TYPE
Original Research
30 January 2024
10.3389/feduc.2024.1208925
PUBLISHED
DOI
OPEN ACCESS
EDITED BY
Douglas F. Kauffman,
Medical University of the Americas – Nevis,
United States
REVIEWED BY
Jenni Tikkanen,
University of Turku, Finland
Helena Helve,
Tampere University, Finland
Pablo A. Pérez-Díaz,
Austral University of Chile, Chile
*CORRESPONDENCE
Mónica Bravo-Sanzana
monicaviviana.bravo@ufrontera.cl
RECEIVED 24
April 2023
January 2024
PUBLISHED 30 January 2024
ACCEPTED 04
CITATION
Neira-Escalona Y, Bravo-Sanzana M,
Terán-Mendoza O and Miranda R (2024)
Identity capital and future concerns in urban
adolescents from La Araucanía-Chile.
Front. Educ. 9:1208925.
doi: 10.3389/feduc.2024.1208925
COPYRIGHT
© 2024 Neira-Escalona, Bravo-Sanzana,
Terán-Mendoza and Miranda. This is an openaccess article distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License
(CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction
in other forums is permitted, provided the
original author(s) and the copyright owner(s)
are credited and that the original publication
in this journal is cited, in accordance with
accepted academic practice. No use,
distribution or reproduction is permitted
which does not comply with these terms.
Identity capital and future
concerns in urban adolescents
from La Araucanía-Chile
Yosyua Neira-Escalona 1,2, Mónica Bravo-Sanzana 3*,
Oscar Terán-Mendoza 4 and Rafael Miranda 5
1
Department of Psychology, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile, 2 Núcleo Científico y
Tecnológico en Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile,
3
UNESCO Chair: Childhood, Youth, Education and Society, Núcleo Científico y Tecnológico en
Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile, 4 Faculty of Education,
Social Sciences and Humanities, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile, 5 Department of
Psychology, Continental University, Huancayo, Peru
Introduction: Late modernity influences the construction and constitution of
identity and the management of adolescents’ future lives. Research has shown that
identity capital predicts the resolution of a successful identity; however, in Latin
America, no antecedents have conducted studies under this conceptual framework.
Aim: To analyze the relationship pattern between identity capital components
and future concerns.
Methods: The participants were 703 adolescents between the ages of 15
and 19years who, in the year 2021, were in the third and fourth years of high
school in urban educational establishments in La Araucanía Chile, to whom
questions from the Governance of Educational Trajectories in Europe (GOETE)
adapted to the Chilean context and the general self-efficacy scale were applied.
Confirmatory Factor Analyses (CFA) were performed to determine the suitability
of the indicators to measure the constructs of interest and a structural equation
analysis to determine the pattern of relationships between variables.
Results: The final model obtained excellent indicators of the goodness of
fit [χ2 (422) = 965.858, p < 0.001; CFI = 0.977; TLI = 0.975; RMSEA = 0.043;
SRMR = 0.056], in which it is evident that parental support and interaction are
related to self-efficacy and self-concept and these, in turn, is associated with
adolescents’ future concerns.
Conclusion: The relationship pattern tested shows that associations between
tangible elements at the family level are related to intangible aspects of a
personal nature, which can be protective factors against future concerns,
and provide empirical support for the psychometric usefulness of the GOETE
indicators in the Chilean context.
KEYWORDS
adolescence, identity capital, concern, cultural adaptation, family
Introduction
During life, human beings are constituted by the influence of different social systems
(Butterbaugh et al., 2020), where the family and educational contexts are fundamental pillars
in the integral development of individuals. In this regard, it is essential to understand the needs
of adolescents from a comprehensive perspective, which allows meeting their needs to reduce
Frontiers in Education
01
frontiersin.org
Neira-Escalona et al.
10.3389/feduc.2024.1208925
behavioral problems (Schwartz and Petrova, 2018) and psychological
symptomatology (Chen et al., 2007) because, in adolescence, concerns
increase due to cognitive development and personal and social
challenges (Vasey, 1993; Brown et al., 2006). On the other hand,
adolescents’ perception of the future, expectations, and worries
interact to determine how they will develop in the future, which has a
crucial impact on wellbeing and future social purposes (Tikkanen
et al., 2015; Kiuru et al., 2020), as the context of uncertainty can affect
their success (Salmela-Aro et al., 2010; Fusco et al., 2018).
Conceptual frameworks to explain adolescent concerns have
predominantly focused on individual clinical aspects (Blázquez et al.,
2019; Songco et al., 2020) or unfavorable economic conditions
(Conger et al., 1994), whereas, from other perspectives,
multidimensional and multidisciplinary models have been developed,
as is the case of the identity capital model (Côté, 2005). The latter
provides a coherent and comprehensive theoretical framework for
understanding such concerns as it assesses how individual resources
related to self-concept, together with resources associated with
interpersonal relationships, allow adolescents to function
comprehensively in highly demanding and competitive social contexts
(Burrow and Hill, 2011; Vera-Noriega and Valenzuela-Medina, 2012).
The identity capital model considers two types of resources:
tangible and intangible. Tangible resources are ‘socially visible’ and are
expressed through behaviors and possessions that facilitate access to
and the ability to benefit from socially determined networks and
structural positions, while intangible resources embody personality
characteristics that help a person reflect on life circumstances and plan
the courses of action (Côté and Levine, 2002; Côté and Schwartz, 2002).
