Original Research
18 April 2023
10.3389/feart.2023.1158991
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PUBLISHED
DOI
OPEN ACCESS
EDITED BY
Hema Achyuthan,
Anna University, India
REVIEWED BY
Ibrahim Ied,
Zagazig University, Egypt
Ikhlas Alhejoj,
The University of Jordan, Jordan
Fadhil Ameen,
University of Sulaymaniyah, Iraq
*CORRESPONDENCE
Sherif Farouk,
geo.sherif@hotmail.com
Tamer Abu-Alam,
tamer.abu-alam@uit.no
SPECIALTY SECTION
This article was submitted to Quaternary
Science, Geomorphology and
Paleoenvironment,
a section of the journal
Frontiers in Earth Science
04 February 2023
31 March 2023
PUBLISHED 18 April 2023
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CITATION
Farouk S, Jain S, Ahmad F, Abu-Alam T,
Al-Kahtany K, El Agroudy IS, Bazeen YS
and Shaker F (2023), Multiproxy analyses
of paleoenvironmental and
paleoceanographic changes during the
Danian-Selandian in East Central Sinai: An
integrated stable isotope and planktic
foraminiferal data.
Front. Earth Sci. 11:1158991.
doi: 10.3389/feart.2023.1158991
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© 2023 Farouk, Jain, Ahmad, Abu-Alam,
Al-Kahtany, El Agroudy, Bazeen and
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Frontiers in Earth Science
Multiproxy analyses of
paleoenvironmental and
paleoceanographic changes
during the Danian-Selandian in
East Central Sinai: An integrated
stable isotope and planktic
foraminiferal data
Sherif Farouk 1*, Sreepat Jain 2, Fayez Ahmad 3,
Tamer Abu-Alam 4,5*, Khaled Al-Kahtany 6, Ibrahim S. El Agroudy 1,
Youssef S. Bazeen 7 and Fatma Shaker 8
1
Exploration Department, Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute, Nasr City, Egypt, 2Department of
Geology, School of Applied Natural Science, Adama Science and Technology University, Adama, Ethiopia,
3
Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Prince El-Hassan Bin Talal Faculty for Natural
Resources and Environment, The Hashemite University, Zarqa, Jordan, 4The Faculty of Biosciences,
Fisheries and Economics, UiT the Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway, 5OSEAN—Outermost
Regions Sustainable Ecosystem for Entrepreneurship and Innovation, University of Madeira, Colégio dos
Jesuítas, Funchal, Portugal, 6Geology and Geophysics Department, College of Science, King Saud
University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, 7Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Cairo,
Egypt, 8Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Benha University, Benha, Egypt
Forty-three planktic foraminifera samples from the Themed section (East Central
Sinai; Egypt) spanning the Zone Parvularugoglobigerina eugubina (Pα) to the
Subzone Acarinina subsphaerica (P4b) have been studied. Data from δ13C, δ18O,
and planktic foraminifera-based species diversity, depth habitat, preference for
warm and cool surface waters, and nutrients (oligotrophic, mesotrophic, and
eutrophic conditions) are used to infer paleoenvironmental changes throughout
the Danian‒Selandian duration. Based on quantitative multivariate analyses
(hierarchical cluster and principal component), three distinct intervals were
recognized, Interval 1 (Pα‒P1b), Interval 2 (P1c‒P3a), and Interval 3 (P3a‒P4b).
Interval 2 is further subdivided into three subintervals, 2a (part P1c), 2b (part P1c),
and 2c (P2‒P3a). Two δ13C events are identified, Dan-C2 and Latest Danian Event
(LDE) and elaborated concerning paleoenvironmental changes. During the earliest
Danian planktic foraminiferal Pα Zone, moderately shallow and eutrophic conditions
prevailed with cool surface waters and a shallow thermocline. Comparable
conditions were still prevailing during P1a‒P1b, but with slightly deeper and
mesotrophic conditions and a somewhat deeper thermocline and reduced
stratification. P1b‒P1c exhibits a major shift from Eoglobigerina to Subbotina‒
Parasubbotina with cooler surface waters and moderate mesotrophic conditions.
For Subzone P1c (upper part), slightly mesotrophic conditions were inferred,
whereas for P2‒P3a (lower part), surface water warming and thermocline
shallowing events have inferred with increased oligotrophic conditions. The
Latest Danian Event (mid-P3a) is marked by a dramatic negative δ13C excursion,
warm waters, increased mesotrophic conditions, and enhanced stratification. The
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Farouk et al.
10.3389/feart.2023.1158991
dominance of Morozovella, Acarinina, and Igorina specify warm and oligotrophic
conditions for subzones P3b‒P4b.
KEYWORDS
Danian-Selandian, planktic foraminifera, paleoenvironmental, Sinai, Egypt
1 Introduction
Paleocene in southern Egypt have been noted (Barazi and Kuss,
1987). The main units controlling sedimentation in Egypt during
the Late Cretaceous and Early Paleogene are the Arabian-Nubian
massif and the tectonically “Stable Shelf” in south and central
Egypt, and the “Unstable Shelf” in the north (Said, 1962). The
Paleocene succession in Sinai comprises the following formations,
Dakhla, Tarawan Formation, and the lower part of Esna. The
Dakhla Formation is represented by hemipelagic calcareous
mudstones and marls, with much-reduced thickness than noted
in other parts of Egypt (Figure 2). In Sinai, the Dakhla Formation
occurs between two carbonate intervals overlying the Campanian‒
Maastrichtian Sudr Formation and underlying the Tarawan
Formation (Figure 2). Due to distinct lateral facies changes, the
Dakhla Formation is restricted to Danian‒Selandian time interval
in northern Egypt (Sinai). In contrast, in central and southern
parts of Egypt, the argillaceous facies of the Dakhla Formation
extends in age from the Maastrichtian to Selandian (Farouk, 2016;
Bazeen et al., 2023).
There are numerous studies dealing with changes across the
Danian/Selandian boundary (D/S) from Egypt (Western and
Eastern Desert and Nile Basin) vis-à-vis biostratigraphy and
paleoenvironmental changes involving benthic and planktic
foraminifera and calcareous nannofossils (see Berggren and
Ouda, 2003; Speijer, 2003; Guasti, 2005; Guasti et al., 2005;
Guasti and Speijer, 2008; Bornemann et al., 2009; Obaidalla
et al., 2009; Youssef, 2009; Sprong et al., 2011; Sprong et al.,
2012; Farouk and El-Sorogy, 2015; Hewaidy et al., 2019; Bazeen
et al., 2023). In these studies, the emphasis was mainly on the
biostratigraphic component (Obaidalla et al., 2009; Farouk and ElSorogy, 2015; Hewaidy et al., 2017; Bazeen et al., 2023),
understanding faunal changes during the D/S boundary event
(Guasti, 2005; Guasti et al., 2005; Hewaidy et al., 2019) or with
respect to transient bioevents such as the Latest Danian Event
(LDE) (Speijer, 2003).
The planktic foraminifera is important not only from the
biostratigraphic aspects but also in revealing surface water
paleoenvironmental conditions, including water temperature
and trophic levels (Boersma and Premoli Silva, 1983; Lu and
Keller, 1996; Berggren and Norris, 1997; Pearson et al., 2001).
The quantitative paleoenvironmental data on the Danian‒
Selandian planktic foraminifera from Sinai (Egypt) are limited.
