GEOCHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY AND PETROLOGY • SOFIA
Е
И И ,
И Е
И И Е
И •
И
2010, 48, 103-123.
Emeralds, sapphires, pearls and other gemmological materials
from the Preslav gold treasure (X century) in Bulgaria
Elisabeth Strack, Ruslan I. Kostov
Abstract. The Preslav gold treasure (adornments from gold decorated with enamel, beads of gem minerals
and pearls: diadem, bilateral necklace, medallions, several earrings and earcaps, rings, buttons, appliqués and
other small finds) was found in 1978 near the town of Veliki Preslav – the second Bulgarian capital during
the nd of the First Bulgarian Kingdom. The treasure (X century) belonged to a female member of the royal
family and is suggested to be of a Byzantine origin. A morphometric study and gem testing was made on all
the gemmological materials – minerals and numerous pearls. Among the gem minerals are identified 40
emeralds, 12 violet sapphires, 10 reddish violet garnets, 5 rock crystals, 3 amethysts and 1 carnelian. Their
inclusions and type of cut are listed. The average dimensions for the emerald polished and rounded on the
edges prisms from two medallions are: length 0.48 cm and width 0.59 cm. The average dimensions for the
mainly barrel shaped sea pearls from a gold medallion are length 0.40 cm and diameter 0.45 cm. The origin of
the emeralds is under discussion, and they are compared with other emerald finds in Europe, including from
Bulgaria, from the Antiquity and Early Medieval Period. As a probable source for the gem minerals (emerald,
sapphire, garnet), according to their inclusions, is suggested an Eastern (India and Sri Lanka) origin
(alternative for the emeralds – the Hindou-Kush area), and the pearls are probably from the Indian Ocean of
the Persian Gulf.
Key words: emerald, sapphire, garnet, quartz, pearl, Preslav, gold treasure
Addresses: E. Strack – Gemmologisches Institut Hamburg, Gerhofstraße 19, 20354 Hamburg, Germany;
E-mail: info@strack-gih.de; R.I. Kostov – University of Mining and Geology “St. Ivan Rilski”, 1700 Sofia,
Bulgaria
Е
Ш
И. К
,
.
,
(Х
ч
,
Б
)
(
.
:
,
,
,
,
)
,
–
,
1978 .
.
(X
)
–
И
.
40
, 10
ь
:
,5
.
0,48 cm
ь
,3
0,59 cm.
0,40 cm
© 2010 • Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Bulgarian Mineralogical Society
1
.
–
, 12
.
0,45 cm.
Е
,
,
(И
, Ш
(
И
.
,
)
,
-
),
(
–
),
.
Introduction
The medieval settlement of Preslav (now
Veliki Preslav) was founded during the VIII to
IX century. It has been proclaimed the second
capital of Bulgaria in 893 and is related to the
reign of Tsar Simeon the Great. It was captured
in 969 by prince Sviatoslav of Kiev and in 971
by Byzantine emperor John I Tzimisces, and
later on the Bulgarians reoccupied it in ca. 986,
and the Byzantines – about the year 1000 The
traditional occupations of the area of the royal
palace were agriculture, livestock breeding,
viticulture and materials have been found that
testify to almost all kinds of manufacturing:
ironwork, pottery, ceramics for everyday use,
luxury ceramics, painted ceramics, glasswork,
jewellery, ivory, and marble (Jordanov, 2002).
The so called Preslav Treasure (adornments from gold decorated with enamel, gem
minerals and pearls: diadem, bilateral necklace,
medallions, several earrings and earcaps, rings,
buttons, appliqués and other small finds),
which was found in 1978 about 3-4 km NW
from the palace complex of Preslav, obviously
belonged to a member of the royal Bulgarian
family (a Byzantine gift to a daughter of tsar
Peter I or tsar Boris II) and has direct analogues
to the ornaments of the noblest and high
ranking Byzantine women (Archaeological
Museum…; Totev, 1986; 1993; Atanasov,
1999a; 1999b). It is well known from historical
sources, that according to the firmly established
tradition the basileus make gift crowns
(diadems) only to royal persons (Twining,
1967, 27-32). The royal insignia and jewellery
of the Bulgarian kings and members of their
family are compared to other finds and images
from the Byzantine period (Atanasov, 1999a).
The interpretation of the main jewellery objects
is illustrated on Fig. 1.
As the gem minerals and pearls have not
been described by specialists in gemmology, a
Fig. 1. Reconstruction of the gold diadem, necklace,
earcaps and medallions, decorated with gem minerals, pearls and cloisonné enamel from the Preslav
treasure (X century) (after Atanasov, 1999a; 1999b)
more detailed preliminary study has been made
on the objects with gemmological materials,
with special interest on emeralds in respect to
their origin. The Preslav gold treasure is of
special importance as among its objects is a
representative of the only Medieval “crown”
and other female royal insignia found in
Bulgaria (X century – during the end of the
First Bulgarian Kingdom), as well as it is one
of the few representatives in Europe from the
Byzantine jewellery workshops. The gold
cloisonné enamel platelets of the diadem,
necklace and other jewellery objects are not
discussed. The inventory numbers and weight
of the artefacts are given according to the
104
published catalogue (The Preslav Treasure,
2007). Several optical instruments have been
applied for the study: stereoscopic microscope
(MBS-9), refractometer, polariscope and UV
lamp (Eickhorst System with both SW 254 nm
and LW 366 nm light). Morphometric measurements are done both under the microscope
and by a Leveridge gauge.
Gemmological study
Emeralds and pearls from a pear of gold
medallions, probably part of a necklace
The gold medallions are round in shape and
made of massive gold (Inv. N3381.3a and
N3381.3b; weight 33.4 g and 31.6 g). The two
concentric rings are linked with gold wire.
They have been decorated with pearls in the
outer (23 in number – not preserved) and inner
(10 in number – preserved only in the second
medallion) belt, and the middle belt – with
emeralds (15 in numbers). The center circle in
both cases has been probably decorated with
enamel, which is missing.