Previous studies have demonstrated the appropriateness of using
this conceptual framework in educational environments; for example,
Williams and Tani (2021) showed that participants with a selfperceived probability of success have better academic performance.
Similarly, another study focused on the social interaction aspects of
the capital model concluded that those students who perform in
environments characterized by fluid interaction more easily develop
professional identification, which favors the making of work and
academic projections (Jensen and Jetten, 2015).
Specifically, the data suggest that the quality of relationships with
parents is significantly linked to the development of academic selfconcept and self-efficacy. For example, in the study by Gniewosz et al.
(2014), the central role of feedback provided by parents in the forging
of academic self-concept was highlighted. In Gniewosz et al.’s study, it
was evidenced that adolescents who perceived genuine interest from
their parents and received positive feedback from them tended to
build a positive academic self-concept, which, in turn, translated into
better performance in the disciplines of mathematics and languages.
The research of Ahn and Lee’s (2016) corroborated that perceived
positive relationships with parents that promoted an optimistic
parenting style exerted a direct influence on the formation of selfconcept, which translated into a more effective adaptation to the
school environment. This relationship is founded on the understanding
that a supportive family environment leads to independence, selfactualization, and the opportunity for recognition during the stages of
youth development (Aabedi-Asl et al., 2017).
In addition, it has been shown that relationships with parents are
related to general self-efficacy in adolescents. Perceived support has
been linked to higher levels of self-esteem, which, in turn, influences
greater self-efficacy, which is attributed to the fact that, when children
Frontiers in Education
feel supported by their parents, they acquire a secure base from which
to establish and achieve their goals (Frank et al., 2010). Significant
others act as a “social mirror” in which the individual reflects their
perceptions, which are internalized and play a fundamental role in
shaping their self-concept. In this context, adolescents who perceive
support from their parental figures are likely to experience a sense of
approval, acceptance, and affection from their family members, which,
in turn, nurtures a feeling of confidence in their abilities, an essential
element in the development of self-efficacy (Sbicigo and
Dell’Aglio, 2012).
Self-efficacy is highlighted as a central psychological variable of
social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1977). It refers to the belief that a
person has to organize and execute the strategies necessary to achieve
particular objectives in an activity, facing challenging changes in a
specific context (Bandura, 1986). This view coincides with the identity
capital model of Côté et al. (2016) since the latter states that each
person must plan and organize strategies to orient himself or herself
according to their priorities. Bandura (1977) and Côté et al. (2016)
conclude that self-efficacy is crucial in understanding personality
phenomena and plotting actions to achieve goals.
Empirical studies have shown that self-efficacy shows a stronger
association with academic performance (Bandura, 1982; Çetin and
Gök, 2017; Recber et al., 2018; Bravo-Sanzana et al., 2019). Moreover,
it predicts cross-sectional academic performance in any culture
(Bandura, 2002). In addition, self-efficacy is a motivational variable
expressed in the persistence, organization, and execution of strategies
for achievement, together with behaviors that reflect frustration
tolerance (Moreira et al., 2013).
Therefore, from the identity capital model, academic self-concept
and general self-efficacy could be intangible components that
represent protective factors against future worries in adolescents,
which, in turn, would be related to parental support and interaction.
In this sense, Tikkanen (2016) conducted a study in which she
measured future concerns and tangible and intangible elements of
identity capital through indicators implemented in the Governance of
Educational Trajectories in Europe (GOETE) (Parreira do Amaral
et al., 2011) that were initially proposed to assess students’ attitudes
and experiences about their educational trajectories. In that study, five
indexes were used corresponding to (1) future concerns, (2) academic
self-concept, (3) father’s support, (4) mother’s support, and (5)
interaction with parents, which were corroborated through a
confirmatory factor analysis.
To date, in Chile, no research has used this conceptual framework
and tested it through multivariate models; however, previous research
with identity-related variables shows that elements such as positive
identity, character, confidence, and connectedness can be predictors
of wellbeing in Chilean adolescents (Pérez-Díaz et al., 2022a,b). In this
sense and considering the relevance of identifying protective factors
against future concerns at this crucial stage, this study was oriented to
three objectives: (i) culturally and linguistically adapt the indicators
used by Tikkanen (2016); (ii) determine the factor structure and
reliability of the GOETE indicators as measures of parental support
and interaction, academic self-efficacy, and future concerns; (iii)
determine the associations between the proposed tangible and
intangible resources with the identity capital model and
future concerns.
Regarding the last objective, the hypotheses proposed were that
the father’s support would be directly related to academic self-concept
02
frontiersin.org
Neira-Escalona et al.
10.3389/feduc.2024.1208925
FIGURE 1
Hypothesized relationship model.
TABLE 1 Sociodemographic characteristics of the participants.
Study 1 (n = 9)
Mean
S.D.
Age
Participants
Study 2 (n = 703)
Mean
S.D.
16.89
1.05
17.71
5.48
Frequency
%
Frequency
%
Male
3
33.3
304
43.2
Female
5
55.5
392
55.8
Other
1
11.2
7
1.0
4
44.5
345
49.1
5
55.5
358
50.9
The sample for the first stage was obtained in a non-probability
sampling. It consisted of nine adolescents studying in four establishments
in the urban area in the Region of La Araucanía. For the second phase,
the sample was obtained through non-probability sampling and included
703 adolescents from 52 educational establishments in the urban area of
the Region of La Araucanía. The specific sociodemographic characteristics
of those who comprised both samples are detailed in Table 1.
