber o( waYI. If it was to be read by childr&ll. ooc form might be us.ed; if it w= for a 5ci~Lltf magazino, n differenl style .,':oold be w;erl. The in fonnniion would be the same, but Ihe fonns would be: ,jilfuetlt bec:auH of the audience.. Noou d ~ folio...·kJ& two tnorlSlortlonll from Aguaruna into EDgIbb. The lim mlgbl occur Ill. boot foroew readers aud the IiCWIld in I mOre iI<h..n«d book. Ilbaul lhe owl.. font ~Ie you spc<lk CItb.,. th otl Engti..n. Thfn. uiing these proposilions. rewriteiniC) llIc naturaJ i11ll11111lltical forms of the Iquage. Fino! U'rite to n . cy lf Ihal would be ..joyed by {hildml. Then mmtelbc iI3IlloC iofCJl"Tll.llion 11'1 11 ..yle suitable for .dull$.. Do 001 tmfl!:13Ie frotn the English l n n~b ,k>ru bui rather frtJUllbe iem3/l!ic suucture (propositions) relation ...1Ikh tlSSOI:ial<::s Ihe twc words in imlics B. What i. the ~!31e in """h c fll .. fol tllWing: E>;ample: dncritti .... po rth ,'" ddcripli.. partitiv. wilt. bi& 0)" ..... """,cd bcK, in ca'·.,. or in dmoe """"" and eM ~ broncJr o f a rrtt a branch is pan <1f o I. A dog is lUIaninral. 2. A pel", is • kind of ~. J. 101m Uml.nr. is my 4. 101m is /all. 5. TIle mon Is JtlCkson. 6. n.e car Is; ,,·Mte. 7. B hot.r~ of /)rick S. Bglass of mille 9. the IN CJN.or:' $tU<kn1 10. the vil~ 1C!wJoI ~ (partnivc) I I r- I I I .s~ ! ~I , ". ; i j •• '. ill ", H .",, ; ,e, H " ! E% £ ~ j "S! ] -! ~ " ,Hi j , , " Im~n , .' !! 5 ~g ~ .~ I' " -- ", ~ :. ! .. ~ ,.t 1 ~L •...i ~! III ! ! ~i ~ ~, < ~' ' f b ! ~ - " ~ ~"i '0- i! .i,~ ,.; ~ ~ j~ L'1 ~ .= ~! .; £- • ~ t .~ " ...: ~i ,~ ~ ~ dOl~ ~i 1. [n -=~ 3: oS IlDi .; ~ lilA:: ~ ~j' :ti:l!j e ~ H .' .~ _)I :l! H~ d 'I I. L' -- , i!"-~I .~ "j •• j ~ hog .8~§!:£ 8 .!! If H1'U .., E:<; , H~ ~, , ~ ~ EI'" i'l ill!.. i! i ~hI 'i,·,h .. . ., i" .. " " ~" k ,, .g g :q t;J'o ~ ~ ~ . n ,,;::,-5 ...: j T'"' 'i ~ ., iI . Oil . i' ,=1 ,, - ;.-I" !". .... ~ -" -" h.... -' ~ ~ M ~ ~ . l5~t:i!9.E ,~. :: "~2 E~ -£ il- Ii .11" jHl;.€i. _ . 5.;:~ ~ S-.; S.§ .!r:.a:: _ "a..!:: S ~U .::< ]-.s;:~_ ~6= ~.5 tl1~= ..; "' .:g~ 'R ;-0 e!l.§'-. ,: ~dr HI ~il -!-l.a z.s,§~ .8.= <.. ....-- .!!! 1~ ~ 'o- "':,.,;"; S t.. - ~ u-= !d ~ ". ~ :g ~-;ol Bll .. ~ ~tli"f ~h ! ' -'j :;t1' -< ~ ij -- t; oi ..2 tl " ""!i.s l .,• !It Il e ]" .s :J!..il !h M "'.8 I .~ ~ ~<'iE '" I'ropo",'tio,,/d SlrHct",.., flIId C/Jut~ PROPO.';JTfONAL STRUCTURE Btcam;e of the vcry wid<: range of different mcanlB ~ which can be ~ p rcsn ! ed by a genlliVc <on.tn.dion. spoclol ~ must be taken by the InInSllllor \0 idet\lify the rn.emins .,flhe SOlIrI:e le~t. SOllie of the Implicit infortnMion mil)' be nttd«il(l adequately IJ"Amlatc rotC! the rca:plDT .~ Om:o lite meooing i ~ ldentlfl«l, then nslural fOl'll1'l oftbe r«epIor \angIIIIgt shoold be used in Ike trmtslatiOll- NoIiex tile follmfing. smlcoce In which a pU:!Iln conslrutlon, a ~nlh 'e COIUtrucll6n, 1\ fClnllnetion, and ~Il'f lnd nou s all PIIII('",'" occur within one smtfllCC ~ ~ 4 t~ ~tr "W fC>'tOled by hiJ ~1fI 1O hl< ,,",pit W(l,I" M.'CIl~dn is pBSIilvll. noe AGEJ"f' of l"tW!aled Is tile leader. Resllllcd actively, the $t!ll.COCc ",wid read 1M lroder IYW>~d his /XIIIU"" TheCOltCU1toftht /j>1JIkr I•• eenllivc .... n$l.r_lo" meaning 1M kQdu ...... conot:mtJdfor (Ihe ~plc). The: ~c p/Ir.>'Ie hir JXOpie stands for rke peopk ....,.,. he INd<. The word CON:t!!nr i. an absmct IIOUIl. II :illl/1Ih for IIIl EVENT. The word I~ litands for a PERSON and liVENT, \,e .• ,he _ who kods. and g!/ls slll!>O:b for an E\'E:'oT and some llUNGS, i.c~ g<f"" (JIOMelltu.s). The &mtcoce io; "';t1~\ propo<ilion< below. NClicc that in writ~ the ~itons, !he pIIS.'Iivc constnlCtion.. the genlti.., tOIlIlrIl«lon, !he: possessive plrrasc, and tiLe ab.stnIC! noUII" I>Jl) all el imiMIcd '11"y Me J;lllu unat icai devices ofth" """roe loxt but oot p:>rt a fthe semMlic stnIcture, ( S o _) lead. tb.o people. f b; ~ _"thJ~ sentmce$ an "I~ Ioto I seoood ~ WhIch you know. Did you lise: 0, a 1_lvlO coosUUCIion r<l' tIM: tnn;I;otloo? ArlO bod! lIC«pb~? I. Peter Will lll"m'1M. 2 TIle lerte'!" was wrilfen quicl:Jy by John. 3. It WlIs rcJlQl"t.d that h. was at hom•. 4. The lion WIkS tillod. S. Two llamtf Wetl! SUf,geSIOO by tbe commill ...... 6. The rnsiOOnl "ill bI' I(,,'e(! for hili &entwility. B. Each of the following is an adj, ·, t OIl $ l rlCo~. R~ Tito the smtmccl Ullin, a PL',,;,.., rorm in &llliioh. Thou translare the sentences Inlo ~ ~ language wh.iclr you kno" ... Did )·ou me an acti\'~ or ~ paur.'. constmction fo, the translotlon? liboth art (lOJlible, whicb .1tCrns more nalunol? J. NOI;ce ihal aIL of tIM: pBrtkipanb i<nd evmts Me made explicit In !he &cmMllc , ,,,,,Tlfe. Howl1\'CI', when the transilltor puis tbts I" forma, 1100 into the receptor lnnauage, sOme information w!ll again be rrt3de lmplkilli m.y not bol fhe ume ~ s fhat whicb is implielt In the source l&l1gu;t2e .. IlIen,,"- For CKIlmplc, ~ natura/ tran.lalion into Aguaruna w<luld be as follow. , n.. billt...foI~ J_ A. Ea.:h of rhe following is a paOli.., tOIlJ,tr..moll. R.....rite !be senlences using lin Klin r.... m in English, Tbnl ttmlSlale tlrt summoned Mark. 2. E\'etyOOe will hare you if yo\l do that. JICO!'Ie. He P'" (tbinalr) IQ ~ EX ERC ISES - Skewhlg be(wfl'n Proposltillu l Slnttture and CIlouc: Slrq« un [. The! J~ He ..... amt ........ b lIK people. He "".... Ied ibis to !he po<>pIe. m Srr".,,,,.., .".,,,... -n-. .. ."............iQy.-U-«il<i!.. The ....·ord big i!I wed for any lmkJ. NoIiee that the reci~ of leadu is laSed for lbe people, I.e./ollowen. The smtalte il nctivc. And the qUOlallon in rwson, i.e., to sir""" Iris CClfc-crtl, is translated by a d~ Aguoruna. Each langunge will have !Is own speci~1 gratnltllltical forms wbich will beS! comrnuniCllle the menning of tbe S(lU'OOIC1U W~ 00 001. restrk:t)'(lu. ... Tb6 hunrer3 killed ~ deer. 5. The poIi« took ./<:lhn fO th.c jlil. 6 Jonal.... n wrote Ihe leu~t to fh~ mllyor. C. Underline the .bstract noa ns whleb 0IX:1lT in Ibt.: following sen/eDC:es. Thfn rev,7ite cacIr ~1Cle(' witboUlabmact noWt!;; that iJ., \be form u.lng ,~bs 10 n'J'R.'Sml EVENTS _ using od~i .. aad""'orbo to rqn_1AITJUlJtJTES. In additioo. chaQse any PUSiH OOI\$tnrtioos 10 let h ·t MCS. After you MVC rewritten the . ... f~ In Engl .... wilboot lbotrac:r noans, transl3ce them illlo anothe' language whi<:h you spe:'Ik. Think about wherh .. Ie i. dlan,. D:lluralto use a IlOIIn f<mll or a ''ef'b form to ~prest'n t the words )I<)U Wldcrlincd in the ..,nteoces. Mru:e your tranSblion II)Ort! sound as nlllufIIl as possible. '" PROPOSITfONAL STRUCTURE l. Her beauty wa. noticed by evayon<:. 2, T hey = PruposUionQ/ SlruCfj~ nfrn.id of dealh, i. b. ft h he fled !Urlll'i•• d .,·cryone. Recast the ro1\owina imo . fonn wbicb can be readily trarufcm:d lnIo such IIlanpge. ..:!d whicb CXpre!S(:!' !he UIJodmying relatloos in~oIcd (from cleMly. 1b<K mlY be JD(>re lban ooc ~opsil AaroweIl 1980:176j, 10. His ,emlT\'Cl.kln froop death was dilcuoscd by many. D. Re!otalc each oftbe following as a proposition or as propositions, Add My Impl ie<l conccpU expr<: ••iOJl "" EVENT or STAl K h..ir ~. She rna<ic a <Ires; Wifh I~C cloth. on hi:! back. 6. li e cliwb:<! the ltill whh ~ Ii"" ofcblldren behind him. 7. He cli' TI ~d the hill with rIO bope of ICllchin& the lOp 8. He <limbed Ihe hill with. rope:!lld . pkb:<e. S. assumne. of failure 6. pvmlse of his . eI ...... 7. th ••uffcrlngs ofPe1er 8. IlK' ell), of Abidjan 9. 3 ciry of Africa 10 lbekinduessoflhelutles E. The followingparagl"llph contaim101l,e . b ~ l nd Doun llllld . omc ttnlth'. colmrlle/ Iolu . Flrlil, Wl<icrllncevery won! .... hlch St<\l"lM for IIIlI:;VEh'T. Thc:o rewrlle the io(on:nation In propoaIdon:<. Usina this rewrite, tnll.Late !hi: pangr;>ph into a Iaosuagc O!lter IhnIl Englioh, 111, S1if/mng in 1M "jilg.u Mmp ""'*'f wilh 1M nmval ofdonClticfu offood from 0 ....'4<',.,. I~back S. lie dil.nb:<! (hcc bill with tl>e lun m his eyu. 3. lb. hour o rtl1«~ 4. peQple of Hong KOllg n.. mpervisory 001II11<11lee orgMlUid 1M lMa/)ilClltu ofllw COII<P inlo sMDIlu fP'O"/» 10 as It> j"1/I.~fQirdstblon of{ood mtd dotlru.g 10 meA fom!!),. I. Th"Y buih a hoosc willI I fI,d roof. 2. The dish ran sway ..'j!ll the spoon. 4. He diml:ft tbe hlll with [he l. j:rrOf"'Bltr r ~r, pNosi'"e f<mIl dooe by the prWSlS. 8. We"""'" wimesxs \0 Ill., d •• truclloo "flh. d ty. w jth wh~ DO j(ICi WII!I 1. The dcsIlUCtioo of lite clry Watit.ml'jing. 2.. garment o !5S language which hv; c. agent role must alWftj'S ooincidc: wilh gramm:tllclll sub- SU<mi temptation . 6. 1b purlficatioo of !he temple 9. The I'lIpi.:lity ft .. nO preposition ..... IIh · 4. I ha'I'Cllf•. Sle~jng all"u Sm.cf"n F. Imagine you.,., preparing to ttanslJtc into th. following ~harcti! cs: 3. Do)'011 have thltlt.7 5. and Chapter 22 Skewing of lIIocutionary Force and Grammatical Form 11.( 1M endofcltapter 18, the importance of t/I<: iJioculionary force of I proposUlon was discu ...n1, Each pr(lposi!ion ~nd each ~i­ li o tlal chlltCl' e~pt'l.s rither a comraaad, • q .e l t~ • • or ~ I t a l~m.,n Whnl llIe,e ~ "" *,.,.,10& tJtfWttll lhe smoantlc $lroCIUI'"' and the gr:>ll1l1uUcal foem, tile 1lI0CU!ionary r(lrot ....ill be tbe &:II1>C ..., tile arwnm!ll.ical mood of the sentence. A semantic q aestio .. win be en coded by an ilJUrrogaIiw: U"Il'~ • • l enuontlc ItlteIMa t w ill be mooded by a d«/aroli>'t! KrUma, and a commlDd will be I:nCO<Ied by "" ImpMJln. ~. H/JWe\.'tI", IquagCl ate' rompllCltcd by the exlcmi\'e skewing betWttll (he ;IJocutioo:>ly an d the gram matical rOll11. rom: s..,e,;mdary fllDcilons of interrogative se nte n Ce!; Th~ labd . .. hel(lr;".' ques1101l1, ha. often beeT, ""'" I<! indi..m Inlerrogatlve uammali cal fonlUl wbich are used wu to H nonq uestion me;l!llag. 11re 5peaker uoos a gmrnmatlcal fOOll which in 11.9 primtli)" ullaGe wQU I ~ indicate a questio n. but the lpeaker's purpose Is I<! OO<l1IlU1nd or 10 make 8 Slatement. Whrn thi, kind ofik""'ing ocrun_ the qUC91ion form is called II rild (lrk aJ qu ~ lo • . The purPJlO! of a rul qU($1101l II to oW! for infonn:llion.. fOI CXIIIDP!B. .... e ask "H'1teu i.! )UCU" ~ow er or "What time are )IOU comi"SIto_?" The question f<>rill ;$ 1J9I.ld, IoI\d the sP"'*er-. p.trpose i.s to uk for ;nfl}lTJl3lion. Th<n is 00 sb:w~ Ru l qU""ioH do root Ufual ly 0I1.ISe problems for lrnn!iIatonl. The tr1Ir$IllOr fJods the approprillt fonn (or asking fur the ~ in f ~ in Ihc recCpool l~. In leachlng silU3llons. raj 'I lI'$lioo are also used 10 find m"lIcmber the infonnalion ...