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Science Advances
Origins of the sarsen megaliths at Stonehenge2020 •
The sources of the stone used to construct Stonehenge around 2500 BCE have been debated for over four centuries. The smaller “bluestones” near the center of the monument have been traced to Wales, but the origins of the sarsen (silcrete) megaliths that form the primary architecture of Stonehenge remain unknown. Here, we use geochemical data to show that 50 of the 52 sarsens at the monument share a consistent chemistry and, by inference, originated from a common source area. We then compare the geochemical signature of a core extracted from Stone 58 at Stonehenge with equivalent data for sarsens from across southern Britain. From this, we identify West Woods, Wiltshire, 25 km north of Stonehenge, as the most probable source area for the majority of sarsens at the monument.
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports
Local and exotic sources of sarsen debitage at Stonehenge revealed by geochemical provenancing2024 •
The application of novel geochemical provenancing techniques has changed our understanding of the construction of Stonehenge, by identifying West Woods on the Marlborough Downs as the likely source area for the majority of the extant sarsen megaliths at the monument. In this study, we apply the same techniques to saccharoid sarsen fragments from three excavations within and outwith the main Sarsen Circle to expand our understanding of the provenance of sarsen debitage present at the monument. Through pXRF analysis, we demonstrate that the surface geochemistry of 1,028 excavated sarsen fragments is significantly affected by subsurface weathering following burial in a way that cannot be overcome by simple cleaning. However, we show that this effect is surficial and does not have a volumetrically significant impact, thus permitting the subsequent use of whole-rock analytical methods. Comparison of ICP-AES and ICP-MS trace element data from 54 representative sarsen fragments with equivalent data from Stone 58 at Stonehenge demonstrates that none are debitage produced during the dressing of this megalith or its 49 chemical equivalents at the monument. Further inspection of the ICP-MS data reveals that 22 of these fragments fall into three distinct geochemical ‘families’. None of these families overlap with the geochemical signature of Stone 58 and its chemical equivalents, implying that sarsen imported from at least a further three locations (in addition to West Woods) is present at Stonehenge. Comparison of immobile trace element signatures from the 54 excavated sarsen fragments against equivalent data for 20 sarsen outcrop areas across southern Britain shows that 15 of the fragments can be linked to specific localities. Eleven of these were likely sourced from Monkton Down, Totterdown Wood and West Woods on the Marlborough Downs (25–33 km north of Stonehenge). Three fragments likely came from Bramdean, Hampshire (51 km southeast of Stonehenge), and one from Stoney Wish, East Sussex (123 km to the southeast). Technological analysis and refitting shows that one of the fragments sourced from Monkton Down was part of a 25.7 cm × 17.9 cm flake removed from the outer surface of a large sarsen boulder, most probably during on-site dressing. This adds a second likely source area for the sarsen megaliths at Stonehenge in addition to West Woods. At this stage, we can only speculate on why sarsen from such diverse sources is present at Stonehenge. We do not know whether the fragments analysed by ICP-MS were removed from (i) the outer surface of Stones 26 or 160 (which are chemically distinct to the other extant sarsen megaliths), (ii) one of the c.28 sarsen megaliths and lintels from the c.60 erected during Stage 2 of the construction of Stonehenge that may now be missing from the monument, or (iii) one of the dismantled and destroyed sarsen megaliths associated with Stage 1 of the monument. With the exception of the fragment sourced from Monkton Down, it is also possible that the analysed fragments were (iv) pieces of saccharoid sarsen hammerstones or their pre-forms, or (v) small blocks brought on-site for ceremonial or non-ceremonial purposes.
Non-invasive survey in the Stonehenge 'Triangle', Amesbury, Wiltshire, has highlighted a number of features that have a significant bearing on the interpretation of the site. Geophysical anomalies may signal the position of buried stones adding to the possibility of former stone arrangements, while laser scanning has provided detail on the manner in which the stones have been dressed; some subsequently carved with dagger and axe symbols. The probability that a lintelled bluestone trilithon formed an entrance in the north-east is highlighted. This work has added detail that allows discussion on whether the sarsen circle was a completed structure, although it is by no means conclusive in this respect. Instead, it is suggested that it was built as a facade, with other parts of the circuit added and with an entrance in the south.
Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society
Analytical Surveys of Stonehenge and its Environs, 2009–2013: Part 2 – the Stones2015 •
Non-invasive survey in the Stonehenge ‘Triangle’, Amesbury, Wiltshire, has highlighted a number of features that have a significant bearing on the interpretation of the site. Geophysical anomalies may signal the position of buried stones adding to the possibility of former stone arrangements, while laser scanning has provided detail on the manner in which the stones have been dressed; some subsequently carved with axe and dagger symbols. The probability that a lintelled bluestone trilithon formed an entrance in the north-east is signposted. This work has added detail that allows discussion on the question of whether the sarsen circle was a completed structure, although it is by no means conclusive in this respect. Instead, it is suggested that it was built as a façade, with other parts of the circuit added and with an entrance in the south.