The inclusion criteria were (a) to be a student in the third or
fourth year of secondary education in 2021 in a formal establishment
(with municipal, subsidized, or private administrative dependence);
(b) to give their assent to participate; and (c) to have the informed
consent of their legal tutors.
Sex
Education level
Third grade
of secondary
Fourth
grade of
Instruments
secondary
Ad hoc sociodemographic questionnaire: to measure the variables
of age, sex, educational level of the student, academic dependence, and
school modality.
GOETE indicators: questionnaire developed in the research
framework of the Governance of Educational Trajectories in Europe
(GOETE) (Parreira do Amaral et al., 2011). The questions were initially
used to evaluate students’ attitudes and experiences about their
educational trajectories, as well as future concerns related to education
and the job market. The measurement models proposed by Tikkanen
(2016) used a total of 24 items distributed in five indices corresponding
to future concerns (5 items), academic self-concept (3 items), father’s
support (4 items), mother’s support (4 items), and the interaction with
parents (8 items). The response scale is Likert type with five response
options ranging from 1 = “never” to 5 = “always” for future concerns, father
support, and mother support dimensions. At the same time, there are
response options from 1 = “much worse” to 5 = “much better” for the
academic self-concept dimension and from 1 = “not this year” to 5 = “daily”
for the parent interaction dimension. The internal consistency reported
in the original study was estimated from Cronbach’s alpha coefficient and
ranged from 0.78 to 0.89.
(H1) and general self-efficacy (H2); similarly, the mother’s support
would be directly related to academic self-concept (H3) and general
self-efficacy (H4); and interaction with parents would be directly
related to academic self-concept (H5) and general self-efficacy (H6).
Finally, academic self-concept would be inversely related to future
worries (H7) as would general self-efficacy (H8) (Figure 1).
Materials and methods
This study was approved by the scientific ethics committee of the
Universidad de La Frontera through the Evaluation Act of the
Research Project Folio N°102/21. The methodology used in this study
is quantitative, with a non-experimental and cross-sectional design.
The design was implemented in two stages: the first was aimed at the
linguistic and cultural adaptation of the instrument, while the second
consisted of obtaining evidence of structural validity, reliability, and
relationships between variables.
Frontiers in Education
03
frontiersin.org
Neira-Escalona et al.
10.3389/feduc.2024.1208925
The General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSES), created by Schwarzer and
Jerusalem (1995) and validated in Chile by Cid et al. (2010), is a scale
developed to measure individuals’ perceptions regarding their ability
to execute tasks or achieve certain levels of performance. The GSES is
composed of a total of 10 items with a minimum score of 10 points
and a maximum score of 40 points. The response scale is Likert type
and ranges from 1 = “strongly disagree” to 4 = “strongly agree.” An
example of a scale item is “I can solve difficult problems if I try hard
enough.” The reliability of the adapted version in Chile, estimated
from Cronbach’s alpha, was 0.84.
recommended in cases where the nature of the data is ordinal
(Li, 2016).
The fit of the model to the data was evaluated with the following
goodness-of-fit indicators: chi-square (χ2), the Comparative Fit
Index (CFI), the Tucker–Lewis Index (TLI), root mean square error
of approximation (RMSEA), and standardized root mean squared
residual (SRMR). An excellent fit to the data is given by a
non-significant value of p of χ2, CFI, and TLI above 0.95, while
RMSEA and SRMR must be below 0.08 (Byrne, 1998; Hu and
Bentler, 1999). In the case of factor loadings (λ), the criterion was
that they were greater than 0.40 (Hair et al., 2019). After that, a
structural equation modeling (SEM) was performed to test the
relation between variables using the same criteria as CFA for model
adjustment and factor loadings. The results are reported based on
the standardized solution and taking as significant a nominal alpha
of 0.05.
For the reliability analysis, the classic Cronbach’s alpha coefficient
(α) was estimated, and, following current recommendations, the
McDonald Omega coefficient (ω) is also reported for each of the
dimensions of the scale and the overall instrument (TrizanoHermosilla and Alvarado, 2016). This last block of analysis was
performed in the statistical program JASP 0.16.2.0.
Procedure
In the first stage, a robust cultural and linguistic adaptation
procedure was performed through the translation and backtranslation of the GOETE indicators, following the analytical-rational
procedures for instrument adaptation proposed by Elosua et al. (2014)
and the guidelines systematized and issued by the International Test
Commission (2017) to ensure the adaptation and equivalence of the
instruments. Complementarily, the contributions of Elosua and López
(2007), Hambleton and Zenisky (2011), Muñiz et al. (2013), and
Muñiz et al. (2015) were considered.
Permission was requested from the instrument’s author to make
the pertinent adaptation; then, the process of translating the
instrument was initiated, which was performed by two independent
translators. Subsequently, both versions were discussed in a committee
(Cha et al., 2007) composed of translators, three education
professionals, and a psychologist specializing in measurement.
This expert committee evaluated the translation of the instrument
through adaptation verification criteria focused on the cultural
relevance of the items and the equivalence of the items for the Chilean
context concerning the original instrument (Hambleton and Zenisky,
2011). After the agreement of this committee, a pilot version of 24
items was obtained, and it underwent a back-translation process
performed by two native speakers, who confirmed that the
grammatical and semantic equivalence, cultural relevance, linguistic
appropriateness, format, and design of the instrument were optimal.