·hidt they UVl: bceo Iaught. Rhcl<>o-kal quc.tio ..... 011 lhe IXherhand. are M\ 1'...1 qU ...tioM . They arc qUt'llon farms Uiled whb a purpon otlrtr tblln to ad: for wi jf lire $l udcn~ '" '" J'ROPOSI TIONAL STRUCTURE J1/OClttiolt...,. Frwcl! ~"d infOJmalloo. They may look like r".1 (I Ue5llous, s~e the form is the "'~ , but the ~ i D8 ~ IIOl thai (If a queslion. for uampl ... lhc: question Mill')'. why linn '/ YQU .... <lsh the disks? has !h~ form of a qlJCSlion and mialll in IIOOJe contelCli be osking for lnfomllluon: tlud I$, it miglll be \lsed In ils prim<l1)' fuocliO!l. But lllls qut' lion in E.t!g1Hb is often U$Cd as II way of making a frimdly $UUestion. f1 jj nul as strOl\g AS "" imp<>rallvc fooo. Mllry. warh tile di.Jh~$ but neither is il a question. 1t l~ a j uggestloxa. TM proper IIr'ISWCT is, Okay. f will. If II were a ~ I .../ly qlJCSlion askin& for inro~ l l on, tho IIIlSW" would g l~e a reason. , omelhill.lllike, fle<:al<$c I'm jusl /00 tifN. In mnny laoguallOS, the ,"condal)' \lJage of Ihis type of question. makm, • SI1j!8CStion, would need to be traJslaled by an thaI of impl~'e seo:lIencc or oome odJeI" . pedal fonn.lf1l"lIlS!arfii IitCBIly with ..,loy In mil.llY Amerindian IlIIIguagcs, il would indic.'l!t drhu a JUJ quCSlion, or if iMorprded "" . rhetorlc:al quesfion, ......... Id indicate rcbuke. Rhelorl(:lOI qll" , ]on.... oJ.., ......1 in En&!ish to doow ~k.t, bUllbc f()f!ll b difft.1Te!lt. To !ihow rebuh, Ih ~ whe" question,. otlen U>Cd . A motl!er wllo Is ~ wilb Itcr lOll for not doing his pIUl oflbe fnml1y chores may de>!re 10 ~n him 10 ""'ply th ~ g~. ShI: bas lold hlm 10 00 il bcfor ~, be knows il is his duty. She wants 10 convey all 01th" IlIcl\Iling-lhc comnl3Dd and the anoIioo $be feell about it. To do.so ' he will no! use l command fonn but mther 3 questlon-a wltDl ..-ioo-lf'ltetI an:)'iN going to u.ply Ih gam~? B«:a1.lSC of th e c mDllve meaning being cQmmUll icRtoo. Ihere is a id<ewing of mJlantic illOI:IItlonary fon:e and snmmali<:al fomI. 1bf: $t:1Jl.III>I;C iIloculiolllll)' force is one of comMand, but 1he 8rnonmaT;cai form is til ... o r a queftjon ",1li<:b wQUld normalJy be used 10 asl aboullinu:. lf lransllll.l:d Iilmlll\y witb a M·IIe" qutstlon, in man), I ~g. ', it would be Wlder.1OOd as II lui 'lUHt!on, and Ibe l peaker'. purpose of catftllttUldwould be Ion (!.:non 1979: 14-18). Not al l laJtKuage5 use quf:St:ion fornlli with a srcondary funclion ofcoounand. "Tho! tran<lat.or must f,rst ~Ytc ~ soun;c quotion.ls it a rdl '1u Ktion or is il ll rhtlorlu l qUe$lion7lfilIs 3 real '1usllon, lhe tromJlllion will DOl be difficulL Ifir Is rbdoricaJ. II<: must dhoo\'er the mean ing, the !iloculiooary f..roe of the speaker, BOd tbm ~ide lIow that S/llnC p.IIJlOSC c:m best be COIIllIIunicated. F(II elWlnple, 1ICnIcnc:e 8"'I!U .bo~ /f'he~ art! you going to ""'JlfY lhe garb~ ? would IKII be Iran.<lated with a wilen questJon in Ag>.tatuM. 1lte IllOt'<' "PI'I"QPriaIe form " 'ould be: Quickl,.. quidly. "'iry o"')'iN.liU-iloar? (lttickfy gorba ~ YJ~ . ' ~ row-ulf 1lte form is C<)mpletely difJerrnl 11"on> li.nglish, blu !be information I>Od tQlOli\'e mcanin& communiCIIIM ~lhe=. m.. m G",,,,..1IlictU FOl", YalYq'Uba of Papua I"ew Guinea would ~ nelthel an i"I""""'8'I- Ih'e form nor an imperative form but ~ nq:alive $tD.lcmcnt (adcebra. live [unit) to ,ommullicalO th ~ tame speaker's p"r\l(l6e. dld,,'1 t:IIIfJly1M prboge " 'ollld be the best form. Allhoup the pnmalic.l r"" form i,that of .. !lC$!I1lve declanalive seMern:e, the meanJllM is Ihm (J f lt~! If you didro·' emply tl... g<VOOge , omll13Jld. You - pty 8 ...11$ lrIIns!McclJitenoUy inlo another language OIh ... than Y ..wcyubl, It wOllld probably be under$tood os. stalement rather thart.1 ""ttUn3I>d, An adJu$WImt lI-iU I10Cd 10 be made in the trowlJla1ioo SO lIS to coomnmicatc both Ihe Illocutiorwy force of C(lInrnand and ~ nnotional frusIratlOll M"lbc~. In ~parln& for translation, il may be ~ r:y heJpC.:t1 for the In\nJIator 10 flflll study the functions of r bttorlui '1~ £$ tion l in the sooree !angmgc aootltenln the receptor IMf,UiI{le. The functions need to be idftttifted, bui ;1 i, also importanl: to foo;us 011 !be fonn. ~ irw;e different fortTlS nllly ba~ differ<:nl kWtIdaty functions. I'or e.umple, Ibete are thr"" dlf e~t question.lln E!1W1.h wblch can b< used with Ibe illoc.uittmry Coree of C<lI1ltn3Dd. One sI!<!"'S i n lpati~ ooother ;$ ooncrilicol (polite), and the Ihird II cril;"!. Note the following conlras'I of lOOn and n>catlin&' l. 11''- _ you oouring? 2. 3. 1J 1!y"'~I)Oucorne 11'.,. dJd you corne? 1 """_l l.y"" ........ 2. Yoo <om. widl mo (i f)l<Mll iko)1 1. Y011 oboold "'" 110,.., cone! Noc.ic:e thlll Ibe ..."~, silo... , Unpaticocc.\he .. ~y plus a MflOIi ... II a /lOItCrilical , u!\I!C!ltlon, and wiry without the "fIgOliWi ~ Cl;ticotJ. ( f or man ClI..llpla from f:.uglish, see I...Ilwn 1!n9: 14-!8.) Tbere aren'oo.y f~nctm J M" rh eto r lu l Eao::h lanpage will have il.l own list of fimc:tlons III!d $pCC ific question forms which may be used tbe1orical1y. Some f"wcIloos in f.rtsIim are: to empllBJin: a kDown fact in ordc, to conununicate • l usgclllioo or command, 10 indicate doob. Or lmC>07Uim,. lO lnlroot.ooc: a "P· IOpk or new lISped ofa loplc, toshow slJJ1lTi'<C. to admonish 0If u.bD/t. and, m~l common of all, 10 «puss \he spcak~ evai..:olion. for ellllllplc, . le3Ch... might say to ~ SIltd~ "'If!)w £'I'" I pan .)OU. I/J'OU do,,'f 111m ill yow as.ig~I>U!,"7 · The l/lli!rTogal(\" form i. used to _pb tiW: • kllo,,'11 fXI, .. , M,,'f fJOS'l ytII<. if )"w doIt ·f Ilirn ill your a.