Here we present a multiproxy study involving planktic
foraminifera coupled with carbon (δ13C) and oxygen (δ18O)
isotope data from 43 samples from the Themed section (El
Themed village in East Central Sinai) spanning the Danian‒
Selandian interval. The used proxies include changes in (a)
planktic foraminifera species and genera composition, (b)
species diversity (the number of species and Fisher’s α), and
species dominance, (c) changes in the categorization of planktic
foraminifera species based on their depth of habitat, preference for
warm and cool surface waters, and nutrients (oligotrophic,
mesotrophic and eutrophic conditions).
3 Materials and methods
The studied section occurs 5 km west away from El Themed
village in East Central Sinai (29°46′39.11″N and 34°15′52.00″E;
Figure 1A). In the present study, Morozovella, Acarinina, and
Igorina are considered as warm water genera, whereas cool water
taxa include Parasubbotina and Subbotina; the keeled genera include
Morozovella and Igorina (Speijer, 2003; Guasti, 2005; Bornemann
et al., 2009; Bornemann et al., 2021). Additionally, the planktic
foraminifera species are also categorized based on their depth
habitat, as corroborated by isotopic studies (Table 1 and references
therein). These include (a) mix-layer with photosymbionts, (b) mixlayer (superficial waters/shallower pelagic dwellers), and (c)
thermocline and sub-thermocline (deeper pelagic dwellers) (see
Table 1). Both mix-layer and mix-layer with photosymbionts
inhabit the shallower portions of the water column suggesting
oligotrophic conditions for the water column, whereas the
thermocline and sub-thermocline forms inhabit the lower part of
the water column and suggest a pelagic ecosystem with the
development of a well-stratified water column and mesotrophic
conditions (Krahl et al., 2017; see also Table and references
therein). To measure the preservation degree of the planktic
foraminiferal assemblages, the following criteria were adopted: E =
excellent (sample includes “glassy” shells with no evidence of
recrystallization or secondary mineral infilling or overgrowth); G =
good (“frosty” shells with minor recrystallization, but no evidence of
secondary mineral infilling or overgrowth); M = moderate (opaque
shells with minor to significant shell recrystallization, presence of
secondary mineral infilling or overgrowth); P = poor (shells strongly
recrystallized and infilled or strongly fragmented). Hierarchical cluster
analysis (Ward’s method) and Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
2 Geologic setting
Sinai was situated on the wide northern shelf border of the
Afro-Arabian plate that occupies the southern margin of the
Tethys Ocean during the Maastrichtian-Paleocene time (Figures
1A,B). The rifts that presently bound the Sinai microplate (Gulf of
Suez and Gulf of Aqaba) were still closed. A major transgression of
the Tethys Sea occurred during the Paleocene, and large parts of
Egypt were flooded, which led to the deposition of a deeper,
condensed, and hemipelagic facies, especially during the
Paleocene (Farouk, 2016). The shoreline of this transgression
probably reached the Gabal Abyad, northern Sudan, where the
Paleocene marine sediments similar to the Arabian facies of the
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FIGURE 1
(A) Danian paleogeographic position of the study area (modified after Macleod and Keller, 1991). (B) Simplified geologic map of Sinai showing the
location of the study section (adapted after the Geological Survey of Egypt, 1994).
significant influence controlling the other species in their ecological
community), and the Shannon H (the index accounts for both
abundance and evenness of the species present); all analyses were
are used to define intervals. Species diversity is measured by using four
components: species richness (the number of species), species
dominance (the degree to which one or several species have a
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FIGURE 2
Outcrop of Themed section showing exposures of the Dakhla, Tarawan, Esna and Thebes formations.
further divided into three subzones, P1a, P1b, and P1c, based on the
sequential LO of Subbotina triloculinoides and Globanomalina
compressa (Berggren et al., 2005). The P1a Subzone encompasses
samples 5–7 (Figure 3). The foraminiferal species are similar to those
of the underlying Pα Zone, except the absence of the nominated
taxon. During this subzone, some species have their HO, such as
Eoglobigerina fringe, E. simplicissima, and Globanomalina
archeocompressa (see Figure 3).
The P1b Subzone is represented by the sequential LOs of
Subbotina triloculinoides and G. compressa, reported from two
successive samples, 8 and 9, respectively (Figure 3). The P1c
Subzone is bracketed between the sequential LOs of G. compressa
and Praemurica uncinata (samples 9–30; Figure 3). The planktic
species of the P1b Subzone are similar to those of the P1a Subzone,
except for the LO of Subbotina triloculinoides (Figure 3). The P1c
Subzone yields several planktic foraminifera bioevents such as the
LOs Praemurica inconstans, Pr. trinidadensis, and Globanomalina
imitate, and the HOs of P. moskvini, Praemurica taurica, W.
claytonensis, Praemurica pseudoinconstans, E. eobulloides, in
chronological order (see Figure 3).
The Praemurica uncinata (P2) Zone, defined by the LOs of
Praemurica uncinata and Morozovella angulata, which spans a short
time interval (61.4–61 Ma; Wade et al., 2011), is noted between
samples 31–33 (Figure 3). This zone exhibits the LOs of
Eoglobigerina spiralis, Globanomalina ehrenbergi, Subbotina
cancellata, Subbotina triangularis, and Morozovella praeangulata.
The lower boundary of this zone is defined by the HO of E. edita and
the upper boundary by the HO of Subbotina trivialis (Figure 3).
The M. angulata (P3) Zone is defined by the LOs of M. angulata
and Globanomalina pseudomenardii (Figure 3). This zone is divided
into two subzones, P3a and P3b, based on the LO of Igorina albeari
(Berggren et al., 2005; Wade et al., 2011). In the present study, the
done with the software PAST, Paleontological Statistics (Hammer
et al., 2001). The values of species evenness and dominance range
from 0 to 1; higher values of species evenness suggest an equitable
environment, whereas higher values of species dominance denote the
dominance of a particular species. Forty-two rock samples were
analyzed for δ13C and δ18O isotopes at the Environmental Isotope
Laboratory, University of Arizona. For more detailed methods, see
Salhi et al. (2022).
4 Results
4.1 Biostratigraphy
The studied samples of the Themed section show moderately
diverse and abundant planktic foraminiferal assemblages ranging in
age from earliest Danian to Selandian, subdivided into five zones,
following the biozonal schemes of Berggren et al. (2005) and Wade
et al. (2011) (Figure 3).
The distinctive earliest Danian planktic foraminifera
Parvularugoglobigerina eugubina was recorded in the basal two
samples (3 and 4), permitting the identification of Zone Pα
(Figure 3). This also indicate the absence of the P0 Zone which
may refer to a brief time gap at the Cretaceous/Paleogene boundary.
The dominant species of this zone include Eoglobigerina eobulloides,
Eoglobigerina edita, Eoglobigerina simplicissima, Parasubbotina
moskvini, Praemurica pseudoinconstans, Pr. taurica, Woodringina
claytonensis and W. homerstownensis (Figure 3).
The E. edita (P1) Zone is noted between samples 5–30 (Figure 3)
and is defined as the partial range of the nominal species between the
Highest Occurrence (HO) of P. eugubina and the Lowest
Occurrence (LO)Praemurica uncinata (Figure 3). The P1 Zone is
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P3a Subzone (samples 34–37) exhibits the LOs of the Igorina pusilla,
M. angulata, Morozovella conicotruncata, P. variospira, Acarinina
hansibolli, and Acarinina strabocella (see Figure 3). The P3b
Subzone (samples 38–39) and marks a major shift in planktic
foraminifer species composition, typified by the demise of
pramuricids and eoglobigerinids and the dominance of
morozovellids (M. angulata, Morozovella apanthesm, Morozovella
occlusa, and Morozovella velascoensis) (see Figure 3).