Afterward, a cognitive interview was conducted through a focus
group to evaluate the meanings given by the adolescents to the items
that comprised the Spanish version of the questionnaire; after making
the pertinent adjustments, these same participants answered the
instrument as a pilot test to guarantee the understanding of the items
and the non-existence of conflicts in the scale.
For the execution of the second phase, a collaboration agreement
was reached via e-mail with the educational establishment’s
management team, and the results of the research were offered back
to them. In this phase, the questionnaire configured in the pilot test
was massively disseminated through the QuestionPro platform.
Results
Cultural and linguistic adaptation
The items of the scale that were modified following the suggestions
of the adolescents in the focus group are shown in Table 2. Table 2
maintains the Spanish language as a product of the cultural and
linguistic adaptation in the cognitive interview with the participants.
These adaptations respond mainly to clarifying terms that address
cultural elements, such as substituting “mother tongue” for “Language
and Literature” to refer to the current name of the subject related to
learning the local language. Similarly, a general modification was to
replace “usted” (formal way of saying “you”) with “tú” (informal way
of saying “you”) as the participants stated that they felt more
comfortable answering in this way.
TABLE 2 Modification of GOETE questionnaire items after the cognitive
interview.
®
Item
number
Translated item
3
Involucrarte con mala compañía
4
Involucrarme con “malas
juntas”
Que te vaya mal en la escuela o
Que me vaya mal en el
en estudios a futuro
colegio o estudios posteriores
Comparado con otros
Data analysis
6
Preliminary data analysis shows no missing or out-of-range data.
Subsequently, confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) were performed to
determine the fit to the data of the six latent factors. This analysis was
achieved through Mplus 8.2 software using the weighted least squares
means and variance adjusted (WLSMV) estimator, which is
Frontiers in Education
Modified item
estudiantes, ¿qué tan bien
¿Qué tan bien esperas que te
esperas que te vaya en tus
vaya en el colegio este año?
estudios este año?
8
04
¿Qué tan bien crees que te irá en
tu idioma materno este año?
¿Qué tan bien crees que te irá
en Lengua y Literatura este
año?
frontiersin.org
Neira-Escalona et al.
10.3389/feduc.2024.1208925
Factor structure of the variables
for this set of indicators, in addition to the translation of the
instrument, adaptations were made to some items to reflect
expressions specific to the context and would therefore
be more relevant.
For the second objective, factor analyses were performed to
determine the suitability of the indicators to measure the latent factors
employed by Tikkanen (2016). In most of these indicators, an excellent
fit to the data was achieved except for interaction with parents, in
which three indicators were not representative of the factor. However,
when analyzing the content of the items, it was expected that they
would not work adequately for the measurement of the construct,
considering that, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the restrictions on
mobilization and capacity limited many of the activities that were
previously part of people’s daily lives. Beyond that, the other indicators
adequately represented their respective factors.
The reliability indicators of the instrument were adequate for all
dimensions, the lowest being those related to academic self-concept,
which may be because the lower the number of items, the lower the
internal consistency is (Manterola et al., 2018). In addition, compared
with the reports of Tikkanen (2016) and Côté et al. (2016), higher
reliability indicators were obtained, asserting that it is an accurate
scale for measuring the construct.
Regarding the relationship between the components of identity
capital and future concerns, the results obtained show, first, that the
perceived support of the father and the mother is directly linked to the
intangible elements of the capital model, such as academic selfconcept and self-efficacy, and, second, that the perceived support of
the father and the mother is directly linked to the intangible elements
of the capital model, such as academic self-concept and self-efficacy,
which can be explained primarily by the fact that receiving favorable
feedback from parental figures would have a direct relationship with
the formation of self-image and capabilities that can be perceived by
adolescents (Gniewosz et al., 2014; Ahn and Lee, 2016).
Interaction with parental figures had a significant relationship
with overall self-efficacy, which may be explained by the idea of a
“social mirror” from which establishing affectively enriched
relationships with valued attachment figures may represent a
scaffolding for the development of adolescents’ agency capacity
(Sbicigo and Dell’Aglio, 2012). For this sample, interaction with
parents was not related to academic self-concept, which may be mainly
attributable to the fact that, in this group of variables related to the
family, father’s support and mother’s support are variables oriented to
determine cognitive and behavioral variables that contribute directly
to the school context, that is, actions such as attendance to school
activities can strengthen academic self-concept much more than the
more general activities that include the factor of interaction with
parents that end up contributing to explain a broader construct such
as self-efficacy.
Finally, the evidence obtained in this study shows that general
self-efficacy and academic self-concept are associated with lower
future concerns, which is consistent with previous findings, given that
those who perceive themselves to be more solvent in life situations will
present lower levels of concern in general (Barrows et al., 2013);
similarly, as expected, the relations of greater magnitude appear with
the academic self-concept as these are two components of selfevaluation; therefore, they are highly relevant elements for
understanding the sense of agency of individuals (Yulikhah et al.,
2019; Tus, 2020).
Confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) were conducted based on
the purpose of Tikkanen (2016) for the five latent factors based on
GOETE indicators. An excellent fit to the data was obtained for
future concerns [χ2 (5) = 7.128, p = 0.211; CFI = 0.999; TLI = 0.997;
RMSEA = 0.025; SRMR = 0.027], academic self-concept [χ2
(1) = 1.744, p = 0.187; CFI = 0.998; TLI = 0.993; RMSEA = 0.033;
SRMR = 0.013], father’s support [χ2 (2) = 6.125, p = 0.106; CFI = 0.998;
TLI = 0.997; RMSEA = 0.039; SRMR = 0.031], and mother’s support
[χ2 (2) = 5.210, p = 0.074; CFI = 0.997; TLI = 0.991; RMSEA = 0.048;
SRMR = 0.033].