<~I"gmnl$ . .. TIle fo rm i5 ioterrogat ive but tit\. mtaning Somrooc: mighl ~Wloa, are we goi"g 10 is 3 S!3tetnt:<M of fac~ " al?" as ~ "' ~ y of e;o;:i""sin& conea"II or uncenaimy about lhe high abool/ ~ I ,,'i111«Ne c OS! o f food. TIt.. meanipg is "I 0IfI ~ 1!"""gIr rtI"""Y k) buy lhe IJri1lgs we !Iud " 'I _i."". Ioar. 160 '" PROPOSfTtoNA L STRVCTURE /lIpcutfunary_Eqru an d GralJlmtlliclJ/ F lWm [0 SDOle 1aI"""a, such as ~ sh.i tbe illt roduction of II IIt'll' ~ ginD or II ~ h to;: ofl ... a\St In an inlC:lTOgaliH' form. The .pc~kn 11IfIy say, "Why is 1~.tO much "mploy~1U of"'"OIlder. admirru.lon, daub!. "'pro/Ich, indigootion. and other em0- lopk or ~ these a d YJ?~ pnd tbm. not "",lling for an an',.,. ...., h. begins to tell the audlence about the reaSons forunernploymenl. The interrogativ<\ forln II simply a way the Iopt<: IUId ",.Uy """'"I '" am gci"8 or~gin 10 wi ~ ...lIy IM~ ir so ",..cit wnempWy_nl she#. "")'S." In Vaila of West Afiic3, 1,",=,* are tenD! type\! ofUDrks ",bleh llI1!alw2ys bllloduced by ''00)I00I boo",lrowillr"ppo>ed 1IrIll...?- Th. topic is introduced by II qu¢$tlon. If the reeeplor language does 00. use questions as IOpic irnroduccn, a ditJemll and appropriate fOlTTl will nwd to be U$Cd in the tlM5lltJOIl from EnsJI~h or VagJa Into IIIlOIber IHl~ Englisb also IIses rbc,o rlc:a l quest ions 10 . bo .. 1l1fllrlse.. For cumple. SOI'IN: gue.ts may arrive .. bit early (or .tiru::In and the bous_~ f. wbo is p<epariflg \he dinner •• eo; them ~OID i ng up lh. path and "'l)" ~A " " rhey here. so soon? I Iw"",,, " C1O!n gone" dlyued >"" " Sbc I. nat ..king a r~ .. 1 qU"",llon. She k.nt.>ws they are Ihe. e. Sh~ i. showina htr .w-priSt: and really ",ying, ~l"m su']Jl"iseil IAe)' <Uf! lien 10 lOOn. Rh ~ .... k:al 'l. eJl lu.s are IIbo u:scd 10 admol\ub H "'.'1 or exhort in English. For uample.. II motile. ~y to ~ child, - Wiry are -'""" alwDJ'S bollferi"K grafld/(Jlk,r The r=I meanl n, is -Yoll ,Jw,..td,,·, bolMr YO"" grand/aiM,. $0 much . ., NOli« rl.at wbh;b is II ~ .i ricu l Ihe form i. K "'/ry \ll'eStlon In Ihe afirmtv~ Slftlernenl in Engli1lh. Afte. the IflINlruor h"" dclannillcd the mMnin, of the question fQIUI (inl..-roglltl\·t) In !be KIUJCt language, be m= aim C(If"IiIidcr whether or noc I"'" rt«"j)!Of Wt&uage ....iU ~ D '1~ form;1\ lite olc~t, an d If' quc.tion ~ used....-bccber Or noc the COI"T"tQ me:u1~ will ~ nco \"ey~d . S<lmeti mes a rh etorica l quutlon wH\ ~lo b.! Bl'J'I"oprillle, but Ihe fO!TII oftbe questloo will ncOO 10 be quile diffcn:nt from the """"'" language form. The fonn. of the IIOI1I"Ce languase "il l 1101 DeCeSSariIy I\WCb the forms "flhc receptor l"",ua;e.. For example.. a wlty qut3lion in E".Ilgfuh may IIIvc quile a difl"erenI form In Oaloul-u ( Papua. New Guinea, data from Ellis l:kiblcr)eo.·eo when a quc£lion il oacd WIly af"f }'Of' ptUring)'QU' ",Midy htvlds ()j1 my ror? would be lmnslated Thi~ k,'ng my car. Ill"<! you pulling yo!<r muddy hands un it? The tmn$lator wlU .... e the Mtura1 fOl"m< ofth" =~or langWl,e. smlence will be trans18tcd by a decllll1)lj\'t Sometimes an interogM.~ lentence, $(IIUe\imes by an impcnl;"v !lll!ll.mCe. In Korku "r1ndia. it is nol UDcommon 10 have a nries oftltrte Of four que.ti<lM 1~>cr. They .... r hlotiaol :.nd lire U.,...,.<lOII' of Indignalion or ~rp1c x.it y . Rhdorlu l q uestion arc al,o uo;ed to mnkc aUlIlJ(\c$ • sm tcm erll , 10 aro\lOO thoUghl or gl't attention. or to e~ pres tion, ($eC Kirtpcoarick 1971:2&-..32). This uewing o f form "lid 1lIC1W1.i", will often lcod to misundtr· standing if an adjllli!tnmt is not IlIII<.Ie in lratL<latlntt. In Vie!rI:ltJI, a Rrilishcr who 1000 lbe custom ofhavittg a cup of len in the middle of Ihe morning askn1 his VietnamC$e frim;!, ~W()"ld ~w 1* 10 arin/( 1/14?" The fiknd looted pcrplued tIIlIiJaid. ~ No. " The question. m N:le tht Vit\DameSe frltndtlolnk., "Moyk Ire rhnn'l 1M'" 111/1 /0 drl";~ " The form ill Vietlllll11C!e ...oold bc:tn -Take 1m', 100 ana annk U~ W" an l"'pcr31ive smtCllCt'. This would have b«n understood clearly &.i a fr i ~n dl y im'il"tloo 10 drink Ie. lognhcr. This wo uld be: d o .. , 10 th .. scmanlk otruC!Ure si nce Ihe "p<!"ker', pur~ w.. 10 sugg(:$t III a positive way thlt his friend join him in drinl<in3 lea. "l"ho imponant thins 10 DOle II; Ih:x i f",~ trnnsl:tlilli a SlOf)' in which an En&lish $pcaIw "'ere qUOIN u ....yiDg "Would J'Of' fiJ:t 10 dri1Ik ICtJ ?H "10 lhe VIC1n:l1UC:5e IDgt~'c, be would nor ~ an irucrr<"l&3ti vc fonn. he ..... ould "". th e appropriutc imperalive lentence. Only by unde ... rarxling Ihe function of r "~ot l c.1 q"",rloos In the :iO u rc~ lang u a~ c :om! in the receptol languago ClIO IJ"IIruI.t011l be free from Introduci"g ",,,"rullll m eanilli: throu&Io UtcmJ lrnrI:'iJa!iom of q""'tions. Seco ndary r u , ~tio l s of d«laul.iI'e 5e n l ~n es We Just OOlt d lhalin Ya .....eyuluo of Pa~ New Guinea a negative Slarelflml (declunU'"e IIe nlt nce) i, u:scd 10 communicnte n oomm ru,d. You didn'l >Wl<h 1M di~M is u<ed "'1110 the meanin, of rOIl ...a..h I~ ai4he.t 1 which is Q commnnd. "l"ho .c.ramm.atica1 ,!rU<:IUte is that which II IlOnlI;\lIy used 10 eIJCOdt, a Slala'l«Il, bul 1M proposition in the 5CI1larllic SlnlCIIII'I: '" a corrunaod. A lnuulator ","'I nol assume that • decb",ti,.., ..... Ienet will be uanslllltd by a d, a r:ol h' ~ H nlen ce. He ruUS! nnt be ...... of the function or the scn(~. Does It have !h~ ma'nin, of ' ta lc"'~ n l? [f so, il " 'ill be I/1lnslated u a S"'!emenl. Uul if il ill used In a , ccondaty f,.