Dimensions of medallion N1: central gold
circle, inner diameter 0.9 cm, outer diameter
1.2 cm; first gold ring, diameter 2.5-2.6 cm;
second gold ring, diameter 4.2-4.4 cm; outer
diameter, 5.0 cm; thickness 0.49-0.50 cm; hook
base, 0.75 cm; round hook, width 0.55 cm,
diameter 0.8 cm; both hooks, height 0.75 cm,
gold “nails” in the first belt, 0.55-0.6 cm,
diameter of head of “nail” 0.2-0.25 cm; width
of circle hooks on the outer third belt, 0.4-0.5
cm (Figs. 2-3). The measurements and characteristics of the emerald beads are listed in Table 1.
Dimensions of medallion N2: central gold
circle, inner diameter 0.9 cm, outer diameter
1.2 cm; first gold ring, diameter 2.55-2.6 cm;
second gold ring, diameter 4.0-4.1 cm; outer
diameter, 5.0 cm; thickness 0.50 cm; hook
base, 0.9 cm; round hook, width 0.7 cm, diameter 0.9 cm; both hooks, height 1.0 cm, gold
“nails” in the first belt, 0.55-0.6 cm, diameter
of head of “nail” 0.2-0.25 cm; width of circle
hooks on the outer third belt, 0.4-0.5 cm,
diameter 0.33-0.39 cm (Figs. 4-5). The measurements and characteristics of the emerald
Table 1. Dimensions of emeralds (numbers start under the hook clockwise from 1 to 15) from medallion N1
N
1
Length, cm
0.47
Diameter, cm
0.55
2
0.44
0.57
3
4
5
0.55
0.22; 0.22
0.57
0.54
0.66; 0.50
0.57
6
7
8
9
0.44
0.48
0.50
0.42-0.38
0.67
0.45
0.55
0.58
10
11
12
13
14
15
0.45
0.50
0.50
0.48
0.42
0.48
0.47
0.64
0.48-0.50
0.54
0.64
0.64
0.54
0.57
Notes
hexagonal prismatic shape with 6 faces, face width 0.24 cm; rounded edges; bases
– one flat and one with rounded edges; several cracks; distinct inclusions
hexagonal prismatic faces; slightly better polished; broken edge; very distinct
inclusions
polished, rounded so that the crystal faces are not visible
two hexagonal slabs; broken on the bases; distinct inclusions
hexagonal shape; of a low polish; smooth edges; small prismatic transparent
inclusions parallel to the c-axis; also long prismatic inclusions of amphibole and
white mica inclusion with pseudohexagonal shape
polished; white mica inclusion with pseudohexagonal shape
polished, rounded so that crystal faces are not visible
hexagonal prismatic shape; polished edges; distinct inclusions
polished; irregular mica inclusions and an inclusion of a dark coloured
unidentified mineral phase
good polish
hexagonal prismatic shape; polished edges
hexagonal prismatic shape; polished edges; broken; mica inclusion
polished, rounded so that no crystal faces are seen
hexagonal prismatic shape; polished edges; transparent inclusions
polished, rounded and no crystal faces are visible
average value
105
Fig. 2. Emeralds from gold medallion N1
Fig. 3. Emeralds from gold medallion N1, detail
Fig. 4. Emeralds and pearls from gold
medallion N2
Fig. 5. Emeralds and pears from gold medallion N2,
detail
106
Fig. 6. Shape and quality of pearls in the medallion
N2
beads are listed in Table 2. The measurements
and characteristics of the pearls are listed in
Table 3 (Fig. 6).
The average dimensions for the emerald
polished and rounded on the edges prisms from
both medallions are: length 0.48 cm and
diameter 0.59 cm. Most of them have cracks
perpendicular to the prismatic hexagonal zone
and internal striation. Because of the internal
defect most of them are non-transparent or
translucent. The colour of the emeralds is pale
green, green to dark green. In medallion N1 as
best in colour and transparency are emeralds 1,
3, 5, 9, 10 and 14. In medallion N2 as best in
colour and transparency are emeralds 1, 6, 7, 8,
10, 11 and 15. All of the broken pieces are of
inferior pale green colour and transparency.
The emeralds have no luminescence with one
exception (emerald 10 from medallion N1 with
a weak yellow fluorescence in the LW light).
The inclusions are represented by transparent
prismatic negative crystals (gas-liquid inclusions) perpendicular to the c-axis, pseudohexagonal mica and long prismatic amphibole
(probably tremolite). All are polished to a
different degree (probably some sort of tumbling) along the edges of the natural crystals.
The average dimensions for the pearls are:
length 0.40 cm and diameter 0.45 cm. Most of
them have a barrel shape. They are supposed to
be sea water pearls. The number [10 pearls +
15 emeralds + 23 pearls; for example –
(10x23):15=15.333…; or (10+23):15=2.2; or
(102+152+232):232=1.614…is the golden mean
1.618]
and
colour
(white-green-white)
symbolism of the gems in the belts of the
medallions is not interpreted.
Table 2. Dimensions of emeralds (numbers start under the hook clockwise from 1 to 15) from medallion N2
(+ length of broken bead)
N
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Length, cm
0.55
0.58
0.20+
0.35+
0.55
0.50
0.40
0.50
0.55
Diameter, cm
0.68
0.68
~0.50
0.72
0.65
~0.40
0.72
0.48
0.48
10
11
12
13
14
15
0.48
0.58
0.40
0.54
0.57
0.60
0.49
0.62
0.50
0.70
0.68
0.50
0.69
0.60
Notes
hexagonal prismatic shape; polished with smooth faces; distinct inclusions
hexagonal prismatic shape; slightly better polished
polished; broken half piece; mica inclusion
polished; broken half piece
polished, rounded so that crystal faces are not seen
polished, rounded so that crystal faces are not seen
polished, rounded so that crystal faces are not seen
polished, rounded so that crystal faces are not seen
polished, rounded so that crystal faces are not seen; broken half piece along the
prismatic zone
good polish; broken on edge
polished edges
polished edges
polished edges
smoothed all over
polished edges
average value
107
Table 3. Dimensions of pearls (numbers start under the hook clockwise from 1 to 10) from medallion N2
N
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Length, cm
0.40
0.45
0.35
0.43
0.38
0.40
0.40
0.35
0.40
0.40
0.40
Diameter, cm
0.45
0.48
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.40
0.45
0.43
0.45
0.45
0.45
Notes
barrel shape
barrel shape
button shape
barrel shape with concentric circles
button shape
barrel shape
barrel shape
high button shape
barrel shape
barrel, but slightly baroque shape
average value
Violet sapphires and pearls in a gold
medallion
The gold medallion is of a rhombic shape (Inv.