The G. pseudomenardii (P4) Zone is marked by the nominate
taxon’s total range. It includes subzones P4a, P4b, and P4c, whose
boundaries are delimited by the HO of Parasubbotina variospira and
the LO of Acarinina soldadoensis (Berggren et al., 2005; Wade et al.,
2011). In the present study, only the lower two subzones (P4a and
P4b) are identified (see Figure 3). The lower Subzone P4a spans from
the LO of G. pseudomenardii to the HO of P. variospira (samples
40–43). The planktic foraminifer of this subzone is somewhat
similar to that of the underlying P3b Subzone except for the LO
of G. pseudomenardii (see Figure 3). The P4b Subzone is defined as a
partial range of Acarinina subsphaerica between the HO of P.
variospira and the LO of A. soldadoensis (Figure 3). Subzone P4b
straddles the topmost portion of the investigated section, samples
44–45 (Figure 3). Hence, the upper boundary of this subzone is not
detected. This subzone is marked by the LOs of Acarinina nitida,
Zeauvigerina aegyptiaca, and Igorina tadjikistanensis (see Figure 3).
TABLE 1 Paleoecological significance of species identified in the present study.
1, Shackleton (1985); 2, D’Hondt et al. (1994); 3, Aze et al. (2011); 4, Berggren
and Norris (1997); 5, Lu and Keller (1996); 6, Boersma and Premoli Silva (1983);
7, D’Hondt and Zachos (1993); 8, Olsson et al. (1999); 9, Pearson et al. (2001);
10, Coxall et al. (2000); 11, Huber and Boersma (1994).
Species
7,8
Parvularugoglobigerina eugubina
7,8
Parvularugoglobigerina
longiapertura
7,8
Praemurica inconstans
4,6
Praemurica taurica
4.2.1 Carbon isotope
The δ13C values exhibit fluctuations between 1.96‰ and −0.1‰
(Figure 4). Two δ13C events are identified in the present study, DanC2 event (Dan-C2) and the Latest Danian Event (LDE) (Figure 4).
Two more events are suggested viz., Lower Chron 29n event (L.
C29n) and the Middle Chron 27r event (M. C27r) (Figure 4).
However, higher resolution data is needed to conclusively
confirm the presence of the latter two events. Both Dan-C2 and
LDE events are elaborated below.
3
Mix-layer
1,4
Rectoguembelina cretacea
11
Woodringina claytonensis
8
Woodringina hornerstownensis
7,8
Woodringina irregularis
11
Praemurica nikolasi
11
Acarinina strabocella
3
Igorina albeari
3
Igorina pusilla
3
Igorina tadjikistanensis
4
Morozovella angulate
4
Mix-layer with
photosymbiosis
1,6
Morozovella apanthesma
4,5
Morozovella conicotruncana
4,6
Morozovella praeangulata
1
Morozovella velascoensis
4
Parasubbotina pseudobulloides
The Dan-C2 hyperthermal event has been well-documented at
sites in the Atlantic Ocean and is characterized by double, fairly
symmetrical negative excursions in carbon (δ13C) and oxygen (δ18O)
isotopes in bulk sediment and is associated with an increase in
sediment clay content and a decrease in carbonate content (Kroon
and Zachos, 2007; Quillévéré and Norris, 2008; Barnet et al., 2017;
Barnet et al., 2019). However, the event might have been restricted to
the Atlantic and surrounding areas, including the Tethys Ocean
(e.g., Westerhold et al., 2011). A Dan-C2 negative Carbon Isotope
Excursion (CIE) was identified at ODP Hole 1049C (NW Atlantic)
in bulk sediment (~1.3‰), planktic (~0.7‰), and benthic
foraminifera (~1‰), and in bulk sediment in Deep Sea Drilling
Project (DSDP) Holes 527 and 528 (SE Atlantic; ~1.5‰ and ~0.8‰
respectively) (Quillévéré and Norris, 2008). In western Tethys
(Gubbio section), the Dan-C2 is observed in bulk δ13C (~0.8‰)
(Coccioni et al., 2010). This event is also recorded at the Wadi
Hamma section in Egypt (Punekar et al., 2014; Figure 4). In the
present study, the Dan-C2 event is characterized by a sudden
4,7
Praemurica uncinata
Morozovella acutispira
4.2.2 Dan-C2 hyperthermal event
References
Parvularugoglobigerina
alabamensis
Praemurica pseudoinconstans
4.2 Carbon and oxygen isotopes
Frontiers in Earth Science
Habitat
Subthermocline
4,7
Chiloguembelina midwayensis
6,7
Chiloguembelina morsei
6,7
Chiloguembelina subtriangularis
6,7
Eoglobigerina edita
3
Eoglobigerina eobulloides
Eoglobigerina spiralis
4,7
Thermocline
3
Globanomalina archeocompressa
3
Globanomalina compressa
8
Globanomalina ehrenbergi
3
Globanomalina imitate
3
Globanomalina planocompressa
8
Globanomalina pseudomenardii
4
(Continued on following page)
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10.3389/feart.2023.1158991
(sample 34) (Figure 4). The upper interval (samples 41–45;
within Zone P4) is characterized by increased values ranging
from −2.07‰ (samples 43) to −2.52‰ (sample 44) (Figure 4).
TABLE 1 (Continued) Paleoecological significance of species identified in the
present study. 1, Shackleton (1985); 2, D’Hondt et al. (1994); 3, Aze et al.
(2011); 4, Berggren and Norris (1997); 5, Lu and Keller (1996); 6, Boersma and
Premoli Silva (1983); 7, D’Hondt and Zachos (1993); 8, Olsson et al. (1999); 9,
Pearson et al. (2001); 10, Coxall et al. (2000); 11, Huber and Boersma (1994).
Species
Habitat
Globoconusa daubjergensis
References
Parasubbotina varianta
8,9
Parasubbotina varioespira
8,9
Subbotina trivialis
10
Subbotina triangularis
2,10
Subbotina velascoensis
4,10
Subbotina triloculinoides
4,10
Zeauvigerina waiparaensis
4.4 Preservation and diagenesis
6
Of the studied 43 samples, only three ample showed poor
preservation (samples 30, 36, and 37), whereas one sample
showed very poor preservation (sample 43) and one with poor to
moderate preservation (sample 44) (see Figure 3). The remaining
38 samples showed moderate to good preservation. The preservation
of all samples was good enough to confidently assign species-level
identifications (Figure 3).
Diagenesis impacts the rock’s primary isotopic signature,
which, in turn, influences the reliability of the recognized
trends and patterns among the measured values. The oxygen
isotope values are more sensitive to diagenetic alteration than
carbon isotope values (Allan and Matthews, 1982; Jenkyns
et al., 1994). Therefore, cross-plotting the measured δ 13 C vs.
δ 18 O values has been adopted as an adequate strategy to assess
the originality of the carbon isotope signature (Jarvis et al.,
2011). Higher positive co-variance between δ 13 C and δ 18 O
denotes diagenesis within the marine-meteoric mixing zone
(Allan and Matthews, 1982). In this regard, the present δ 13 C
and δ 18 O cross-plots reveal a weak correlation (R 2 = 0.219) and
a moderate positive correlation coefficient (0.46), suggesting
reduced co-variance (20%) between δ 13 C and δ 18 O, signaling
less diagenetic influence of the carbon isotopic signature
(Figure 5). Whereas the present δ 18 O measurements show
normal distribution with values ranging from −2.7 to −4.05,
the δ 13 C measurements are somewhat right skewed, where most
values (58.5%) plot between 0.2‰ and 0.6‰ (Figure 5).