-,ctlon. such as 10 command, lhen 00 ..djusrmml " 'ill need 10 be made ,II 1M trmosIalion. A lilml tl"al\SlariOll of You dnhr ', wash w dishu ftOtll Yaweyulta Inro IllOSI langll3gfS would giw a "'ron; mnw~ !Iincc d"", larali>'e ",.IU (H <Ire nol often 1.I!ltd [0 romrnllni<:llte the me<lfllng of command. In I'ijin (Solomon L!lands), a i<\9tcrnc:nt may be used M a questior\. Th e sentence AIi~8 pI<tIIdc hl>J /eng iundcl'e ble/lg I" Uremlly says f Ilzlllk lhere an: !ollofhorses III ,.~r COfmlty, b", Ihe meaning is A"" then lOIS ofhcT3Q ill your rowII/I)'? A derlaratln ... ntence Is USoCd 10 rommunio:::ale I question. In Denl'" (ClI11eroon). the past indicaltvc mode (I dt'cl . .... l in lenlcnce) is the lIalW1l1 m<IIk forev""ls ofa narralivll. Th~ wo uld be Ille oor",,,1 prinlll!}' fUnction of ]XI ~I Indicaljve.. But Ihe pas! indicaUvc '\ " " \\/ \/,' .. \; ~: "';' ,"l ", , ,,,"-x :,,'/'\ \,'/"'.,~ ,'" .,• • ·i I 166 flk>c."jlJ"ary Foret PROPOSITIONAL S TRU(.TURE In wrillco d<.>cumenLS. there may be insuffide!ll ~ignal to Itt the lr.rul3!or know tim! !he W!{t:nlmt I~ irony. Uow~r . thUOIaJ CO!lI.UI will usually sbow the In:opp-opriat<neJi8 of jutl'l'JT"ling the ruucrnO\l( dlredly and ~bow thai the opposlle is rmant Some languages lih Triqac and OtDml of Mexico, I<Id • m<>rphcme at tbe end of !he kopie ai 11Utmell.( wbich ~,. the meanlna. Languag01 ",ill often hllve l pecial devlcc:s lO man: Ibis h L John trie~ 1O tell his col~e replies. ~ 11." JI"U 1M prim~ m ood ...!la:t 1(1 do, I lls friend mini.Jler?" 2. Some dlildral are p.laying around with • car tbal il port.:ed neanhelr !muse. An <>dult <X!IUe5 :>Ions and says, "/$ thal YOlLr car?" 3, TYlo WOmal &iftlds; !In' chatting '" orJOe. Mary. is rodc.ing dlnner. MOly "Y' to her friend, "WII)'don 'ryo":tlh~,b l tl?" Th" magical word of war, ".., hlv, cffcded: on.! h.. ",·..U-pMI nook.. "The ....•... -yet-beaton """.. <>f l>M1\," We b.o¥~jade 001 o' til<. /kid ~ . MOlber comes tzxo the k:i(CbeD attd fill&: hI.'! (hin ...... yea/" old son ruchlll( II1l0 !be cookie jar. She says, .. Wlwl do)'IN l/riM yo<I art! doi"t:'~ S. .... (eacher ha, br:«lme u~ with some boy. til the 00cl: " nile room who k:e<:p making ooise. She h... told lhem to Slop it. or .h will ""'-0 10 >l'4:: 1MI!\ to !~'e, They doo't FilUol1y, ,Ite goi1l£ [0 $IOP rllm noise?" says. u When 1.lJ'~wu Here Vem i di~ t. ~;!lj \!'OIly in lho phra.$CS "",glcal werd O/"'(lr and hLJ _II_paid rtlI.ks. 111e real meanlng II the opposlle, lluor. is, he I.J r,fening to lhe homn oCw", and 10 the ill-paid soldiers. AI one poinl SlukeI<peare USes 1tOh / ~ in ilS normal K1l!;(: 10 ll'fer to AnlOIlY (.... molly receptor langoage '" In each of th. foBowhlj: J.iul;lliOWl? passagc! as the following and Ocopa! .... n .o. I4--S) In tbe pmeH~ romu TM nobk...cn""'y. [luI at a lal"," point he uses il ironically in Ilu: phrase 'Tu a noble r ..pidus ... iQ a specclo by Agrippoa. (Antony and Qcop<>Ira 1I'-D,~). A Sln>igh( 1I1era1 lrnUS1QlioD coul d ei¥e (b" wrong meaning. The uamlaIor i$ ehoJlen&ed to fmel tile Daluml ..."y 10 indicate Irony In the nI A. \Vha! is lhe purJlO'¢ of tile speaker in using a r loetnrital questiOil (AnIon)' and OeoJ{lOO'a 1I11.11-3<4): H_• .,.jlll Iris _ F ~ .nd GUlQm. liui Fonn llle r;:"PIor Iftllluage. A diro::t Ulm! Irnnsllllou \!Sually carUlOI be ~uc Grammatical E..' \ERClS£.S - Skewi ng of lUocu\;o u rl' Fom. slLc,.:jn,g Of 5<'lll!lll(iQ ""d gnmrnat. EJulIhe tr ..... !ator PCttis to WHtch for irony in 1M $OUn.lC text 1IIld know tile best way to signal il"O ~ y to """'Irony , is used In SluIkcspeare III /l/IJ 6. A woman i ~ trying 10 fix a brok.en chair. Her hmiland walks into the: room...J Is "~Ini her, SIooc: SOl)"., &WllytiOll ~)'<Ii help mefix: it?" B. EacIl of l~ e follov.1ng 1$ an inlt rrOllllh', senlCnCt . Assume iliat it b a rhetorical q uestion and chan&e the form to . d«-Ia ...!h'e ICDrrnft, \. DidIJ'l l glVt you tbe book? 2. lm·,it·rwlngtime? 3. How ("" you believe bim? ~. Who·. afrai d of him? 5. SlwuJ.m·[yoI8Dh~5O? '" PROPOSITIONA L STRUCTlJRE JIIOt.:III/(mary FOI' C. Each cfllle following Is an hllerrcogatin M'tItellU. lusume that il is a I'fIHoriul questiol and change the farm 10 an im~ ", ' i\ ' e ~ tl l etI«. c~ 'lnd (jru,.,m<Uic,,/ For", '" 8. A penon Ocsa-i~ a mlIjor dKision IIw he f'ac:ei. He ")IS. ~W1rm palII thalli ~1aId ill?" 9. A bird in a folk tale talk.s 10 himself 8f1er losing hi. nest 10 another. He ",y. to him.e lf, "WII. ",,;s 8iro j,'Oi ~g /(J slup today?" When lire YOII going to $ludy? 2. Would you like 10 "U down7 10. One par.W wmmn>lS to ~_thina J . Wlr)I opm the v.iOOow"! 