N3381.4, weight 28.9 g), probably worn as
central part between the two mentioned
medallions with emeralds and pears on a
necklace (Fig. 7). Dimensions of the medallion:
central gold oval, 3.3x3 cm; first gold rhomb,
5.3-5 cm; second gold rhomb, 6.5-6 cm;
thickness 0.38 cm; hook base, 0.4 cm; round
hook, width 0.4 cm, diameter 0.36 cm; two
small hooks, weight 0.22 cm; width of circle
hooks on the outer rhomb, 0.4-0.45 cm,
diameter 0.2-0.25 cm. The oval center and four
drop-like gold cassettes have been probably
decorated by enamel (not preserved). The first
rhombic belt has been decorated with 4 big
pearls (1 missing) of a round to barrel shape
(dimensions 0.55x0.60 cm; 0.55x0.68 cm;
0.68x0.72 cm). All of them display moderate to
distinct signs of dissolution. The second
rhombic belt has been decorated by 12 violet
sapphires (1 missing and one replaced by a
reddish violet garnet) (previously published as
Fig. 7. Gold medallion with violet sapphires, garnet
and pearls
108
Fig. 8. Gold medallion with violet sapphires and
pearls; back side, detail
Fig. 9. Gold earcap N1 with emeralds and garnets
Fig. 10. Gold earcap N2 with emeralds and garnets
amethysts – Totev, 1986; 1993; Atanasov,
1999a; 1999b; The Preslav Treasure, 2007, 10,
Fig. 1.5). The sapphire is identified by the
strong red luminescence in the LW light
(absent in the garnet). In most of the sapphires
are identified inclusions of fine rutile needles.
In a single case, in the largest sapphire, are
observed inclusions of a red colour with a
tetragonal prismatic to pseudoisometric crystal
habit. Such ruby-red prisms are attributed to
rutile crystals and are identified among
sapphires from Sri Lanka (Gübelin, 1979). The
violet gems are all rounded polished with a
barrel or irregular shape (dimensions from
0.55x0.42 cm up to 0.65x0.68 cm). Several of
them are broken around the hole. Observed are
also three cases of repair – gold wire with a
violet stone has been added later. All gems are
drilled from both sides lengthwise and in 2
cases are observed initiations of 2 holes in
other directions (Fig. 8). The third outer
rhombic belt is composed by 21 pearls (10
missing). Their shape is barrel to irregular
slightly baroque.
Emeralds, garnets, sapphires and pearls in
a pair of gold earcaps
The maximum length of the jewellery objects
are 9.5 and 10 cm correspondingly (Inv.
N3381.7; weight 52.60 g). The width of the
gold cassette in a crescent shape is 4 cm, with
corresponding thickness 0.36 and 0.29 cm
(Figs. 9-10).
Gold earcap N1. “Front” side of cassette –
two emeralds (oval cabochon shape, polished;
0.75x0.50 cm and 0.6x0.4 cm) and a garnet
109
(round cabochon, 0.5x0.6 cm) in the middle
between them. On the “back” side is observed a
reverse arrangement – two reddish violet gems
and between them a rectangular emerald
cabochon (0.75x0.45 cm). The left reddish
violet gem is a garnet (~0.5x0.5 cm)
(previously all the violet gems are published as
amethysts – Totev, 1986; 1993; Atanasov,
1999a; 1999b; The Preslav Treasure, 2007, 11,
Fig. 1.8). The right violet gem (0.70x0.37 cm)
has an intensive red fluorescence, fine “silk”
rutile inclusions and is identified as a sapphire.
On the gold wire are mounted two emeralds
(0.50x0.53 cm and 0.55x0.45 cm) of fine green
colour and transparency, with prismatic
transparent inclusions. The rest reddish violet
gems are identified as garnets (dimensions
~0.7x0.6 cm). The number of preserved pearls
is 21 (6 missing) with dimension up to
1.07x0.84 cm. Most are grayish in colour and
decomposed. In a single case a pearl displays a
pale blue fluorescence.
Gold earcap N2. “Front” side of cassette –
two emeralds (oval cabochon shape, polished;
0.60x0.45 cm and 0.60x0.55 cm) and probably
a garnet (missing) in the middle between them.
On the back side – reverse arrangement – two
round and irregular in shape cabochon reddish
violet garnets (0.60x0.45 cm and 0.60x0.45
cm) and between them an oval emerald
cabochon (0.60x0.45 cm). On the gold wire
pendants – two emeralds (0.54x0.54 cm and
0.71x0.67 cm) of fine green colour and
transparency. The inclusions are prismatic
transparent with a gas-liquid phase, as well as
with some mica. The number of pearls is 27
with dimension ranging 0.44x0.98 cm. Most
are grayish in colour and decomposed. In three
cases pearls displays a light blue fluorescence.
and 11 pendants decorated with gold beads,
pearls, rock crystal and amethyst beads (The
Preslav Treasure, 2007, 8-9, Fig. 1.2; Inv.
N2281.1; dimensions ~22x30 cm; weight
227.75 g). On the central enamel platelet is an
image of the Virgin Mary. The quartz beads are
rounded and slightly elongated (Fig. 12). Three
of them – in the center, are of rock crystal and
the rest 4 (3) beads (a pair on both sides; one
missing) are of amethyst. The amethyst beads
are polished better than the rock crystal beads
(also with cracks). One of the amethyst beads is
of best dark violet colour and in another one
the colour is partly violet and partly noncoloured because of the sectorial distribution of
the colour, typical for the different sectors in
amethyst quartz (usually positive and negative
rhombohedra) (Fig. 13). Amethyst is a known
in ancient times and as it is a wide spread gem
material in different genetic type of deposits
(Kostov, 1992), no specific speculation about
its origin can be made. The pearls are of a
baroque or barrel shape (dimensions 3.5x5.5
mm) and are partly decomposed. The pearls
with a white colour display fluorescence.