Furthermore, moderate to good species preservation suggests
relatively less diagenetic overprinting and the reliability of the
primary signal.
11
decrease in δ13C values from 0.47‰ (sample 6) to −0.27‰ (sample
7) (Figure 4).
4.2.3 Latest Danian Event (LDE)
The Carbon Isotope Excursion (CIE) associated with the Late
Danian Event (LDE) has not been recorded in Tunisian sections
(Sprong et al., 2013). The negative δ13C excursion observed at the
base of the Selandian at the Zumaia section (Schmitz et al., 1998) is
not recorded in some sections (Berggren et al., 2000). On the other
hand, the LDE is marked in some sections by a double-peak carbon
isotope excursion (Monechi et al., 2013). The negative δ13C
excursion at the base of the late Danian and the base of
Selandian at the Zumaia section is probably related to sea-level
fall that may have shifted the coastline closer to Zumaia (Schmitz
et al., 2011).
In the present study, a sudden decrease in δ13C from 1.19‰
to −0.10‰ (samples 35–37) characterizes the Late Danian Event
(LDE) at the Chron C27n/C26r boundary within the uppermost
part planktic foraminiferal P3a Subzone (Figure 4). This
negative δ13C shift also coincides with decreasing δ18O values
(Figure 4), reflecting an exceptional perturbation of the carbon
cycle and sea level fall (Jarvis et al., 2002), indicating warming of
bottom and surface waters of up to 2 C of the deep ocean during
the early Paleocene global warming episode (Westerhold et al.,
2011).
4.5 Planktic foraminiferal distribution
In the present study, 44 planktic foraminiferal species are
identified. Among them, 16 species account for 84% of the total
planktic foraminiferal population (Figure 3). Of these sixteen
species, four dominate and make up 50% of this population;
these are Subbotina triloculinoides (15.4%), Parasubbotina
pseudobulloides (14.1%), Parasubbotina varianta (13.6%) and
Praemurica inconstans (7.9%) (Figure 3).
Based on quantitative multivariate analyses (hierarchical cluster
and principal component), three intervals of change are identified,
Interval 1 to 3; Interval 2 is further subdivided into three
subintervals, 2a, 2b, and 2c (Figure 6). These intervals/
subintervals are briefly described below.
4.3 Oxygen isotope
The overall negative values of the δ18O isotope fluctuate
between −2.7 and −4.05‰, suggesting they are unstable and very
variable (Figure 4). About two-thirds of the readings lie
between −2.3 and −3.3. (Figure 4). The studied δ18O interval
(samples 1–14) have higher negative values ranging
from −2.31‰ (sample 4) to −4.9‰ (sample 14) (Figure 4). The
second interval occurs within the upper part of Subzone P1c and
Zone P2, ranging from 2.20 (sample 33) to −3.26‰ (sample 26)
(Figure 4). The third interval occurs across the D/S boundary
(samples 34–40) ranging from −2.9 (sample 35) to −3.64‰
Frontiers in Earth Science
4.5.1 Interval 1 (samples 3–8; Pα‒P1b zones)
Six species dominate this interval, E. eobulloides (13.2%),
Praemurica taurica (12.1%), P. moskvini (11.5%), E. edita (8.5%),
Praemurica pseudoinconstans (8.5%) and E. simplicissima (8.5%)
(Figure 3). In terms of the genus level, three genera dominate,
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10.3389/feart.2023.1158991
FIGURE 3
Distribution of identified planktic foraminifera species from the Themed section (El Themed village in East Central Sinai, Egypt). The identified zones
(1–3) are based on hierarchical clustering and principal component analysis. Of the 44 identified planktic foraminifera species, 16 (in red) make up 84% of
the total population. Changes in the number of taxa is also shown on the right (see text for further explanation).
Eoglobigerina (36.1%), Praemurica (20.4%), and Parasubbotina
(14.4%) (Figure 7). This interval is dominated by thermocline
dwellers (deeper pelagic dwellers) ranging from 48% to 74%
(average, 66%) with lower values of mix-layer dwellers (shallower
pelagic dwellers) ranging from 26% to 52% (average, 34%); the
thermocline dwellers increase gradually, whereas, the mix-layer
dwellers decrease, correspondingly, from 52% to 33% (average,
34%) (see Figure 3). The cool water taxa (Parasubbotina and
Subbotina), from the base to the top, show increasing values
ranging from 27% to 46%, with an average of 38.9% (Figure 3).
The interval is marked by moderately low diversity values (number
of species from 11 to 15, average 12.5; Fisher’s α ranging from 2.8 to
4.9, average 3.8) with very low species dominance values, from
0.09 to 0.13 (average 0.11) (see Figure 3). The δ13C values remain low
and range from 0.26% to 0.47% with an average value of 0.36%
(Figure 3).
4.5.2.1 Subinterval 2a (samples 9–20; part P1c)
In Subinterval 2a, six species make up 77% of the total planktic
foraminiferal population, P. pseudobulloides (18.4%), P. varianta
(14.7%), S. triloculinoides (13.4%), Subbotina trivialis (12.2%),
Praemurica
inconstans
(11.5%)
and
Praemurica
pseudoinconstans (7.2%) (Figure 3). In terms of genera,
Parasubbotina (33.5%), Subbotina (25.6%), and Praemurica
(19.5%) make up 79% of the total planktic foraminiferal
population (Figure 7). All species show a gradual increase in
relative abundances; P. pseudobulloides (from 12.4% to 23.9%;
average: 18.2%), P. varianta (from 5.2% to 20.4%; average: 14.6%),
S. triloculinoides (from 10.7% to 14.5%; average: 1.34%), Subbotina
trivialis (from 9.9% to 10.4%; average: 11.7%) and P. inconstans
(from 2.6% to 10.7%; average: 10.9%); Pr. pseudoinconstans shows
a declining trend (from 13.7% to 3.8%; average: 7.2%) (Figure 3).
The Subinterval 2a is also marked by declining values of number of
taxa (base to top: from 15 to 12; averaging 13) and Fisher’s α (from
4.9 to 3.6; averaging 4) with a corresponding increase in species
dominance (from 0.09 to 0.15; averaging 0.12) (Figures 3, 7). The
interval is also dominated by increasing values of the thermocline
dwellers (deeper pelagic dwellers), from 68% to 84% with an
average value of 78% with correspondingly lower values of mixlayer dwellers (shallower pelagic dwellers), increasing from 32% to
16% with an average value of 22% (Figure 7). The cool water
species of Parasubbotina and Subbotina genera show increasing
and highest values, increasing from 64% to 67% with an average
4.5.2 Interval 2 (samples 9–36; P1c‒P3a subzones)
The subintervals of Interval 2 are based on changes in the
distribution of three dominant species (P. varianta, Subbotina
triloculinoides,
and
P.
pseudobulloides)
and
genera
(Parasubbotina, Subbotina, and Praemurica) (see Figures 3, 7).
Interval 2 also marks a shift in species composition and generic
abundance from Eoglobigerina (36.1%; E. eobulloides: 13.2%) in
Interval 1 to Subbotina‒Parasubbotina (S. triloculinoides and P.
pseudobulloides, 20.5% each) in Interval 2 (see Figures 3, 7).