4. Why IlOI open !he. ,,·!ndO\O-.1 ~trao«Iiwy ~ other when thd. chIld doe. k<nd ofQ child II !IUs?" . ~WN.rl F. In cacll oftbe following. the form i'J a dec:lt Nllh'f sCnlet,n, but 5. Wby do you do it that way? the 1l!()CU\lonary force Is that of. rottUlIUOO Rewrite Ibe se nlcnce imper.th'. scnrence. '" fill O. Study die ~l1trnceJ; in part " 11Jcn.-e. 110...• would yoo m .... late Ihe "",,",lion inlO a language " 'blm you !:noW od ler than EngtiS. " Would it be ~ter If> lISe a d«:l.arath " JeDlenu OJ" an scnlen<>c? ""per'It"'. I. Y<HI OOn'lbclongin here! 2. The doot u opm. ). Your haLr Is a mess. E. The following rhetorical qllcsl iollS were found In teXIS in tile Tiku llllliW'&e of Cameroon. The <.>QIltext in whic:h they are ~ is DOItd. Whal ......,.., (0 be the functlon of the i:'«:rn>gIIIlvc .emcnce? RC$UIle rithcr M a dftiarative or !Jopt",I;' · ~ oml,,"". How weuld you lnWlafe each I)f Ihesc In(1) .. secood language which you speak? (Examples from lacboo 1982): I. A small boy mecU" bigGer boy d=~ Ln "8' bill ;making a dp1ft(e. He $II)'S. "Will)lOU suca:ed fly "",,king?" 4. You Il1C walking 00 my nOW~TS I . NDl one o ' them .... rn go 10 town " '{lhoJU IIL)I pcnnilsion. " /1'1>0 kMws the rw m:uo~?" 4. In the Lnlroduc:tion 10 II ipeC<:h Cl1I.Ul"ICI"3llng problem!l ill the _"il\a&e, II chief says, "Will,.,.. iUInI or """,', ),ou7" ~. One penoo asLu; _t-, "~ is Elizabeth?" The oLM' ""ponds, "Did,,', JM. goo /0 I~ dispe,.ory the fin:t i;p<!<ller Lmo w~ thill she did). ?~ (indica!ing Ihat 6. A pcfSOll ~ys the opposlle ofwh8t he intended to say. lI. IMn says to hilnsdf, "WhaJ 0., 1saying' " 7. A woman explains how lhe has run oot of money bulldlr.g Iter house. S he!illL)'S. ~ W/la slt,,1f J dar to fi nish ,.,110 im', ealing his SOllp) O . Rewrite each of llle following aegatin !laIUL.... IS w ith IILL amrmnli,·c st.lePlut. (NOIe Ilu'l you may hlLve 10 use two s~ nte~ cs.) Then decide whclher • " <"Il~h e o. ~mr mJ~h "C sta le_ lIlelll would be the best trnruJ.lllon into the ,«'end language you . peak.. T f"3lIlWc the SULtemmU into that lansuaee. 2. T wo pe<>ple diKIIss II rn)'JIcriOllS suici<k and one COfIVIIet>li. 3. A penon ' CCOHm" ft dispute ef!hc day before. He tum.! to a fellow witness and ")'S, .. f"m speaking 1/11 Inuit. Im'n '/ I ?" . 5. Tha110llP IS &ood. (s:lid \0 .. chUd 2. An}'OIll: who does"o/ pay his bill will llOl be able 10 <lay In school. 3. He did fl(Jllpeak wilhoitl e~raling. -4. You will ""! !ICe me wlltill fini sh ,.,OOng thLs slOry . ~. Unl.-.n be earn. more money. hi: etJn ', 110 to school. 6. John hal "" brolher UCtpl Bm 7. I n.:l"e is rf(Jtlling hidden 8. He does ff()t n~d ~ plIO be re'i,""led ro wash, o:ct'pI his I,:mds. 9. 1 will 1/01 blow the whistle:. ,,,,til you rmish. 10. We ha,'<." 110 le»<ler tXf1p1 l'etcr. Cbapter 23 Figurative PropositionslMetaphors and Similes Dtlininl; meta phor and si mile M«. pbon BIIII slmiles art cQlnmon ngwes or $peech foiU>d ill lDany l:m.g\lllees. Tht9t: ngw'eS of ' I_ch 0,." conlpulsoll'. for e.umplc, llIe following an: sinlilH: He ".I~ the ,,-iad. The IOOOn is lih bItlod. Renj;lmin i. liU. rav","""" wolf. Notice lhut in """,h <lfthe aoo..'c «omplcs . tne wtll'd lit.! is llsed. In r:.na! ~ h. I .imlle nlway. h"" lhe word fib or as. Md ap bon do D(lI ~ .... tJ.J. but rhey:lll"e also <oll,p arloolll ithat can oftm be rcwrjtten n~ similes. The oOlpr ~ . is alwaY' tho! of some lil=ltss.l'I<>lio;.e me fol klwlng mO I. p llon.: have the w<Jl'd liI< That <iliid il l cr-lY ltak pi.. He· . .. "~ H. ·• • r-oel<. NOIK:e that these could jus!: 11 well be ...id 8!llimilos: 1'hM dlild ;./ibt a sr:oody little pia. lie is liU J/I 0>.. He illiJ:e • rock. MeI.pllon lind s im ile! W"C p-ammaIic.al ' ....'0 PJ'OPO'ltions in the sm>anU" S'l"Ud u ~. m formt whleh "'~ As notod bef<Jn!, I ~ m ~ 1. '1"htc """,n Is (red) 2. Blood III (red), pvpo!li!ion consists of a !Optc and tbe OOlllment 300Ul thaI \oplc. For H:~ nple, John u wlf ooo$l&1s of the topic John om! tho commeut i.J loll. Rill hit the ball eomiilS of tile topic BiIl:lOd tbe comment Millie boll. When a Pldaphoc or lim l'" oco;urs in the tut, il c:IIl be vOf}' hel pful to the tran5laior to onalyze it and find the 1\1'0 JII1lIlDSIIiom ..-hkb are !be sernanlic: wuctun behind Ibe f.gw't o f speech. The rdatiOMh.ip between the tWO f!W'01'OSitioos is me of compulson. The eompariS«l ~ in the cornrnmI JmI of \he· JnIllO'iliom. The comTl1CllU are identical. Of then it lOme point of simi larity. . A na.ly"f.ing metJl phor. and l imite, Tile simile in English, John I. as taU a.< " utln pole;' based on ~ ,e two pr<>JlOSitiom: l. John ;' 1311 2. A beai pole ;. laU. Tbb b '"UY simple and easy to ftOIllyze because the topic In both """"'" is gi\'ftI. ood the rlmpuison (!he likeness) is also gi~ . Tile tOPK of the firs! propositron i. kine ~ to the IOpk of tile ~ The wm..,..,ts are i:ltmical. 1lH: topk of Ihe second propollitioo il often c~lId d,e inlal:,,(or il ~ lution ), the tILing thOl the first topic Is lih. The pollll of slmllarit)' i~ found in the commen\.!.. A "'Clapbor or 'lmile, Ibm, has four pM. C_ Badanafl and Calio",' 1914 for noore discussion): ,,.,.. Im .~ pnlnt Q( ';u.;larit) .urlgurul.i.'. «;_;-".Ieal A~'C, the IOPic ..r Iho ....