Gold bilateral necklace decorated with
cloisonné enamel medallions, pearls, rock
crystal and amethyst beads
Rock crystal faceted bead
The two sided gold necklace (Fig. 11) is
composed of a wide gold band of fine gold
chains and 7 gold platelets decorated with
enamel, seven drop-shaped enamel medallions
Rock crystal intaglio in a gold setting
The rock crystal (Fig. 14a-b) is cut in a
truncated octagonal pyramidal shape (1.5x1.2
cm on base) and placed in a gold setting of the
same shape (The Preslav Treasure, 2007, 15,
Fig. 1.23; Inv. N3381.36; length 2.8 cm, width
1.9x1.5 cm; weight 12.25 g). Small triangular
facets and striations are observed in the upper
part. On the base are carved two figures of the
Holy Mother and Archangel Gavrail (scene of
Annunciation). The image is deep in cut, but
not well finished. The rock crystal is quite
transparent without visible inclusions.
The rock crystal bead (Inv. N3381.22;
dimensions 1.74x1.51x1.31 cm) has been
faceted with 14 facets to form a specific
decorative shape, and later on all of them being
slightly rounded (Fig. 15). The diameter of the
hole, drilled lengthwise from both sides of the
110
Fig. 11. Gold necklace decorated with cloisonné enamel, pearls and quartz beads (rock crystal and
amethyst)
Fig. 12. Gold necklace, detail: rock crystal barrel
shaped bead and pearls
Fig. 13. Gold necklace, detail: amethyst bead with
zonal colour and pearls
111
Fig. 14a-b. Rock crystal intaglio in gold setting
Fig. 15. Rock crystal faceted bead
Fig. 16. Ancient carnelian intaglio in a gold ring
bead, across its length is 0.2 cm. The refractive
indices of the gem correspond to quartz (1.54).
It displays no luminescence. The rock crystal is
quite clear, without visible inclusions.
Pearls in pair of gold earcaps
Carnelian intaglio in a gold ring
The oval intaglio is inset in a gold ring (Inv.
N3381.15, weight 5.38 g). The carnelian gem
(length 1.8 cm; Fig. 16) is engraved with an
image of Hermes, probably of the antiquity
period (III c. AD). It has been previously published as garnet (Totev, 1983; 1986; Atanasov,
1999a; 1999b; The Preslav Treasure, 2007, 13,
Fig. 1.15). The surface is not well polished.
A pair of big oval shaped gold earcaps (Fig.
17) composed of granular gold wire with pearl
decorations (The Preslav Treasure, 2007, 11,
Fig. 1.6; Inv. N3381.5; dimensions length to
maximum width 12.3x5.2 and 12.0x5.3 cm; for
the pendant part 4.4 and 4.0 cm; weight 64.60
g). In one of the earcaps is preserved a leaf
shaped central medallion with a cross of pearls.
The diameter of the pearls is ranging 2.5-3.5
mm, the largest of them 5.4x4.3 mm. They are
irregular in shape, slightly baroque. One pearl
in the first earcap and 7 pearls in the second
earcap display a weak fluorescence.
112
Fig. 17a-b. A pair of gold earcaps decorated with pearls
Pearls in a single gold earcap
This is a single gold earcap of a pair (The
Preslav Treasure, 2007, 11, Fig. 1.7; Inv.
N3381.6; dimensions length 10.5 cm, width 4.5
cm; weight 24.85 g), similar in the gold
technique and decoration to the previous case,
but with a ring-type band (Fig. 18). The
composition of four-ring pendants is 2.5 cm in
length (three pendants of this type). Five of the
largest pearls show a weak fluorescence.
Pearls in a single gold earcap
This is a single preserved double sided gold
earcap (The Preslav Treasure, 2007, 12, Fig.
1.9; Inv. N3381.8; dimensions length 10.7 cm,
width 4.7 cm; weight 42.2 g). It is composed of
a cassette, a round medallion (with an image of
a peacock) and three pendants, all of them with
cloisonné enamel decorations (partly preserved
on the back side) (Fig. 19). The pearls are of a
gray to dark gray colour, baroque shaped, with
decomposed outer layers and dimensions 1.5x1
to 4.5x2.5 mm.
Pearls in a single gold earcap
This is also a single double sided gold earcap
or ornament (Fig. 20) with enamel (Inv.
N2819; dimensions length 5.4 cm; maximum
width 4.5 cm; thickness 0.56 cm). Four pearls
are preserved.
Two round gold medallions or decorations
with pearls
These two gold objects (both outer diameter
2.3 cm, inner diameter 1.6x1.7 cm) are not part
113
Fig. 18. Gold earcap with pearls
Fig. 19. Gold earcap with pearls and cloisonné enamel
of the Preslav treasure, but were found in
different places at and around the king’s palace
(Fig. 21). The images are of a peacock (Inv.
N1295) and a lion (Inv. N3637). Small pearls
(dimensions 2.1 and 2.5x1.5 mm) are arranged
on a gold wire in the circle belt. All pearls have
fluorescence under LW ultraviolet light.
Discussion
Origin of emeralds in Antiquity and Early
Medieval jewellery
Emeralds are mentioned in the first “mineralogy” of Theophrastus (IV c. BC), but in
antiquity under the name of “smaragdus”
usually are referred different green minerals or
aggregates (rocks) – for example the “smaragdus” from Cyprus is probably malachite, and
the Bactrian or Laconian “smaragdus” is
turquoise or porphyry (Kostov, 2006). Pliny the
Elder (I c. AD) in his “Natural History” has
placed emerald as third rank after diamond and
pearl. He mentions 12 kinds and sources of
emerald (“smaragdus”) in antiquity of which
the main are Scythian (?), Bactrian (probably
turquoise), from Egypt and Cyprus (probably
malachite), mentioning also beryl: “Beryls, it is
thought, are of the same nature as the
smaragdus, or at least closely analogous; India
produces them, and they are rarely to be found
elsewhere; the lapidaries cut [use the natural
habit of] all beryls of an hexagonal form”
(Pliny the Elder, 1991, Book XXXVI, Ch. 1618, 20). It is supposed that the use of emerald
as a gemstone is introduced in Rome in the
middle of I c. BC, following the campaign of
Pompey (Rapp, 2009).