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FIGURE 4
Correlation of δ13C isotope curves of ODP (Ocean Drilling Program) sites 1262 and 1269, Qreiya and Wadi Hamama sections (Egypt) and the Themed
section (present study).
value of 59% (Figure 7). The δ13C values remain low but show
increasing values, from 0.38% to 0.31% with an average value of
0.47% (Figure 7).
4.5.2.2 Subinterval 2b (samples 21–30; part P1c)
In Subinterval 2b, five species make up 88% of the total planktic
foraminiferal population, Subbotina triloculinoides (26.9%), P.
pseudobulloides (22.4%), P. varianta (18.5%), Praemurica
inconstans (11%) and Subbotina trivialis (8.9%) (Figure 3). In
terms of the genera, Parasubbotina (41%), Subbotina (36%) and
Praemurica (16%) make up 93% of the total planktic foraminiferal
population (Figure 3). Of the five most abundant species, two species
show increasing trends, S. triloculinoides (15.1%–27.8%; average
25.1%) and P. pseudobulloides (22.4%–22.7%; average 22%), whereas
the other three species show declining trends, P. varianta (25.4%–
17.7%; average 19.4%), and Pr. inconstans (12%–1.4%; average
11.1%) and Subbotina trivialis (14.4%–8.5%; 9.7average %)
(Figure 3). The Subinterval 2b is also dominated by thermocline
dwellers with an average value of 85%, but (from the base to the top)
shows slight declining values, from 87.3% to 80% (Figure 7). The
values for the mix-layer dwellers remains low (averaging 15.1%),
although they show an increasing trend, from 12.7% to 20%
(Figure 7). The cool water species (of Parasubbotina and
Subbotina) remain high and largely unchanged from the previous
subinterval; their values for this subinterval range from 77.3% to
76.7% with an average of 76% (Figure 7). Declining species diversity
values (number of taxa from 10 to 9, averaging 9.5, and Fisher’s α
from 2.8 to 2.4, averaging 2.6) are also noted in this subinterval.
However, species dominance (from 0.18 to 0.19; averaging 0.18)
only shows negligible change (Figure 7). The δ13C values remain low
FIGURE 5
Histograms illustrating the distribution of the δ13C versus δ18O
data. The cross-plots show a weak correlation (R2 = 0.219).
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FIGURE 6
Quantitative analyses. Two analyses were used to define intervals in the present study (Intervals 1–3), hierarchical clustering (A) and principal
component analysis (B).
species show decreasing trends, P. varianta (from 16.3% to 6.1%;
average 16.7%), S. triloculinoides (from 25% to 6.1%; average 14.6%),
P. pseudobulloides (from 18.5% to 4.1%; average 11.7%) and Pr.
trinidadensis (from 10.9% to 4.1%; average 7.6%); an increasing
trend is noted for Pr. uncinata (from 3.8% to 18.4%; average 13.5%)
and Pr. inconstans (from 10.9% to 12.2%; average 9%) (Figure 3).
The subinterval is also marked by decreasing values of thermocline
dwellers from 74% to 33% (average 62%), whereas both mix-layer
dwellers (from 26% to 35%; average: 30%) and mix-layer with
photosymbionts (from 0% to 33%; average: 30%) show increasing
values (Figure 7). The cool water species (of Parasubbotina and
Subbotina) dramatically decrease from 70% to 31% with an average
but show increasing values, from 0.42% to 0.62% with an average
value of 0.55% (Figure 7).
4.5.2.3 Subinterval 2c (samples 31–36; P2‒P3a)
In Subinterval 2c, six species make up 77% of the total planktic
foraminiferal population, P. varianta (18.7%), Subbotina
triloculinoides (16%), P. pseudobulloides (13.1%), Praemurica
uncinata (12.7%), Praemurica inconstans (8.4%) and Praemurica
trinidadensis (8.2%) (Figure 3). In terms of the genera,
Parasubbotina (32.3%), Praemurica (29.3%) and Subbotina
(26.9%) make up 88.5% of the total planktic foraminiferal
population (Figure 7). Of the six most abundant species, four
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FIGURE 7
Proxies used to infer Danian‒Selandian paleoenvironment. The proxies include species diversity (number of taxa, Fisher’s α and species dominance),
relative abundances of warm water species, keeled species, Praemurica, Morozovella, Eoglobigerina, Subbotina, Parasubbotina, Igorina, and
categorization of planktic foraminiferal species bae on their depth preferences (mix-layer with photosymbionts, mix-layer and thermocline dwellers),
δ13C and inferred paleoenvironment based on these aforementioned proxies (see text for further explanation).
(32%–4%) dwellers, and the increased relative abundances of mixlayer with photosymbionts dwellers (from 11% to 66%), warm water
(from 17% to 70%) and keeled species (from 12% to 50%), with
decreased species diversity values (Fisher’s α and the number of taxa;
from 6.4 to 4.9 and 18 to 15, respectively); species dominance
remains low (from 0.11 to 0.10) (see Table 1; Figure 7).
value of 57%; the warm water species show a corresponding increase,
from 0 to 52 (average 13) (Figure 7). The relative abundance of
keeled species marks their appearance and shows an increasing
trend from 4.7% to 20.4% with an average value of 10% (Figure 7).
The Subinterval 2c is also marked by increasing values of species
diversity (the number of taxa increased from base to top, from 12 to
17; average 15; Fisher’s α from 3.6 to 5.9; average 4.7) with
decreasing values for species dominance (from 0.15 to 0.09;
average 0.12) (Figure 7). The δ13C values remain low and
decreases from 0.33% to 0.10% with an average value of 0.46%
(Figure 7).
4.5.2.5 Interval 3 (samples 37–45; P3a‒P4b)
In Interval 3, nine species make up 77% of the total planktic
foraminiferal population, M. angulata (16.4%), M. conicontruncata
(13%), Morozovella apanthesma (9.3%), M. occlusa (8.8%), I. pusilla
(8.5%), I. albeari (6.6%), A. hansbollii (5.4%), S. velascoensis (5.2%)
and S. triangularis (4.2%) (Figure 3). In terms of the genera,
Morozovella (52.7%), Subbotina (16%), and Igorina (15.3%) make
up 84% of the total planktic foraminiferal population (Figure 7). Of
the nine most abundant species, four species show increasing values,
M. apanthesma (from 0% to 12.5%; average 6.7%), M. occlusa (from
0% to 9.7%; average 8%), Subbotina velascoensis (from 0% to 9.7%;
average 8%) and I. albeari (from 0% to 2.8%; average 4.9%), whereas
the other five species show decreasing values, M. angulata (from
19.6% to 16.7%; average 15.4%), A. hansbollii (from 10.9% to 0%;
average 3.5%), M. conicontruncata (from 6.5% to 2.8%; average
8.7%), I. pusilla (from 6.5% to 5.6%; average 6.7%), and S.
triangularis (from 5.1% to 2.8%; average 3.8%) (Figure 3).