For interaction with parents, the model did not show a good fit
to the data [χ2 (20) = 227.506, p < 0.001; CFI = 0.921; TLI = 0.889;
RMSEA = 0.122; SRMR = 0.106]. When inspecting the factor
loadings, loadings below the established cutoff value were observed
for items “Visited relatives or family friends /Visitar a parientes o
amigos(as) de la familia” (λ = 0.137), “Done an activity like playing
sports or going to a movie/Realizar una actividad como hacer
deportes o ir al cine” (λ = 0.276), and “Visited a theatre, museum or
the opera/Ir al teatro o museo” (λ = 0.302); therefore, the
measurement model was re-specified omitting these indicators
achieving an excellent fit to the data [χ2 (5) = 9.530, p = 0.090;
CFI = 0.996; TLI = 0.991; RMSEA = 0.036; SRMR = 0.016]. The final
version of the items is shown in Table 3.
Reliability analysis
Internal consistency coefficients were excellent for the latent
factors of father’s support (α = 0.911; ω = 0.911) and parent
interaction (α = 0.909; ω = 0.910); good for the latent factors of
future concern (α = 0.833; ω = 0.854) and mother’s support
(α = 0.855; ω = 0.853); and acceptable for the academic self-concept
(α = 0.734; ω = 0.781).
Relationship between identity capital and
future concerns
The hypothesized model obtained an excellent fit to the data [χ2
(422) = 965.858, p < 0.001; CFI = 0.977; TLI = 0.975; RMSEA = 0.043;
SRMR = 0.056]. In this case, mother’s support and father’s support were
significantly related to general self-efficacy and academic self-concept. In
contrast, parental interaction was related to general self-efficacy but not
academic self-concept. In turn, general self-efficacy and academic selfconcept were inversely associated with future worries (Figure 2).
Discussion
This study aimed to adapt the GOETE indicators culturally and
linguistically to the Chilean context, to determine their psychometric
properties, and to analyze their pattern of relationships based on the
identity capital model. Regarding the first objective, the translation
and back-translation procedures (Elosua et al., 2014) guarantee that
the test items are linguistically adapted and culturally relevant for their
implementation in the Chilean context in this sense, and particularly
Frontiers in Education
05
frontiersin.org
Neira-Escalona et al.
10.3389/feduc.2024.1208925
TABLE 3 Items and factor loading for GOETE indicators.
No of items
Factor loading
Preocupaciones futuras/Future concerns
1
2
3
4
5
Imposibilidad de encontrar trabajo
0.818
Inability to find employment
Que me vaya mal en el colegio o estudios posteriores
0.746
Doing badly at school or further education
Involucrarme con “malas juntas”
0.586
Getting into bad company
Sentirme solo(a)
0.615
Being lonely
Ser pobre
0.780
Being poor
Autoeficacia académica/Academic self-concept
6
7
8
Comparado(a) con otros(as) estudiantes ¿qué tan bien esperas que te vaya en el colegio este año?
Compared to other student, how well do you expect to do in school this year?
¿Qué tan bien crees que te irá en matemáticas este año?
0.592
0.510
How well do you think you will do in maths this year?
¿Qué tan bien crees que te irá en Lengua y Literatura este año?
How well do you think you will do in mother’s tongue this year?
0.499
Apoyo del padre/Father’s support
9
10
11
12
Te ha dicho que es importante que te vaya bien en el colegio
Told you that it is important for you to do well at school
Ha mostrado mucho interés en tu progreso en el colegio
0.793
0.974
Shown a lot of interest in your progress at school
Te ha apoyado escuchando tus necesidades
0.876
Supported you by listening to your needs
Te ha apoyado asistiendo a actividades en el colegio
0.746
Supported you by attending activities at school
Apoyo de la madre/Mother’s support
13
14
15
16
Te ha dicho que es importante que te vaya bien en el colegio
Told you that it is important for you to do well at school
Ha mostrado mucho interés en tu progreso en el colegio
0.725
0.914
Shown a lot of interest in your progress at school
Te ha apoyado escuchando tus necesidades
0.789
Supported you by listening to your needs
Te ha apoyado asistiendo a actividades en el colegio
0.695
Supported you by attending activities at school
Interacción con los padres/Interaction with parents
17
18
19
20
21
Hablar acerca de tus experiencias en el colegio
0.867
Talked about your experiences at school
Hablar acerca de tu educación u opciones de trabajo futuros
Talked about your future education or career options
Conversar con ellos sobre tu trabajo en el colegio
0.879
Discussed your school work with them
Discussed current political or social issues with you
Conversar sobre temáticas políticas o sociales actuales contigo
Talked about your life in general
0.733
0.817
Hablar de tu vida en general
Although this study had great strengths, such as an adaptation
adjusted to the cultural characteristics of the target population, the
execution of robust multivariate analyses, and a large sample size, a
Frontiers in Education
0.799
series of limitations can also be noted. It is relevant to consider that
the composition of the sample studied is consistent with the
characteristics of the local population; in this study, a
06
frontiersin.org
Neira-Escalona et al.