-11""1""''''''' (fogunti\·.). i .......'bol " i. bnne rompared with. ("""d in tM e<>rrnlm" of ho<h of tho propCIliliQOS ;,,,"olved or the oommllnt o f lhe EVD<1" p"'pQsitoo ....meh Iw the l""'8e u topic. ...hal III< pr<>po<itJon COIIIIinin& the IOpic I• ., [vo,or ~ the COI.IWIU<T Is tho IIOftflglnll'lO equ,..alenl. of the Below "'" """'" clUIrTlplCS of tbese fOllO" pori'. I" _ example.! at !be beginning 0(1/10 chapta", ooI}' !hr: IOplc and tlle 1m. of !be .imile were gh"l'D. The poillt ol l imiluity il implicit r .. anaLyu I/Ie simile, we cOO SlRte tile Iwe pro~it<ln explicitly. In the sentence The IIIMn j~ like blood, O,e two propositions Pre: p&n't~, llie implicit infomtlllioll ill In fotlOW1: .... ItII'lgt pol., or rilnlbrfl)' The analysis i$ as tit>Otl rcd In lb. f, ~ lowf"&, Ihe mctllpllot conslslll of" senlence wbich iii encoding III E"mt I'rol""'ition. and 110 the four parts must be idclttlfocd . ",,"1M CroWll 0{ lifo. The rigiurolu judge. will gi\~ I. (Tbt otr",i&IJ) pYe (!he ' ;c!Oriou odIlet.) .......'11. ti~.ly witl gi\'e y"" (~ l. (Goer), ",t.o ~ topic God, who judges riPt"""oIy 1m.... offioial. pol at of ,1"'Uul ty rooeI.'e a rewat<l ••• tI~n"'. wiD Kiv<: Y"" oI<!n\Iol lire _01", II-.. "'f'k.0f.m f'nt ~Ition (_fipnti,..,). I.~ die thi~1 .-Ily be", \al:od.bowi '" Figlit"/lriw Prop"JiMnVMeUlplllJl"S "tid $imiks PROPQSJTrOlVAL STRUCTURE f",Oln~ I i f e) . well To anaIy.le tnehlpbors and similes, It It wry bdpful to write oot t11epropo.sltionswbi<:b..,.., bMi~ to \he comparloon.lbe topic. inI •••• potlll of I lmlbirlly (fouod LD !/Ie commenll about the IOplc and the ,m_ce), lIIld I/w; .uurtgurato·e IntJIniJtC (when the propositions an. Event Proposilloru:) sbould all be includo:d Orily whnt these have been ide.l.tified, eIln nn Ildequntt translruion be mado inlo a second lMgUnge. T he 1Il""";ng III the source teXI must be discovered ftr.lt. The COlT«! understanding "f any llIobphor oc "mile depetld$ 00 tlte correa idnltllkaUon of the loplc, Irn:oee, a1ld polol ohim ilaril )'. Tlt i$ i, oot too difficult in sucll "'"tetlCCi II rJrt: book if a.J heavy as an dep/toltl. It IS clelf thal_ ekpll<>ltlls Ilea.,. and lhe booI:. is UlI.". The COIIlparisoD 10 an elepluznt is belnJuuodo to emphasize hoW heavy Ih. book I~, The book II; 001 iiler.illy equal In ",.ighl ro an e1eplww:. The .... is an o.uucraticn as ",.n a!. Ilmlle. H""'C\'er, the seIllCOC(> Ih~ /t.:u I.! ..... Mavy as my fuil"""". Iul, the same form that ft .imn. has. Thl' h l)(,)( figurative, hew ..'.".. It II almplyalrue comprukoo aoo Is mmn,urnllve. We ohoold not usumc 'll/lt every rompnriron I, a •, JII' "'.. ~ ~= :; ~ 1'll11!111 ill"ll I ~ := ...... ~ III11 ""-8 , .." " 2 ...... ,,'2 <Xl ·~ .K~c ~E j~ l l;: .~ r Ii , fI -g ;~:= "~-fo1 ~.z1,5 S . 9~. i:~ ' ;2~ ~ ~ ,B-o ...· S ""E li ~ 1:,g~ 1! .a~ i~ ~ 8" .. t '. .l -!''."": ..,d]_~ ' ] .~.! i P - "-e"l!: I i - ::'l': •§ ;t~8.i ~ · t!eS5 .! ~"! ; ;:;:,;g. ~j-t: 5 t • 11 ! I,t ~ ,~ ,, • < .!I-~", J ~ " 3~ J ~ §I~t . . . . . .... e .~ ~ 0'" oo'" i,i, ~ 0:.. 0-": -" ... "~ O.!l .. OIl " ,. ..,"' .~i! "l: '' - ~ J; ::> - ~ ! 3 •:ii 1 {] n! .! : ci~ J~! ~ ~ ".! l i~O-<= ~ .!.8!c. t .:~ ~ 1!~§ ' S.. °1"1 , .• " .". ", [ - f1 f•" ~ 1. •~ ~§;~~ 1J ~-t ~i&_. ~"J '," 8 [ ~i -;_~ .. ~;J .8~ .s~ iii i'o>J j::; I' I] • k c:> i~l · · - ~ ~ ·~ 8- -~ - § ... i r;; l!!fjt;.st=!t; j e . ! . ; « ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ li :1 oj"~ 11"- .... = -5 ._..... ... ,,:,s ":!=~;I' i1 _ ~ ~ ~ ! =;!' ' '·~i ~r l!~. !5 S1 !:! -" ],,.,g,~. - 15 i:i!,g!.;~ ., .gIU!f ~ '5 . - . !)~ .~ r .> i] . t-s t~ ,a~il1g-t! g... :g{i.<!~c gg '~ ~t ~ ' i 2]]': j ~ f. •~ -'I ]"s.o;~,< i.E~J!;'] 'is t] !I '1 h:g~H :>,...e Q. t1 ~, §" ...... ~ -E"l,! !i I; i "" - ., os;'"" 801' ·- 0Il~ :aR. ~ i" ,> .:lr~ ;..o -!:!"]~l -]aiSe-!;:t ->. . .!le ! ~ ': ] a l i £ . ~ l! .. <• " ~i i~ ~ E! .Gc =!!"" . §): c. 1"B.!aj5i~ .. :S j>.c c ~; Ii -!ls. .. "a.--= " .;~3g ih.sE~!l .g8t ~ ~"E lsi~· $ " " • • J ~ ~l • ;; I J "t·, f .!!" ~ , ~ .~ h Ii'! ~ .; f PROPOSITIONAL STRUCTURE 180 Comparing with Ibeabove list, the meta l'bor no ""In ;san island lllily be tra",l.ted into the re""ptOr language in the,,, five differenT ~ . l. No ""'" Is OIl i.la"d and Similes mi~ fcllowing. II may be helpful to 'Hite the (W() propositions first in ordeno see the t",pk. imal:". and poi", ofsim ilsrity more clearly. peak 4 No man i';II) i.lond. ATI i<l ••,td i. by itself. M 00 p<f>OII i. isolated from otlK-r< 5. No man is irolated from oll other people. 1. lbe killg f".Il a yoke npon the neci:J; of hi. people. 2. John was a shining lamp. 3. You are a mist that ~ars fcr aHttie time and the" vani:;[,cs. 4 I will come like a thief: He is as tall as a giraffe. EXERCISES _ Fi ~Q '" C. Think of fh 'e ~tencCS In a language other th an EogUsh w hich c<>ntain metapbor¥. Identify the lopic, image. and polnl of s lmtlul,}· In each of the metaJ1hor,. D. lokmify the topic, [magt, and point of sinlilarily in each cf the 2. No man i. like on island. No rn(lll i. a molD1 Figuro/i"" .Propqsil"J!M~uN, r~t iw Prop-o,ilion,n,Ielap borl .lI.d Simile5 A The following I re metapho l"$ "'hich arc found in the C1>in>mtec language of Mexico. lbe point or sim ilarity is flO! staled in the mda phor. but has been put in IlIlrenthc$\.'S at the end of the sentence so that the met aphor can Ix: interpreted correctly. Rewrite each mClaphDl" in a language other than English in each of lhe fiv,~ possibi lities mentioned abon. l. Peter i. a snail. (.low) 2. John perched up high. (Io be IDI:an) He is:l rurkey. (dumb) 4. This laSt-: is worne,,', work. (eroy) 5. Gi\'iIl{: bir1l1 is liJ.:e producing 5<Juash. (very diffic ult) B. Whll! problem might be rncollll1eroo in trying 1<> lnlruilale each of the foUowing?Tran.lme them in to a \anguageolher than EBglish. 