Interval 3 is also marked by increasing values of mix-layer with
photosymbionts species, from 66% to 71% (average 64%), and
slightly decreasing values of Thermocline dwellers, from 29.7% to
4.5.2.4 Latest Danian Event (LDE, ~62.2 Ma)
In the present study, samples 35–37 (i.e., at the top of
Subinterval 2c) mark the Latest Danian Event (LDE) (see
Table 2; Figure 7) and are marked by the increased abundance of
Morozovella (M. praeangulata, M. angulata, and Morozovella
conicontruncata), reduction in Parasubbotina (particularly of P.
varianta), Subbotina (particularly of S. triloculinoides and S.
cancellata), Praemurica (Pr. trinidadensis, Pr. inconstans and Pr.
uncinata) and Globanomalina (G. ehrenbergi and G. compressa), the
emergence of Igorina (of I. pusilla) and Acarinina (Acarinina
hansbollii and A. strabocella) and the final disappearance of
Eoglobigerina (Igorina spiralis). The genus Praemurica disappears
just after the LDE (see Table 1 and Figure 7). LDE is also marked by a
dramatic decline in δ13C values (i.e., a negative δ13C excursion; from
1.19 to −0.10%), in Thermocline (from 57% to 30%) and mix-layer
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TABLE 2 Changes in proxies and species composition noted across the Latest Danian Event (LDE).
Age (Wade et al., 2011)
PF Zone
61
P3
61
60
P2
Interval/Subinterval
59.4
P3a
P3b
2c
3
LDE
Event
Sample No.
T32
T33
T34
T35
T36
T37
T38
T39
δ C (‰)
0.50
0.38
0.26
1.19
0.10
−0.10
0.34
0.74
Taxa
12
14
14
18
17
15
18
18
Fisher alpha
3.6
4.4
4.4
6.4
5.9
4.9
6.4
6.4
Dominance
0.15
0.12
0.12
0.11
0.09
0.10
0.08
0.09
Evenness
0.68
0.72
0.72
0.67
0.83
0.78
0.79
0.77
3
7
17
52
70
73
78
13
% Warm water species
Keeled
5
6
9
12
20
50
68
73
% Thermocline
72
70
63
57
33
30
28
23
2
4
11
33
66
72
77
28
33
32
35
4
1.8
2.9
2.7
4.1
15.9
5.5
4.7
1.3
2.1
6.1
19.6
14.6
16.4
0.9
4.1
6.5
13.2
13.1
% Mix-layer with photosymbionts
% Mix-layer
28
Morozovella praeangulata
Survivor
Morozovella angulata
Survivor
Morozovella conicontruncata
LDE-emergence
Morozovella occlusa
Post-LDE emergence
8.3
9.5
Morozovella apanthesma
Post-LDE emergence
8.4
9.3
Morozovella velascoensis
Post-LDE emergence
1.0
2.7
Parasubbotina varianta
Survivor
18.9
17.9
22.4
18.5
6.1
6.5
3.2
3.2
Parasubbotina pseudobulloides
LDE-Disappearance
17.2
14.4
8.4
7.9
4.1
2.2
Parasubbotina variospira
LDE-emergence
2.3
4.1
2.9
5.0
4.9
Subbotina triloculinoides
Survivor
22.9
17.9
8.6
6.8
6.1
5.1
5.0
3.8
Subbotina cancellata
Survivor
2.9
5.4
8.4
7.9
4.1
6.5
4.0
2.4
Subbotina triangularis
Survivor
4.1
7.3
6.8
2.0
5.1
5.5
3.5
Subbotina velascoensis
Post-LDE emergence
3.7
3.7
Praemurica trinidadensis
LDE-Disappearance
11.5
8.0
6.7
4.2
4.1
Praemurica inconstans
LDE-Disappearance
8.7
8.0
7.3
6.8
12.2
2.2
Praemurica uncinata
LDE-Disappearance
7.6
12.0
18.5
21.0
18.4
2.2
Igorina albeari
Post-LDE emergence
6.6
6.6
Igorina pusilla
LDE-emergence
1.6
4.1
6.5
8.4
8.3
Acarinina hansbollii
LDE-emergence
3.4
4.1
10.9
5.0
4.9
Acarinina strabocella
LDE-emergence
10.2
6.5
1.0
1.0
Globanomalina ehrenbergi
Survivor
1.0
1.4
1.7
1.6
2.0
1.4
0.8
0.8
Globanomalina compressa
LDE-Disappearance
3.1
1.9
2.1
2.0
Globanomalina imitata
LDE-Disappearance
1.0
1.1
1.3
1.3
Eoglobigerina spiralis
LDE-Disappearance
2.6
3.5
2.8
2.1
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increased productivity (low δ13C values and relative abundances
of mesotrophic taxa, Chiloguembelina and Woodringina: 3.3% and
15.1%, respectively) did not severely affect the fauna, that would
have otherwise caused oxygen-depleted conditions (Figure 7).
Additionally, moderate to good preservation of samples also
suggest that dissolution did not play a major role in altering
species composition (Figure 7).
The P1a Subzone also records the Dan-2 event (samples 6–7;
Figure 7). This event is considered a transient hyperthermal episode
that records a shift in carbon reservoirs and ocean warming in the
northwestern and southeastern sectors of the Atlantic Ocean and is
marked by environmental perturbation resulting in enhanced
eutrophication of the sea surface waters and carbonate
dissolution (Coccioni et al., 2010). It has been suggested that as
the environmental conditions became more stable after the K–Pg
event, Guembelitria retreated and vacated its niche to other
ecological generalists such as the low-oxygen tolerant small
biserial taxa (Heterohelix, Chiloguembelina, Woodringina, and
Zeuvigerina), that slightly increased in abundance during the
Dan-C2 event (Coccioni et al., 2010).
In the present study, during the Dan-C2 event, only
Woodringina (9.5%) and Chiloguembelina (2.2%) are recorded,
and both are also cool water forms (Boersma and Premoli Silva,
1983). Guembelitria and Heterohelix have not been recorded in the
present study, whereas Zeuvigerina only occurs at the top of the
studied section (samples 44–45). Eoglobigerina eobulloides
dominates during this event and is associated with low species
diversity (the average values of Fisher’s α number of taxa are
11.5 and 3.4, respectively) and low species dominance (average
value: 0.11), suggesting that increased mesotrophy did not result in
stressed or low-oxygen conditions, during this transient interval.
Keller (2014) noted that the last Deccan phase 3 began at the
base of C29N and was accompanied by the extinction of P. eugubina.
In the present study, only samples 3 to 4 have yielded P. eugubina.
Hence, in our present study, samples 5‒8 of Interval 1 (Figure 7)
correspond with Phase 3 of the Deccan volcanism. Keller (2014)
noted that the early Danian zones P0 and P1a record a high-stressed
environment with the upper part of P1a registering improved
conditions but marked by low species diversity (12–15 number of
taxa). In the present study, species diversity also remains low
(between 10 and 15; average: 12.5), but species dominance is also
low (averaging 0.11), suggesting a more or less equitable
paleoenvironment rather than stressed conditions (see Figure 7).
Additionally, the dominant early Danian species of Guembelitria
cretacea, suggestive of high-stress conditions (Keller, 2014) has not
been recorded in the present study; the presence of low-oxygen
tolerant taxa Woodringina (3.6%) and Chiloguembelina (1.4%) are
noted, but in only in lower abundances, suggesting the absence of
stressed conditions.
The planktic foraminiferal zones P1b‒P1c (subintervals 2a‒2b;
samples 9–30) exhibit a major shift in species composition, a change
from the dominance of Eoglobigerina (36.1%; E. eobulloides: 13.2%)
to Subbotina‒Parasubbotina (S. triloculinoides and P.
pseudobulloides, 20.5% each). Parasubbotina and Subbotina (59%)
are considered cool surface water species and deep thermocline
dwellers, suggesting enhanced and stable water column stratification
and meso-to oligotrophic conditions (Boersma and Premoli Silva,
1983; Boersma and Premoli Silva, 1991; Pearson et al., 1993; Norris,
29.2% (average 25%) (Figure 7). The cool water species (of
Parasubbotina and Subbotina) show decreasing values from
28.3% to 23.6% with an average value of 21%; the warm water
species show corresponding increasing values, from 70 to 75
(average 64) (Figure 7). The relative abundance of keeled species
shows increasing values from 50% to 68%, averaging 61% (Figure 7).