The oldest emerald mines in the world are
114
Fig. 20. Gold earcap or decoration with pearls and
cloisonné enamel
Fig. 21. Two gold appliqués with small pearls
found in SE Egypt near the Red Sea – they are
known as the “mines of Cleopatra”, but the
mineral is known also in ancient India. The
famous medieval encyclopedic scientist alBiruni (X-XI c.) wrote in his unique
“Collection of Knowledge on Gems” about 4
types of emerald according to colour and
perfection, citing also al-Kindi (IX c.), another
famous philosopher with contributions to
gemmology (al-Biruni, 1963). He mentions
Egypt as the only source of emeralds, which
have been traded to the East, but he also
mentions a similar to emerald gemstone from
India which has been traded to the West – the
hard ”sabandan”. In the works of the Arab
historian and geographer, al-Masudi (X c.) are
mentioned also the four kinds of emeralds, as
well as the fact that the same quality of
emeralds as the Egyptian (even harder and
heavier) has been mined in India (in the
Sindana region) and traded to the West through
Aden, Yemen and Mecca (Maçoudi, 1950, 43-
49). Some of the old Indian emeralds may in
fact be from Afghanistan (Morgan, 2007, 128)
or in a broader sense from the Hindu-Kush area
in central Asia (there are different genetic types
of emerald deposits both in Afghanistan and
Pakistan, which are not studied comparatively
and in relation to other world emerald
deposits).
Pearls and emeralds become popular
about the II c. BC and in some museums are
preserved pieces of ancient jewellery with
emeralds (Higgins, 1980). Emerald is very rare
as a raw material in glyptic art during the
antiquity period.
The emeralds from the gold necklace
from Oplontis (dating from the I century AD),
Vesuvian Area, Naples, Italy have been studied
using non-destructive methods such as Electron
Probe Micro Analysis (EPMA) and microFTIR
(Fourier Transform InfraRed) (Aurisicchio et
al., 2005). Optical and physical gemmological
tests were performed on the 19 hexagonal
115
emerald prisms, with average dimensions
between 9.8-8.9 mm (minimum) and 14.7-9.8
mm (maximum). All had been drilled lengthwise to form the necklace. Reference samples,
from mines known to be active in the Roman
Imperial period, were collected and analyzed
using the same techniques. Experimental data
were also statistically treated in order to
classify the emeralds’ mines. The comparison
of archaeological and reference data allowed to
hypothesize, with high probability, an Egyptian
origin (El Sikait) for the Oplontis emeralds
even if the Habachtal mine cannot be
definitively excluded. Of the same age is
another gold and emerald necklace found at
Scafati, from the Naples Museum, including
also pearls (Sinkankas, 1989, 16, Fig. 1-6).
Jewellery with emeralds is known also from the
III c. AD (bracelet) in Tunis (British Museum)
and from the III-IV c. AD (crystal beads) in the
Paris Museum – in both cases with pearls and
sapphires (Higgins, 1980, Pl. 59A, 61).
The gold treasure of Guarrazar (VII
century AD), found during the XIX century in
Spain, is an important illustration of the high
level of Visigothic jewellery in the Iberian
Peninsula. The votive crowns and crosses of
this treasure are an arrangement of pierced gold
in a Byzantine-Germanic style, decorated with
emeralds, garnets, sapphires and other
gemmological materials (Guerra et al., 2007).
The combination of Particle-induced X-ray
emission (PIXE) and Particle-induced gammaray emission (PIGE) was used to analyse the
gold samples and an exploitation of south
Iberian mines has been suggested. A number of
11 emeralds inlaid in items from the Guarrazar
jewellery that is kept in the National Museum
of Middle Ages, Paris, France have been also
analyzed with a suggested use of European
sources (Habachtal area, Austria) unknown to
the Romans (Calligaro et al., 2000).
Among the almost 500 principal
gemstones of the gold altar (IX century) of the
Basilica of St. Ambrose in Milan are several
emeralds: one measurement – length 15.60
mm, width 13.59 mm (Superchi, 1988, 86, Fig.
11). They are of a pale colour, semitransparent
and characterized as of the “root” type. Some
of them display an absorption spectrum typical
for chrome. They are all mounted in their
hexagonal shape on one prismatic side, and in a
single case – on the base. No mention was been
made on the possible origin of emeralds.
Visible are cracks almost perpendicular to the
prismatic zone.
Twelve gemstones set into the cover of an
elaborately decorated leather-bound manuscript, the Tours Gospel, 'Evangelia Quatuor',
the early IX century Carolingian palette, held
in the British Library (Add. MS. 11848), were
identified by Raman microscopy to be composed of quartz, amethyst, emerald (probable,
3), iron garnet (3) and sapphire (3), one not
being identified (Clark, van der Weerd, 2004;
Clark, 2007).
Among the most important objects in the
Vienna Treasury is the imperial crown (X
century, Germany) decorated with sapphires
from Sri Lanka, amethysts, garnets and inferior
in colour and full of inclusions dark green
emeralds of no suggested origin (Niedermayr,
1988, 48-50). In the gemmologically tested two
pieces of emerald from the “Alb” (XII century,
Palermo), decorated with different gems (including also sapphires, spinels, amethysts,
garnets and opal, mostly with an Indian origin)
at the same museum, are identified hornblende
needles in the first case and negative crystal
polyphase inclusions perpendicular to the caxis in the second case with suggestion for an
Indian (Ajmer) origin (Niedermayr, 1988, 48,
Figs. 2-4). The author argues that as most of
the precious minerals used during the Early
Medieval ages have an Indian (and particular
Sri Lanka) origin, the emeralds must have the
same origin.
The famous Khakhuli triptych (XII
century) in Georgia (State Museum of Fine
Art) is a fine example of artistic metalwork
decorated with gem minerals, numerous pearls
and cloisonné enamels (The Khakhuli Icon,
1979). Among the gem and decorative minerals
are sapphire, ruby and/or spinel, emerald,
garnet, quartz (rock crystal and probably
amethyst) and turquoise. Emeralds are in a
116
rounded rectangular, square or pear (triangular)
shape setting, usually decorating cross-shape
ornaments (Figs. 17, 36, 42, 44, 54, 57, 62, 83,
89, 91, 97, 99).