2021 •
Little is known of the properties of the sarsen stones (or silcretes) that comprise the main architecture of Stonehenge. The only studies of rock struck from the monument date from the 19th century, while 20th century investigations have focussed on excavated debris without demonstrating a link to specific megaliths. Here, we present the first comprehensive analysis of sarsen samples taken directly from a Stonehenge megalith (Stone 58, in the centrally placed trilithon horseshoe). We apply state-of-the-art petrographic, mineralogical and geochemical techniques to two cores drilled from the stone during conservation work in 1958. Petrographic analyses demonstrate that Stone 58 is a highly indurated, grain-supported, structureless and texturally mature groundwater silcrete, comprising fine-to-medium grained quartz sand cemented by optically-continuous syntaxial quartz overgrowths. In addition to detrital quartz, trace quantities of silica-rich rock fragments, Fe-oxides/hydroxides and other minerals are present. Cathodoluminescence analyses show that the quartz cement developed as an initial <10 µm thick zone of non-luminescing quartz followed by ~16 separate quartz cement growth zones. Late-stage Fe-oxides/hydroxides and Ti-oxides line and/or infill some pores. Automated mineralogical analyses indicate that the sarsen preserves 7.2 to 9.2 area % porosity as a moderately-connected intergranular network. Geochemical data show that the sarsen is chemically pure, comprising 99.7 wt. % SiO2. The major and trace element chemistry is highly consistent within the stone, with the only magnitude variations being observed in Fe content. Non-quartz accessory minerals within the silcrete host sediments impart a trace element signature distinct from standard sedimentary and other crustal materials. 143Nd/144Nd isotope analyses suggest that these host sediments were likely derived from eroded Mesozoic rocks, and that these Mesozoic rocks incorporated much older Mesoproterozoic material. The chemistry of Stone 58 has been identified recently as representative of 50 of the 52 remaining sarsens at Stonehenge. These results are therefore representative of the main stone type used to build what is arguably the most important Late Neolithic monument in Europe.
This book begins with a reappraisal of over 250 years of fieldwork, excavation and speculation, including John Wood's highly accurate but often overlooked survey of 1740, which is the most important record of Stonehenge ever made, and the only reliable plan of the monument, before the fall of several major stones and their later re-erection in the twentieth century. The prehistoric engineering skills involved in the construction of Stonehenge have long been recognized, but the book presents, for the first time, tangible evidence to show that locked within the symmetry of the stones are precise formulae that determined their numbers, spacing, and relationships. The author explains how the Neolithic surveyors set out the fifty-six Aubrey Holes, four Station Stones, and the thirty stones in the Sarsen Circle plus the significance of the horseshoe arrangement of 5 massive trilithons at the heart of the monument. The implications are far reaching, demonstrating that the original people who designed Stonehenge in all its phases of construction, spanning over 1,500 years, employed simple and elegant geometric rules. Elaborate sightline theories, alignments and astronomical computations are questioned, allowing the rationale behind Stonehenge and other prehistoric sites, some of which conformed to the same model, to be reassessed. The purpose of this book is to review the implications of the design of the monument. It is the actual placing of the stones in their exact positions that is more puzzling than how they were brought there. The complexity is far more than might be needed as an astronomical observatory.
2024 •
Stonehenge is a mystery that attracts explanations which range from the banal to the fantastic. To claim a new theory is original, interesting, and credible is to set a high hurdle. This brief note presents what is believed to be a new geometric design that is simple, elegant, and intriguing. Revised Draft
2019 •
نظریۀ علم دینی آیتالله جوادی آملی از نظریههایی است که در چند سال اخیر توجه اندیشمندان را به خود جلب کرده است. نوشتار حاضر با طرح این پرسش که «عالم فرامادی و عوامل فرامادی چه جایگاهی در نظریه علم دینی دارند؟»، در مرحله نخست هرکدام از مفاهیم «علم»، «دین»، صفتهای «دینی» و «علمی» و سرانجام مفهوم ترکیبی«علم دینی» را از نگاه ایشان بررسی کرده، دقت ایشان را در تفکیک میان دو سطح از تحلیل، یعنی تحلیل منطقی ـ فلسفی و تحلیل تاریخی ـ جامعهشناختی از علم نشان داده است. آنگاه به این مطلب توجه میدهد که سلسلهمراتبی دیدن عالم و اعتقاد به ارتباط وثیق میان عوالم مختلف یکی از بزنگاههای طرح مبحث علم دینی است که بهخوبی در نظریه ایشان منعکس شده است. این نگرش درنهایت به نقد «تفکیک روشی» در عرصه علوم رایج منجر شده و با جایگزینی «موضوع» به عنوان ملاک تفکیک علوم، «تلفیق روشی» را در صورت نیاز و به تناسب مراتب وجودی «موضوع»، به عنوان راهحلی عملی جهت برونرفت از مشکلات علوم فعلی و نیز گرفتارنشدن در بنبستهای نظری پیشنهاد میدهد؛ گرچه ممکن است موضوع مورد مطالعهای بهدلیل تکساحتیبودن، فقط نیازمند کار...
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