10.3389/feduc.2024.1208925
FIGURE 2
Structural equation modeling between identity capital components and future concerns. **p < 0.001.
Ethics statement
non-probability sampling was used, which does not allow the
generalization of its results; specifically, when considering
exclusively adolescents in urban contexts, it is not possible to affirm
that this pattern of relationships occurs in the same way in rural
environments. Future research could increase the sample size and
conduct probability sampling to evaluate the generalization of the
structure reported in the present study.
In addition, analyzing the instrument’s content, relational capital
only considers support from their central family. However, in multiple
studies, it has been reported that perceived social support is positively
associated with life satisfaction and friendships are significant and
influential relationships that constitute constant support, which, in
turn, is related to subjective wellbeing and quality of life (Chavarría
and Barra, 2014; Oh et al., 2021; Stern et al., 2021). Therefore, it is
suggested that future studies develop and incorporate this dimension
into the questionnaire.
In conclusion, this evidence contributes to the body of knowledge
related to identity capital, considering that the pattern of relationships
tested shows that associations between tangible elements at the family
level are related to intangible aspects of a personal nature, which can
be protective factors against future concerns. It also provides empirical
support for the psychometric usefulness of the GOETE indicators in
the Chilean context; it is suggested that the findings of this study
should be included in intervention protocols aimed at fostering
identity capital resources and assessing the concerns that adolescents
have regarding the future, where educational establishments play a
fundamental role by systematically collaborating with the adolescents’
life planning.
The studies involving humans were approved by scientific ethics
committee of the Universidad de La Frontera through the Evaluation
Act of the Research Project Folio N°102/21. The studies were
conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional
requirements. Written informed consent for participation in this study
was provided by the participants’ legal guardians/next of kin.
Author contributions
YN-E and MB-S: problem, conceptualization of the research,
methodology, preparation, elaboration of the original writing,
visualization, supervision, and administration of the project. OT-M
and RM: data analysis and formal analysis. YN-E and OT-M:
treatment of the data. YN-E, MB-S, OT-M, and RM: review, editing,
and writing of the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Acknowledgments
Thanks are due to all the adolescents who kindly agreed to answer
the questionnaire. The authors appreciate the support of the UNESCO
Chair: Childhood, Youth, Education, and Society. The authors would
like to acknowledge the support of the Vicerrectoria de Investigación
y Posgrado (VRIP) of the Universidad de La Frontera for their support
in the publication of this manuscript.
Data availability statement
Conflict of interest
The data analyzed in this study is subject to the following licenses/
restrictions: the data set is not available due to the confidentiality
stated in the research protocol. Requests to access these datasets
should be directed to monicaviviana.bravo@ufrontera.cl.
Frontiers in Education
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the
absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could
be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
07
frontiersin.org
Neira-Escalona et al.
10.3389/feduc.2024.1208925
Publisher’s note
organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the
reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim
that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed
by the publisher.
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors
and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated
References
Aabedi-Asl, H. R., Refahi, Z., and Refahi, N. (2017). Studying the relationship between
parenting styles and self-concept in adolescents. Specialty J. Psychol. Manag. 3, 19–25.
pruebas de razonamiento. Revista Latinoamericana de Psicología 46, 117–126. doi:
10.1016/S0120-0534(14)70015-9
Ahn, J. A., and Lee, S. (2016). Peer attachment, perceived parenting style, self-concept,
and school adjustments in adolescents with chronic illness. Asian Nurs. Res. 10, 300–304.
doi: 10.1016/j.anr.2016.10.003
Frank, G., Plunkett, S. W., and Otten, M. P. (2010). Perceived parenting, self-esteem,
and general self-efficacy of Iranian American adolescents. J. Child Fam. Stud. 19,
738–746. doi: 10.1007/s10826-010-9363-x
Bandura, A. (1977) Social learning Theory. Hoboken, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Fusco, L., Sica, L. S., Boiano, A., Esposito, S., and Aleni, L. (2018). Future orientation,
resilience and vocational identity in southern Italian adolescents. Int. J. Educ. Vocat.
Guid. 19, 63–83. doi: 10.1007/s10775-018-9369-2
Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. Am. Psychol. 37,
122–147. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.37.2.122
Gniewosz, B., Eccles, J., and Noack, P. (2014). Early adolescents’ development of
academic self-concept and intrinsic task value: the role of contextual feedback. J. Res.
Adolesc. 25, 459–473. doi: 10.1111/jora.12140
Bandura, A. (1986) Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory.
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A. (2002). Social cognitive theory in cultural context. Appl. Psychol. 51,
269–290. doi: 10.1111/1464-0597.00092
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., and Babin, B. J.and Anderson, R. E. (2019) Multivariate data
analysis. 8th Edn. Boston, MA: Cengage.
Barrows, J., Dunn, S., and Lloyd, C. A. (2013). Anxiety, self-efficacy, and college exam
grades. Univ. J. Educ. Res. 1, 204–208. doi: 10.13189/ujer.2013.010310
Hambleton, R. K.and Zenisky, A. L. (2011) Translating and adapting
tests for cross-cultural assessments. In D. Matsumoto and VijverF. J. R. van de
(Eds.), Cross-cultural research methods in psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge
University, 46–70.
Blázquez, F. P., Solà, C. L., García, M. C., and Medina, M. P. (2019). Modelo de
preocupación PAMPA (Percepción de amenaza futura, Activación, Motivación,
Pensamiento y Acción): preocupación funcional y patológica. Revista Argentina de
Clínica Psicológica 28, 190–198. doi: 10.24205/03276716.2018.1088
Hu, L., and Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure
analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Struct. Equ. Model. Multidiscip.