Interval 3 is also marked by increasing values of species diversity
(number of taxa from 15 to 17; average 15; Fisher’s α from 4.9 to 5.9;
average 5.2) and decreasing values for species dominance (from
0.10 to 0.09; average 0.08) (Figure 7). The δ13C values remain low but
show increasing values, from 0.34% to 1.68% with an average of
1.06% (Figure 7).
5 Discussion
5.1 Paleoecological and paleoceanographic
interpretations
The Pα‒P1b zones (64.97–62.9 Ma; Interval 1; samples 3–8) are
characterized by the dominance of thermocline dweller
Eoglobigerina (36%: consisting of E. eobulloides, E. edita and E.
simplicissima) (Figures 3, 7). The thermocline dwellers inhabit the
deeper segments of the water column (e.g., thermocline), indicating
the presence of a deeper thermocline, reduced stratification and/or
eutrophic conditions (Bornemann et al., 2021) (see Table 1 for
species habitat categorization). The other dominant taxa,
Praemurica (20.4%: Pr. taurica and Pr. pseudoinconstans) prefers
cooler waters (Guasti, 2005 and references therein); globally, the
genus is well-documented to have disappeared just before the advent
of the warm hypothermal Lower Danian Event (LDE: Berggren and
Norris, 1997; Olsson et al., 1999; Jehle et al., 2015; 2019; Bornemann
et al., 2021) (Figure 7). Cool surface waters are also supported by the
presence of Chiloguembelina (C. morsei; 3.3%), Globanomalina (G.
archeocompressa and G. planocompressa) and Subbotina (S.
triloculinoides and S. trivialis; 7%) (see Boersma and Premoli
Silva, 1983; Shackleton, 1985; Pearson et al., 1993; Van Eijden,
1995; Kelly et al., 1996; Lu et al., 1998; Quillévéré and Norris, 2003;
Guasti, 2005) (Figure 7). Additionally, the warmest surface water
temperatures are generally recorded by Guembelitria (Boersma and
Premoli Silva, 1983) which is absent in the present study (Figure 7).
The presence of the subsurface-dweller, Parasubbotina (14.4%: P.
moskvini and P. pseudobulloides), is suggestive of mesotrophic
conditions (Berggren and Norris, 1997; Olsson et al., 1999;
Guasti, 2005; Jehle et al., 2015); the abundance of Parasubbotina
slightly increases in the planktic foraminiferal Zone P1a‒P1b
(samples 5–8) (Figure 7). The low δ13C values (between 0.26%
and 0.47%) during the entire interval is also suggestive of
increased surface water fertility.
Thus, the present data suggest that during the planktic
foraminiferal Zone Pα (samples 3–4), moderately shallow and
eutrophic conditions prevailed with cool surface waters and with
a shallow thermocline, whereas for the succeeding P1a‒P1b zones
(samples 5–8), similar conditions are noted, but with reduced
productivity (i.e., slight mesotrophic conditions) and a somewhat
deeper thermocline and reduced stratification (Figure 7). This
duration is marked by low species diversity (11–15 taxa) but also
with low species dominance and high evenness suggesting that
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constrained on the lower side by the LO of M. angulata (sample
34; 61 Ma; Wade et al., 2011) and on the upper side, by the LO of I.
albeari (sample 38; 60 Ma; Wade et al., 2011) (see also Table 2). In
the present study, the LDE is marked by a dramatic decline in δ13C
values (i.e., a negative δ13C excursion), Thermocline (Parasubbotina
and Subbotina), and mix-layer (particularly Praemurica) dwellers,
and an abrupt increase in mix-layer with photosymbiont dwellers,
warm water (Morozovella and Igorina) and keeled species (see
Table 2; Figure 7).
Globally, also, the LDE is characterized by a prominent negative
δ13C excursion in different marine settings like the southern Tethyan
shelf (Egypt; Bornemann et al., 2009), the northern Tethys (Bjala,
Bulgaria; Dinarès-Turell et al., 2012), the eastern North Atlantic
(Zumaia, Spain; Dinarès-Turell et al., 2010), and the Pacific Ocean
(Westerhold et al., 2011; see also Bornemann et al., 2021). As with
other Paleogene hyperthermals (such as the PETM), the negative
δ13C excursion has been attributed to the addition of huge amounts
of δ13C depleted carbon to the ocean and atmosphere. The
coincident surface water warming has been explained either by
the possibility of high atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations
similar to that noted for the PETM or increased insolation due to the
orbital constellation (Pc40510; Dinarès-Turell et al., 2014)
i.e., changes of orbital parameters resulting in insolation changes
on shorter time-scales during the upper Chron C27n (see also
Bornemann et al., 2021). Additionally, the LDE falls within a
time interval that shows an increased activity of the North
Atlantic Igneous Province, and oceanic spreading rates and
volcanic activity along the SE Greenland margin (Sinton and
Duncan, 1998; Westerhold et al., 2008). Evaluation of all the
aforementioned mechanisms is beyond the scope of the present
study, but the coincidence of surface water warming and increased
mesotrophy is also noted in the present study (Figure 7).
Additionally, as at Site 1262 (eastern South Atlantic Ocean),
during the LDE, an increased abundance of Morozovella and
Igorina (see Figure 7) has also been noted to suggest surfacewater warming (see Jehle et al., 2019).
Thus, based on available and present data, the LDE in the
present study is marked by increased mesotrophy (negative δ13C
excursion), enhanced stratification of the upper water column, and
transient surface water warming as indicated by the increased
relative abundances of surface-dwelling planktic foraminifera,
mix-layer, and mix-layer with photosymbionts dwellers.
Increased mesotrophy also resulted in reduced species diversity,
as evidenced by reduced values of Fisher’s α and the number of taxa
(Figure 7).
The upper part of planktic foraminiferal subzones P3b to P4b
(samples 39–45; 60–56.5 Ma) is marked by the dominance of
Morozovella, Acarinina, Igorina, warm water species, mix-layer
with photosymbionts dwellers, and high values of δ13C,
suggestive of warm, oligotrophic conditions (Norris, 1996;
D’Hondt and Zachos, 1998; Coxall et al., 2006; Fuqua et al.,
2008; Birch et al., 2012). Both Morozovella and Acarinina have
been noted to diversify during the globally warm Paleocene–Eocene
Thermal Maximum (PETM), both in open ocean ODP sites and in
the marginal Tethys (see also Kelly et al., 1996; Guasti and Speijer,
2008; Hewaidy et al., 2020), corroborating a phase of surface water
warming for Interval 3 of the present study. Coxall et al. (2006)
suggested that the timing of radiation in Morozovella and other
1996; Berggren and Norris, 1997) (Figure 7). However, Bornemann
et al. (2021) considered them as mesotrophic, subsurface taxa; lower
δ13C values throughout the interval also suggests increased
productivity. In the present study, during the LDE hypothermal
event, both Parasubbotina and Subbotina decreased dramatically,
suggesting their preference for cooler mesotrophic waters (see also
Guasti, 2005 and references therein); low δ13C values throughout the
interval also supports mesotrophic conditions (Figure 7). It must be
noted that the upper ocean warming produces a more stable water
column which, in turn, inhibits primary productivity (surface water
fertility). Thus, increased stratification inhibits surface water
productivity, whereas decreased stratification promotes it
(Behrenfeld et al., 2006; Polovina et al., 2008).