1 He is f""ljust Hke a greyhound. 2. I am just a machine. 3. Athens is the mother of an. and eloquence. 4. Like a leopard, the mugger stalked his prey. S. TIIQSe pigs ate al l the food. - 6. He gallnped Into the room. 6. His hair wa. w hite "" snow. People are like 11ross, heN: today and gone lOmorrow. 8. He t. the head ufthe ""panment. 9. His <:yes We"N like fire. 10. His voice was like a trump<..'t. Chapter 24 More on Propositional Analysis To atlaly>:1' ~ l e~1 from a .emanlic >1lndpolnt, it Ii necessnry to Idmlity \h~ pr<lpOlltlons which are represented in !he reXl The lnlt:fnalsU\lCIUrC oflhe prul_iria h n«ds 10 be i'llaly?«J and woo Ibe relations between Ibe propl)SlIioa'''' they bu.il d Into Iart;er and 1arB"'" U/'Iit.!_1n thi. StCtwn o(thc book . We have conoen!mted on Ibo wysi. of lhe prnpOllitlc!oJ T1•• msdves. In tbe """, U<:11on.IIUent lon be glven to tbe rd alloo ofooe i"Gpos ltioll to another as they group into luEer alKllarger units. As we <k..'1l with propositions individually. We mu<t alwnY' keep In mind !hal Ibey ore unit$ which have fundioos in ~ and AIOi"e COmpUC&lcO semantic units . latgcr IIfltt.!, IbeIfl Howe\"ft', before We !urn our nTtention to ~ are ft faw more- delaill concernin& the IIf'Oposltloll asclf wh loh n.c>ed to be oonsid.JW!.in ch8p1er 4, thedistincrion between REFER'fI',J 1-'L MliM'lNG. SITtJ-,nO!<lAL MEANINQ, and ORG-'N IZA.TIONAL M E-\Nl t«i was di=cd student woold p-ofil from rerndtng th-ol maler i") III llo b liDle.) So fill, we ba,'c been dl,eu.uinll Ibe Pf'GpOSltlon from lltepoiat of ..;..... of Jl.EfEJl.E.vnALMEANI:NQ 8(Id Sl1v-,n ONAL MEANING. Tbe I!. EFER£.'In""L MEANING t.>u 10 dG with the COIICt'pti " .!tklI are refe:mx1 10 in d ~ propo<ltion Md the relltions betw« n litem. ~ SITU" r ONAL M EAJI~G h.UIOOO wltb the speakt:f..J.earer reialiomhip, "",,"Wly wbet:b ... the plll""JMl'4' of lhe propos-llloD 1$ I\> $laIC, qlll!$l lon, or command. The ,..rrpose o f tlt l$ <; h ~ b to look at: the ORCiANI7..ATIONAl MEA"'lNG of pi'llpod .. ,,-m nk llortJi and thm to) gl"e /Ill tXllmple oflhc pro posltioni owalysl& of one parar,ropb of a '''''I. Coberc'ncc of:l proposition ORCiANIZATIONAL MEANING has 10 del with tmil)' !IIId with the way thai llIIiu go:> fogClher to form r)l.ber tmiU. In tht pNlpGIition il bas to do with the way c.n ceptl grOUp together 10 fwrn propos llioDY. A p ropDSi":ioD should IlQl be _ . 1M proposiri<>11 should be a 28J , . HiP~ !., ~! ,Ii, ..§ ""- °1 r"ij]E-S ~ ::::!; '" ..: "~ ,- :~;!i ~ .~ b .i ~8g ~ ~i o~-l J~;! !i'" "U ::-= 0 ' ",. ~ i~]!1 · tU~f f ,s< •5~ g! S. ~ " •3t: "~, t" Ii .i ~ - i ~ -,]i 15.! ° I~);! §g."-!~ -- i fJ! · !I~ ~ 1g~i I~ ·l~' i 'O] j~l§1 >.0 ·~ !~ .. ~! · "l c~ ~fi :' ii= ..=<ll . "5 . ":<i ~ a ::;;53"= ... E:::§.\;I -=1 J ~j ~<'J! >., "-'§=.!!;;o 'J .B"'P.s'" o~ u i." [i i. 'Ii .~ [~1l o~i :g bM~ [~ 1!."2 -:lil 15"- .. $~ .. "! I 1 i . .~ '.P~·-d "l:5!=!l- l '\: . . " -' ]!l h'-''''', o~'rj .... o1ii< ~c ~ 1: I ~ ~I ~ r~ l .. ] g. "5. j".!f~[ "f-!-!-,,"" .. =a", .. - ... ~I ;: "~ 'j... ,,!o"i : i ! " > < E s . o ' l f ~ E · . S ! = ' f "2 '-'ol.z .s.:: -<-f<' !'"! - 1 -. ";0$ i - 0 , , '5 ~§ ~ !i~ :a _~ ~ 18 ., a - " 0 I ~ c t t -0 .. ~"' .•9~ ~hJl;t I_I •• ,!" ~ 1] 1~=i;j:lg~ ii!lEi H I - .• ~ .if'''; J!~< ;; 6..~ "Ol ~ =!." .; .!! i c:;r. i~ ~ ~;,: <; " ~ 5 OO 0;;; 1l ~ ~ "!j .!:§g. ~ li , i ::: IL. > :S!lJjt g . !l l ~ ~ ~F"'l ~ &.n +,:~ . ~- e l~§'Q.",8 iii .. ' 8 c. t'~o ,~ ~ ~: I~- . =~" E Il~!L ~ -;'3 E ~:.t= !~ <!L~ .~ 5 · · ~ 'ilf '~t ~ ee ~B e8 ~" lM~I .~ ! E"-~:l '~B j li"'io:l Oi3 <:: .. tI :;l.2~ o~ :j= ~j 1 8.~ 'al!i ~ f !h~ ~ e;; E; £;W 8li~'- co '" "" -z " "':-1 .. "... ~ ; l! .§-;;;.e.s "", ~ ~"ilt ~] - f .. g-~ "'-- I 1~, ~ , ~ •1•••, ,! i ~ ~ ~ ". ;L ~- ",g,& !~HPi :;;'111 .. !-1.~ f'" 6 i0 ~ ~ Oil ... j:I ~ .,.. ,,1:: = •" ~ ~~ g o. J!~ t~ f: lU!.~ ',<. ·~8.,!lta ~:Si· . mi~ ~ t'o-s = 8.~ .. ~ ~ .. ~ g 5 -i<~ 0'~ ~Il: ~ Ii IW. !~p.]fh """ ~I!. - ~ a.'=QI:~g e~ . 1~.9 ~ - w _ .- t t 1 _ 1~ ;- ~il'6·5.e .5: .. ... ~ ]l"!~H' -"'$ . =_z O'" "' c ~ § ~g.s:'o t~i!l "'~ ej~] . !i]~1 a ~ ~.;>-j [i-1i _ .. ~] i~ ~ ~! s ] .. 1-~ Ii U .: E I. l· ~ . "~jl' ~ ' .cds .. 0.0 ~.g>- •]" . !I., ··L - '9 l;~j'i, - li. - . H · ;-i · ~ ~i~> ~ "~ L t n ILj '· •, •. ~ ' ~ ~:! lin'! <>.111 ~.!: ei""-i H~! o·_ ·-.t--u " .... ·g8-S a ] ~-]'o 'o.ii £ '51'" .:.1 ~!l 'o~H·b ~ .c: ._" tl Il'!~1 lie ".. .,!l!1 '5 r~ g_ "=' i3 . . ." e .. .Ea ~. !. .,r -99 ...,<~ -.;. . ~~ fj . s·. ~ !! ~ ;E$~ ~:;i'l -§l = """, oS ~] ·f •j ~~ ~ ~ ~ = ~'oe ~ J~1'.!lI j ~$ §!J! 4l 0 .· __ ,·g~]} .s05 l5-.!::! , • \:; i3~ li. ,I " ! . . ; >-.£ "11 lg~!i:'e g ."F e t P ]~lJ1 ,~ ~ ' " .'·lw ... .S I ._ :;:;. "'< >< R ~ :; 'o ..!!E . .= <.~ · g,Pi~1$ = ~g-a! t: d"S E-'" l~ ~ e .t3!2 2~ .!: E h It Un