J. 6, 1–55. doi: 10.1080/10705519909540118
Bravo-Sanzana, M., Pavez, M., Salvo-Garrido, S., and Mieres-Chacaltana, M. (2019).
Autoeficacia, expectativas y violencia escolar como mediadores del aprendizaje en
Matemática. Revista Espacios 40, 28–42.
International Test Commission (2017). The ITC guidelines for translating and adapting
tests. 2nd Edn.
Brown, S. L., Teufel, J. A., Birch, D. A., and Kancherla, V. (2006). Gender, age, and
behavior differences in early adolescent worry. J. Sch. Health 76, 430–437. doi: 10.1111/j.
1746-1561.2006.00137.x
Jensen, D. H., and Jetten, J. (2015). Bridging and bonding interactions in higher
education: social capital and students’ academic and professional identity formation.
Front. Psychol. 6:126. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00126
Burrow, A. L., and Hill, P. L. (2011). Purpose as a form of identity capital for positive
youth adjustment. Dev. Psychol. 47, 1196–1206. doi: 10.1037/a0023818
Kiuru, N., Wang, M. T., Salmela-Aro, K., Kannas, L., Ahonen, T., and Hirvonen, R.
(2020). Associations between adolescents’ interpersonal relationships, school well-being,
and academic achievement during educational transitions. J. Youth Adolesc. 49,
1057–1072. doi: 10.1007/s10964-019-01184-y
Butterbaugh, S. M., Ross, D. B., and Campbell, A. (2020). My money and me: attaining
financial Independence in emerging adulthood through a conceptual model of identity
capital theory. Contemp. Fam. Ther. 42, 33–45. doi: 10.1007/s10591-019-09515-8
Li, C. H. (2016). Confirmatory factor analysis with ordinal data: comparing robust
maximum likelihood and diagonally weighted least squares. Behav. Res. Methods 48,
936–949. doi: 10.3758/s13428-015-0619-7
Byrne, B. M. (1998) Structural equation Modeling with Lisrel, Prelis, and Simplis: Basic
Concepts, Applications, and Programming Psychology. London: Psychology Press
Çetin, S., and Gök, B. (2017). Modeling the factors affecting students’ mathematical
literacy scores: the case of PISA 2012. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi 32,
982–998. doi: 10.16986/huje.2016023162
Manterola, C., Grande, L., Otzen, T., García, N., Salazar, P., and Quiroz, G. (2018).
Confiabilidad, precisión o reproducibilidad de las mediciones. Métodos de valoración,
utilidad y aplicaciones en la práctica clínica. Rev. Chil. Infectol. 35, 680–688. doi:
10.4067/S0716-10182018000600680
Cha, E. S., Kim, K. H., and Erlen, J. A. (2007). Translation of scales in cross-cultural research:
issues and techniques. J. Adv. Nurs. 58, 386–395. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2648.2007.04242.x
Chavarría, M. P., and Barra, E. (2014). Satisfacción Vital en Adolescentes: Relación
con la Autoeficacia y el Apoyo Social Percibido. Terapia Psicológica 32, 41–46. doi:
10.4067/S0718-48082014000100004
Moreira, P. A. S., Dias, P., Machado-Vaz, F., and Machado-Vaz, J. (2013). Predictors of
academic performance and school engagement — integrating persistence, motivation
and study skills perspectives using person-centered and variable-centered approaches.
Learn. Individ. Differ. 24, 117–125. doi: 10.1016/j.lindif.2012.10.016
Chen, K. H., Lay, K. L., Wu, Y. C., and Yao, G. (2007). Adolescent self-identity and
mental health: the function of identity importance, identity firmness, and identity
discrepancy. Chin. J. Psychol. 49, 53–72. doi: 10.6129/CJP.2007.4901.04
Muñiz, J., Elosua, P., and Hambleton, R. K. (2013). Directrices para la traducción y
adaptación de los tests: segunda edición. Psicothema 25, 151–157. doi: 10.7334/
psicothema2013.24
Cid, P., Orellana, Y. A., and Barriga, O. (2010). General self-effcacy scale validation in
Chile. Rev. Med. Chil. 138, 551–557. doi: 10.4067/S0034-98872010000500004
Muñiz, J., Hernández, A., and Ponsoda, V. (2015). Nuevas directrices sobre el uso
de los tests: Investigación, control de calidad y seguridad. Papeles del Psicólogo 36,
161–173.
Conger, R. D., Ge, X., Elder, G. H., Lorenz, F. O., and Simons, R. L. (1994). Economic
stress, coercive family process, and developmental problems of adolescents. Child Dev.
65, 541–561. doi: 10.2307/1131401
Oh, W., Bowker, J. C., Santos, A. J., Ribeiro, O., Guedes, M., Freitas, M., et al. (2021).
Distinct profiles of relationships with mothers, fathers, and best friends and socialBehavioral functioning in early adolescence: A cross-cultural study. Child Dev. 92,
1154–1170. doi: 10.1111/cdev.13610
Côté, J. E. (2005). Identity capital, social capital and the wider benefits of learning:
generating resources facilitative of social cohesion. Lond. Rev. Educ. 3, 221–237. doi:
10.1080/14748460500372382
Parreira do Amaral, M., Litau, J., Cramer, C., Kobolt, A., Loncle, P., McDowell, J., et al.