Thus, for Subinterval 2a, the lower part of Subzone P1c (samples
9–20), cooler surface waters and moderate mesotrophic conditions
are noted (Figure 7).
Subinterval 2b (the upper part of Subzone P1c; samples 21–30)
displays a reduction in the relative abundance of Praemurica, a
genus that has been noted to prefer cooler waters (Guasti, 2005 and
references therein). In the present study, Praemurica shows its
lowest relative abundance in Subinterval 2b with maximum
abundance during the mesotrophic hypothermal LDE event,
suggesting its preference more for nutrient availability rather
than temperature (Figure 7). Hence, for Subinterval 2b only
slightly mesotrophic conditions are suggested, as also
demonstrated by somewhat higher δ13C values (Figure 7).
The planktic foraminiferal Zone P2 to the lower part of Subzone
P3a (i.e., Subinterval 2c; samples 31–36) are transitionary times, where
Praemurica reaches its maximum relative abundance, 29.3%
(represented by Pr. uncinata, 12.7%; Pr. inconstans, 8.4%, and Pr.
trinidadensis, 8.2%) with the corresponding rise of Morozovella (FO at
sample 33), Acarinina (FO at sample 35) and Igorina (FO at sample
35) (Figure 7). Birch et al. (2012) noted that P. uncinata shared the
warm surface mixed-layer niche with M. praeangulata (a strongly
symbiotic species) that, in the present study, makes up a minor
fraction (1.5%; FO at sample 34) of the total population suggesting
warming of the surface waters at the end of planktic foraminiferal
Zone P2 (sample 33) (Figure 7). Additionally, the stable isotope
measurements of Morozovella, Acarinina and Igorina typify foodpoor oligotrophic pelagic environments at low latitudes (Norris, 1996;
D’Hondt and Zachos, 1998; Coxall et al., 2006; Fuqua et al., 2008;
Birch et al., 2012). A similar pattern of increased abundances and
diversity of Morozovella, Acarinina and Igorina was also observed in
other sections spanning the Danian-Selandian transition, as in the
South Atlantic Ocean (Coxall et al., 2006; Birch et al., 2012), North
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (Berggren and Norris, 1997), and sections
in Spain (Arenillas and Molina, 1995; 1997); all suggestive of a well
stratified water column and oligotrophic conditions. The warming of
surface waters and shallowing of the thermocline are also
corroborated by the rise of mix-layer and mix-layer with
photosymbionts dwellers and the corresponding decline of
thermocline ones, i.e., the deeper pelagic dwellers (Figure 7). This
subinterval is also marked by increased species diversity (Fisher’s α
and number of taxa), and lowered species dominance suggesting
equitable conditions (Figure 7).
The planktic foraminiferal Zone P3a (and the upper part of
Subinterval 2c) marks the Latest Danian Event (LDE, samples
35–37; 60–61 Ma) (Figure 7). In the present study, LDE is
Frontiers in Earth Science
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Farouk et al.
10.3389/feart.2023.1158991
The LDE is marked by a negative δ 13 C excursion, a decline
in values of thermocline and mix-layer dwellers, and an
abrupt increase in mix-layer with photosymbiont
dwellers, and warm waters suggesting increased
mesotrophy, enhanced stratification and transient
surface water warming.
• During the upper part of planktic foraminiferal zones P3b to
P4b (samples 39–45; 60–56.5 Ma), the dominance of
Morozovella, Acarinina, and Igorina are noted with warm
water species, mix-layer with photosymbionts dwellers, and
high values of δ13C, suggestive of warm, oligotrophic
conditions.
muricate algal symbionts genera (such as Acarinina and Igorina)
represent the diversification of oligotrophic specialists as an organic
flux to the deep ocean fully recovered, stripping of nutrients from the
surface ocean resumed, and specialization to low food availability
became a selective advantage (see also Shackleton, 1985; Pearson
et al., 1993; D’Hondt et al., 1994; Van Eijden, 1995; Kelly et al., 1996;
Lu et al., 1998; Quillévéré and Norris, 2003; Guasti et al., 2005).
These warm and oligotrophic conditions also favored the highest
species diversity values (of Fisher’s α and number of taxa), and
lowest species dominance suggesting equitable conditions
(Figure 7).
6 Conclusion
Data availability statement
• A total of 43 samples from the Themed section (El Themed
village in East Central Sinai) spanning zones P. eugubina (Pα;
64.97–64.8 Ma) to the A. subsphaerica (P4b; 59.2–56.5 Ma) are
studied to infer the paleoenvironment across the Danian‒
Selandian duration.
• Four biozones are recorded, P. eugubina (Pα) Zone, E. edita
(P1) Zone (with three subzones, P. pseudobulloides, P1a, S.
triloculinoides, P1b, and G. compressa, P1c), Pr. uncinata (P2)
Zone, M. angulata (P3) Zone (this includes two subzones, I.
pusilla, P3a, I. albeari, P3b), G. pseudomenardii (P4) Zone
(with two subzones, G. pseudomenardii/P. variospira, P4a, and
A. subsphaerica, P4b).
• Two δ13C events are identified, Dan-C2 and Latest Danian
Event (LDE); an additional two are suggested, Lower Chron
29n (L. C29n) and Middle Chron 27r (M. C27r). However, for
the latter two, more data is needed to characterize them
thoroughly.
• During Pα (samples 3–4), moderately shallow and eutrophic
conditions prevailed with cool surface waters and a shallow
thermocline. For P1a‒P1b subzones (samples 5–8),
mesotrophic conditions and a somewhat deeper
thermocline with reduced stratification have been noted.
• The Dan-2 event (samples 6–7) is marked by the
dominance of E. eobulloides with cool waters and
mesotrophic conditions.
• During P1b‒P1c (subintervals 2a‒2b; samples 9–30), a major
shift in species composition, a change from the dominance of
Eoglobigerina (E. eobulloides) to Subbotina‒Parasubbotina (S.
triloculinoides and P. pseudobulloides).
• During Subinterval 2a, cooler surface waters and moderate
mesotrophic conditions are noted, and for Subinterval 2b,
slightly mesotrophic conditions with cooler waters.
• During P2 to the lower part of P3a (i.e., Subinterval 2c;
samples 31–36) are transitionary, marked by the maximum
abundance of Praemurica and the rise of Morozovella,
Acarinina, and Igorina. Warming surface waters and the
thermocline shallowing with increased oligotrophic
conditions are noted.
• During P3a (and the top of Subinterval 2c) marks the
Latest Danian Event (LDE, samples 35–37; 60–61 Ma).
Frontiers in Earth Science
The datasets presented in this study can be found in online
repositories. The names of the repository/repositories and
accession number(s) can be found in the article/supplementary
material.
Author contributions
All authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and intellectual
contribution to the work and approved it for publication.
Acknowledgments
We sincerely thank Dr. Hema Achyuthan (Frontiers in Earth
Science Associate Editor) and the reviewers for their time,
constructive comments, and suggestions that significantly
improved the manuscript. The financial support of Research
Supporting Project number (RSP2023R139), King Saud
University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, is also acknowledged. The
authors acknowledge the UiT, the Arctic University of Norway,
for open access funding.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the
absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be
construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Publisher’s note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the
authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated
organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the
reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or
claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed
or endorsed by the publisher.
14
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10.3389/feart.2023.1158991
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