Emeralds are known from the crown of
St. Heinrich (c. 1280) with precious stones at
the treasury of the Bamberg Cathedral
(Gübelin, 1988, 118, Fig. 4). Among the
collection of jewels in the Residence Palace in
Munich are also some cut “cloudy” emeralds of
a possible Egyptian origin (Gübelin, 1988).
Some of the prismatic emerald crystals are of
the observed longest prismatic shape compared
to the previous cases.
Emeralds from Bulgaria
Contemporary and former Bulgarian lands have
a rich history according to gem materials and
techniques from the prehistoric period (Kostov,
2007) to the antiquity and Middle Ages period
(Kostov, 2006). Emeralds have been reported
from two different occurrences in Bulgaria
(Urdini Ezera in the Rila Mountain and Yugovo in the Central Rhodopes) during the second
half of the XX century (Petrussenko, Kostov,
1992) and there is no evidence that they have
been known and exploited in earlier times.
Comparative investigation in Bulgarian
museums among Antiquity and Early Medieval
jewellery has displayed several cases of objects
with emeralds. In the Archaeological Museum
of the National Archaeological Instutute at the
Bulgarian Academy of Science on display are a
gold necklace and earrings with emeralds from
a family Roman treasure found at Nikolaevo
(Pleven District) from the I-IV century AD
(Filov, 1914). The dimensions of the short
hexagonal prismatic dark green, nearly nontransparent emeralds beads, which are well
polished at their edges are about 1.2x0.55,
0.8x0.9 and 1.2x0.9 cm. Similar in shape and
polish are the prismatic emerald beads from the
gold jewellery (an about 22-25 cm long
necklace; earrings; a iron and gold hair-pin)
from ancient Ratiaria (now Archar, Vidin
District) from the Roman Province of Moesia
Inferior: 0.9x1.0, 1.2x1.0, 1.3x0.9, 1.1x1.0 and
1.0x1.0 cm. In both cases it seems that the
emerald beads are of one and same origin.
A rare gold Early Christian reliquary
decorated with an emerald (?), sapphires and
garnets from the V or early VI c. AD is on
display in the Varna Archaeological museum
(Inv. NIII-767; Minchev, 2003, 16-18). From
the Roman period (I-III century AD) in the
same museum is a set of gold earrings with
hexagonal prismatic emerald beads (4 of
probably 8 beads preserved) found in ancient
Odessos (now Varna) or in the region
(Doncheva, 2003, 13).
Among the treasures (now at the State
Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg, Russia)
of the founder of Old Great Bulgaria – Khan
Kubrat (VII century), are a gold ring and a gold
bracelet with insets of emeralds of unknown
origin (see Kostov, 2006).
Some possible sources: Egypt, Austria and
Central Asia
The genetic types of emerald deposits have
been reviewed in a number of monographs and
papers (Kievlenko et al., 1982; Sinkankas,
1989; Kostov, 2003; Groat et al., 2008). The
listed and new archaeomineralogical studies
suggest at the presence three possible sources
of emeralds in Antiquity and Early Medieval
jewellery – Egypt, Austria and Pakistan
(Giuliani et al., 2000; Rapp, 2009). A study on
the origin of emeralds in Mogul objects from
the Iran Treasury in Teheran (Meen,
Tushingham, 1968) and at the State Hermitage
Museum, St. Petersburg (Strack, 2008)
confirms their later Colombian origin.
Despite the fact, that emeralds have been
found in a lot of other countries in Europe and
Asia during the last century, it is possible that
some single pieces (from placers) could have
been found and used in earlier times. In Europe
despite Austria and Bulgaria, emerald deposits
or occurrences are known also from Ukraine
(Lavrinenko et al., 1971), Spain – Franqueira
(Martinizard et al., 1995), Russia – Ural
Mountains
(Vlasov,
Kutukova,
1960;
Kievlenko et al., 1982; Gromov et al., 1990;
117
Laskovenkov, Eliezeri, 1998) and Norway –
Byrud (Eidsvoll) (Nordrum, Raade, 2006). In
Asia emeralds have been found in Kazakhstan
(Chernikov, Dorfman, 2004; Gavrilenko et al.,
2006), in the Panjshir valley, Afghanistan
(Bowersox et al., 1991; Bowersox, Chamberlin, 1995; Sachanbinski et al., 2003), in
China (Blauwet et al., 2005) and in India
mainly in the state of Rajasthan (Bagchi, 1958;
Gupta, Mathur, 1987; Sinkankas, 1989;
Biswas, 1994) (for world reviews see, Sinkankas, 1989; Morgan, 2007; Groat et al., 2008).
Different analytical methods have been
used in order to distinguish the origin of
emeralds and their genetic type of deposit:
optical spectroscopy measurements (Wood,
Nassau, 1968; Platonov et al., 1978; Gromov et
al., 1990); different type of inclusions
(Gübelin, 1979; Gromov et al., 1990), oxygen
isotope composition (Giuliani et al., 1998a;
1998b; 1999; 2000), laser-induced luminescence (Moroz et al., 1999), Raman microspectroscopy and fluorescence (Moroz et al.,
2000), Electron Probe Micro Analysis
(EPMA),
Fourier
Transform
InfraRed
(microFTIR) spectroscopy (Aurisicchio et al.,
2005) and Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled
Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS)
(Abduriyim, Kitawaki, 2006) (for reviews see,
Sinkankas, 1989; Groat et al., 2008).
Egypt. Emeralds are found at the
boundaries of schist and granite or related to
the quartz veins and granite pegmatites in
Southern Egypt (Grubessi et al., 1989;
Sinkankas, 1989; Jennings et al., 1993;
Abdalla, Mohamed, 1999; Harell, 2004; 2006;
Grundmann, Morteani, 2008). The preliminary
study of four principal mine areas in the SikaitZubara region has confirmed emerald exploration during a long period of time – from the
Ptolemaic period at Gebel Sikait to the XVI
century at Gebel Zubara (including the
Byzantine and Ottoman periods) (Shaw, 1999;
Shaw et al., 1999; Aston et al., 2000). Beryl
mining is been especially active during the
Early Roman (I – middle of II c. AD) and the
Late Roman (IV – early VI c. AD) periods
(Harell, 2006). Two examples are given for
beryl from the Roman period – a statue decorated with beryl from the Cairo Museum and a
gold necklace from the Yale University Art
Museum (Aston et al., 2000). Necklaces with
emerald, quartz (rock crystal and amethyst) and
amazonite beads from Egypt (probably I c.