(2011). Governance of educational trajectories in Europe: state of the art report.
GOETE working paper. Available at: https://www.goete.eu/download/workingpapers?download=24:state-of-the-art-report-governance-of-educational-trajectoriesin-europe
Côté, J. E., and Levine, C. G. (2002). Identity, formation, agency, and culture: A social
psychological synthesis. New York: Psychology Press.
Côté, J. E., Mizokami, S., Roberts, S. E., and Nakama, R. (2016). An examination of
the cross-cultural validity of the identity capital model: American and Japanese students
compared. J. Adolesc. 46, 76–85. doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.11.001
Pérez-Díaz, P. A., Bachmann-Vera, D., and Wiium, N. (2022a). A positive-psychologybased multiple regression model predicting wellbeing in Chilean youth. Análisis y
Modificación de Conducta 48, 121–135. doi: 10.33776/amc.v48i178.7490
Côté, J. E., and Schwartz, S. J. (2002). Comparing psychological and sociological
approaches to identity: identity status, identity capital, and the individualization process.
J. Adolesc. 25, 571–586. doi: 10.1006/jado.2002.0511
Pérez-Díaz, P. A., Nuno-Vasquez, S., Perazzo, M. F., and Wiium, N. (2022b). Positive
identity predicts psychological wellbeing in Chilean youth: A double-mediation model.
Front. Psychol. 13:999364. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.999364
Elosua, P., and López, A. (2007). Potential sources of differential item functioning in
the adaptation of tests. Int. J. Test. 7, 39–52. doi: 10.1080/15305050709336857
Recber, S., Isiksal, M., and Koç, Y. (2018). Investigating self-efficacy, anxiety, attitudes
and mathematics achievement regarding gender and school type. Anales de Psicologia
34, 41–51. doi: 10.6018/analesps.34.1.229571
Elosua, P., Mujika, J., Almeida, L. S., and Hermosilla, D. (2014). Procedimientos
analítico-racionales en la adaptación de tests. Adaptación al español de la batería de
Frontiers in Education
08
frontiersin.org
Neira-Escalona et al.
10.3389/feduc.2024.1208925
Salmela-Aro, K., Mutanen, P., Koivisto, P., and Vuori, J. (2010). Adolescents' future
education-related personal goals, concerns and internal motivation during "towards
working life" group intervention. Eur. J. Dev. Psychol. 7, 445–462. doi:
10.1080/17405620802591628
Tikkanen, J., Bledowski, P., and Felczak, J. (2015). Education systems as
transition spaces. Int. J. Qual. Stud. Educ. 28, 297–310. doi:
10.1080/09518398.2014.987853
Trizano-Hermosilla, I., and Alvarado, M. (2016). Best alternatives to Cronbach's alpha
reliability in realistic conditions: congeneric and asymmetrical measurements. Front.
Psychol. 7, 1–8. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00769
Sbicigo, J. B., and Dell’Aglio, D. D. (2012). Family environment and psychological
adaptation in adolescents. Psicologia 25, 615–622. doi: 10.1590/
S0102-79722012000300022
Schwartz, S. J., and Petrova, M. (2018). Fostering healthy identity development in
adolescence. Nat. Hum. Behav. 2, 110–111. doi: 10.1038/s41562-017-0283-2
Tus, J. (2020). Self-concept, self-esteem, self-efficacy and academic performance of the
senior high school students. Int. J. Res. Cult. Soc. 4, 45–59. doi: 10.6084/m9.
figshare.13174991.v1
Schwarzer, R., and Jerusalem, M. (1995). “Generalized self-efficacy scale GSES” in
Measures in health psychology. eds. J. Weinman, S. Wright and M. Johnston (Windsor,
England: NFER-Nelson), 35–37.
Vasey, M. W. (1993). “Development and cognition in childhood anxiety: the example
of worry” in Advances in Clinical Child Psychology. eds. R. J. Prinz and T. H. Ollendick
(New York: Plenum Press), 1–39.
Songco, A., Hudson, J. L., and Fox, E. (2020). A cognitive model of pathological worry
in children and adolescents: A systematic review. Clin. Child. Fam. Psychol. Rev. 23,
229–249. doi: 10.1007/s10567-020-00311-7
Vera-Noriega, J. A., and Valenzuela-Medina, J. E. (2012). El concepto de identidad
como recurso para el estudio de transiciones. Psicologia Sociedade 24, 272–282. doi:
10.1590/S0102-71822012000200004
Stern, J. A., Costello, M. A., Kansky, J., Fowler, C., Loeb, E. L., and Allen, J. P. (2021).
Here for you: attachment and the growth of empathic support for friends in adolescence.
Child Dev. 92, 1326–1341. doi: 10.1111/cdev.13630
Williams, S. C., and Tani, N. E. (2021). Capital identity projection and academic
performance among historically Black college and university (HBCU) students. Grantee
Submission 59, 72–89.
Tikkanen, J. (2016). Concern or confidence? Adolescents' identity capital and future
worry in different school contexts. J. Adolesc. 46, 14–24. doi: 10.1016/j.
adolescence.2015.10.011
Yulikhah, S., Bukhori, B., and Murtadho, A. (2019). Self concept, self efficacy, and
interpersonal communication effectiveness of student. Psikohumaniora 4, 65–76. doi:
10.21580/pjpp.v4i1.3196
Frontiers in Education
09
frontiersin.org