AD) are illustrated by Kunz (1971, 20a, 36a).
Supposed beryl in the jewellery from the prePtolemaic period turned out to be amazonite or
olivine (Lucas, Harris, 1962). The Egypt
deposits have been considered for a long time
as the only source for emerald in the
Mediterranean region in the Hellenistic Period.
Austria. The Habachtal emeralds are
known since the publication of C. M. B.
Schroll in 1797 and of J. Frischholz in 1821 on
the geology of the area: they are found as
porphyroblasts in biotite-epidote-plagioclase
gneiss and metasomatically altered serpentinites during a two-stage process of metamorphism (Morteani, Grundmann, 1977). The emeralds are usually with a core full of inclusions
– biotite, chlorite, apatite and epidote. The
mineralogy and geology of the emerald deposit
are described in a number of publications
(Leitmeier, 1937; Gübelin, 1956; Grundmann,
Morteani, 1982; Sinkankas, 1989).
Pakistan. The Pakistan emerald deposits
are related to two geological setting: to
pegmatites and to metasomatic alteration of the
ophiolithic mélange to a talc-dolomite schist
(Emeralds of Pakistan, 1989), but the origin of
emerald is still very controversial. Emerald
occurs at a number of localities in northwestern
Pakistan and has been studied from different
point of view (Carbonnel, 1976; Gübelin, 1982;
Rafiq, Qasim Jan, 1985; Kazmi et al., 1986;
Bowersox, Anwar, 1989; Sinkankas, 1989;
Gromov et al., 1990; Arif et al., 1996). The
largest of the emerald deposits are those near
the town of Mingora and the village of Gujar
Kili, Swat valley. The region is being regularly
mined and has been producing some of the
world's finest quality gemstones for more than
40 years.
As at the present stage no analytical
including oxygen isotope data is available on
118
the emeralds from the Preslav gold treasure,
their origin is discussed on the base on their
morphology, internal features and inclusions.
The two-phase inclusions as negative crystals
and mica inclusions are shown to be characteristic to Indian emeralds from the AjmerMervara region (Gübelin, 1979). Similar
inclusions are found on emeralds from XII c.
“Alb” from Palermo, with a suggested Indian
origin (Niedermayr, 1988). An alternative may
be some genetic type of emeralds from the
Hindou-Kush area (Afghanistan and Pakistan).
Origin of violet sapphire and garnet
Pliny (I century AD) writes about blue and
violet sapphires, of which the best are supposed
to be the Median (Pliny the Elder, 1991). Pale
blue, pinkish or violet blue sapphires are
common in Early Medieval jewellery. Garnets
from different sources have been used also
since predinastic times in Egypt and traded on
a larger scale since the Hellenistic period in
antiquity (Rapp, 2009). Among the principal
gemstones of the gold altar (IX century AD) of
the Basilica of St. Ambrose in Milan are also
several pale violet blue sapphires (with red
luminescence under UV light, inclusions of
rutile needles and negative crystals) with a
suggested origin from Sri Lanka (Superchi,
1988, 78). The crown of Queen Kunigunde of
Lorraine (made c. 1010-1020 AD) is supposed
to be set with rounded cabochon sapphire beads
from Sri Lanka (Gübelin, 1988). Combined
external-beam PIXE and µ-Raman characterization of garnets used in Merovingian jewellery (V-VII century) has revealed that up to the
end of the VII century AD this gemmological
material of a predominant almandine and rhodolite composition is traded correspondingly
from India and Sri Lanka (Farges, 1998;
Calligaro et al., 2002). As the Indian subcontinent has been the main source of precious
corundum in Antiquity and Early Medieval
times, it can be assumed, that the violet or
reddish violet gems in the Preslav treasure are
of an Indian and/or Sri Lankan origin.
Remarks on pearls
Pearls are used in jewellery since the antiquity
period and they have been traded widely in the
Mediterranean region, as well as Central and
South Asia in the Early Medieval period
(Strack, 2006). The pearls from the Preslav
treasure are barrel-shaped or baroque-shaped.
Some of them are partly decomposed, with a
gray colour and they do not display any luminescence. The mean values for length/diameter
are close – 0.40/0.45 cm in the case of the medallion with emeralds. Probably the Byzantine
jewellery masters have received pearls from the
Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf. The most
important pearl-producing bivalve mollusks in
the area are Pinctada radiata and Pinctada
margaritifera. During the IX century relations
were established between the oriental trading
centres and some European cities – Venetian
trading companies had offices in Aleppo and
Constantinople (Strack, 2006, 148).
Conclusion
The gem minerals and pearls of the Preslav
gold treasure (X century; adornments from
gold decorated with enamel, beads of gem
minerals and pearls: diadem, bilateral necklace,
medallions, several earrings and earcaps, rings,
buttons, appliqués and other small finds) have
been studied by their morphometric and
gemmological features. Among the gem
minerals are identified 40 emeralds, 12 violet
sapphires, 10 reddish violet garnets, 5 rock
crystals, 3 amethysts and 1 carnelian. Their
inclusions and type of cut and polish are listed.
The average dimensions for the emerald
polished and rounded on the edges prisms from
two medallions are: length 0.48 cm and width
0.59 cm (ratio 0.81). The average dimensions
for the mainly barrel shaped sea pearls from a
gold medallion are length 0.40 cm and
diameter 0.45 cm (ratio 0.88). The origin of the
emeralds is under discussion (Egypt, Austria),
and they are compared with other emerald finds
in Europe, including from Bulgaria, from the
Antiquity and Early Medieval period. At the
present stage of knowledge, according to their
119
inclusions, the gem minerals (sapphire, garnet)
are supposed probably to come from the area of
Indian subcontinent (including Sri Lanka). An
alternative may be the Hindou-Kush area. The
pearls are supposed to origin also from the East
– the Persian Gulf and the near-coast areas of
the Indian Ocean. Listed are ancient and
medieval sources for trade of the mentioned
minerals from India to the East, as well as
contemporary studies by modern methods,
which are in support of the idea for their origin.
Acknowledgements: The authors wish to thank Mr.
Alexander Gorchev, Director of the Archaeological
Museum “Veliki Preslav” at the town of Veliki
Preslav, and Mr. Plamen Slavov, curator at the same
museum, for the permission and assistance during
the study of the gemmological materials of the
Preslav gold treasure.
References
Abdalla HM, Mohamed FH (1999) Mineralogical
and geochemical investigation of emerald and
beryl mineralization, Pan-African belt of Egypt:
genetic and exploration aspects. Journal of
African Earth Sciences, 28, 3, 581-598
Abduriyim A, Kitawaki H (2006) Application of
Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled PlasmaMass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) to gemology.
Gems & Gemology, 2, 98-118
Archaeological Museum “Veliki Preslav” in Colour.
Catalogue. (n.d.) Second Ed., 22 p.
Atanasov G (1999a) Insignia of the Medieval
Bulgarian Rulers. Pleven, 291 p. (in Bulgarian
with an English summary)
Atanasov G (1999b) On the origin, function and the
owner of the adornments of the Preslav treasure
from the 10th century. Archaeologia Bulgarica,
3, 3, 81-94
Arif M, Fallick AE, Moon AE (1996) The genesis of
emeralds and their host rocks from Swat, northwestern Pakistan: A stable-isotope investigation.
Mineralium Deposita, 31, 255-268
Aston BG, Harrell JA, Shaw I (2000) Stones. In:
Nicholson, P. T., Shaw, I. (Eds.). Ancient
Egyptian Materials and Technology. University
of Cambridge Press, Cambridge, 5-77
Aurisicchio C, Corami A, Ehrman S, Graziani G,
Cesaro SN (2005) The emerald and gold
necklace from Oplontis, Vesuvian Area, Naples,
Italy. Journal of Archaeological Science, 33, 5,
725-734
Bagchi TC (1958) The geology of the Bubani
emerald mine; a note on the origin of emerald.
Indian Mining Journal, 6, 3, 1-4
al-Biruni ARMA (1963) Collection of Knowledge on
Gems (Mineralogy). Academy of Sciences, St.
Petersburg (Leningrad), 518 p. (in Russian)
Biswas AK (1994) Vaidürya, marakata and other
beryl family gem minerals: etymology and
traditions in ancient India. Indian Journal of
History of Science, 29, 2, 139-152
Blauwet D, Quinn EP, Muhlmeister S (2005) New
emerald deposit in Xinjiang, China. Gems &
Gemology, 41, 1, 56-57
Bowersox G, Anwar J (1989) The Gujar Kili
emeralds deposits, Northwest Frontier Province,
Pakistan. Gems & Gemology, 25, 1, 16-24
Bowersox GW, Chamberlin BE (1995) Gemstones of
Afghanistan. Geoscience Press, Tucson, 220 p.
Bowersox GW, Snee LW, Foord EF, Seal II RR
(1991) Emeralds of the Panjshir Valley,
Afghanistan. Gems & Gemology, 27, 1, 26-39
Calligaro T, Poirot JP, Querré G, Salomon J, Zwaan
JC (2000) PIXE/PIGE characterisation of
emeralds using an external micro-beam. Nuclear
Instruments & Methods in Physics Research B,
161, 769-774
Calligaro T, Colinart S, Poirot J-P, Sudres S (2002)
Combined external-beam PIXE and µ-Raman
characterization of garnets used in Merovingian
jewellery. Nuclear Instruments & Methods in
Physics Research B, 189, 320-327
Carbonnel JP (1976) A visit to the Mingora emerald
mine, Swat, Pakistan. Lapidary Journal, 30,
1236-1238
Chernikov AA, Dorfman MD (2004) Mineral
composition of rare-metal-uranium, beryllium
with emerald and other deposits in endo- and
exocontacts of the Kuu granite massif (Central
Kazakhstan). New Data on Minerals, 39, 71-79
Clark RJH (2007) Raman microscopy as a structural
and analytical tool in the fields of art and
archaeology. Journal of Molecular Structure,
834-836, 74-80
Clark RJH, van der Weerd J (2004) Identification of
pigments and gemstones on the Tours Gospel:
the early 9th century Carolingian palette.
Journal of Raman Spectroscopy, 35, 4, 279-283
Doncheva M (2003) Roman Jewellery from Varna
and Varna Region. Slavena, Varna, 24 p. (in
Bulgarian)
120
Emeralds of Pakistan: Geology, Gemology and
Genesis (Ed. by AK Kazmi, LW Snee) (1989)
Geological Survey of Pakistan; Van Nostand
Reinhold, New York, 269 p.
Farges F (1998) Mineralogy of the Louvres Merovingian garnet cloisonné jewelry: Origins of the
gems of the first kings of France. American
Mineralogist, 83, 323-330
Filov B (1914) Le trésor romain de Nikolaevo.
Izvestiya na Bulgarskoto Arheologichesko
Druzhestvo, 4, 1-48 (in Bulgarian with a French
abstract)
Gavrilenko EV, Calvo Pérez B, Castroviejo Bolibar
R, García del Amo D (2006) Emeralds from the
Delbegetey deposit (Kazakhstan): Mineralogical
characteristics and fluid inclusion study.
Mineralogical Magazine, 70, 159-173
Giuliani G, France-Lanord C, Coget P, Schwarz D,
Cheilletz A, Branquet Y, Giard D, Martin-Izard
A, Alexandrov P, Piat DH (1998a) Oxygen
isotope systematics of emerald: relevance of its
origin and geological significance. Mineralium
Deposita, 33, 513-519
Giuliani G, France-Lanord C, Chaussidon M
(1998b) The 18O/16O isotopic card of natural and
synthetic emeralds: geological and archeological
implications. Goldschmidt Conference, Toulouse
1998, 525-526
Giuliani G, Chaussidon M, Schubnel H-J, Piatt DH,
Rollion-Bard C, France-Lanord C, Giard D, de
Narvaez D, Rondeau B (1999) Historique des
gisements d'émeraude et identification des
émeraudes anciennes (2ème partie). Revue de
Gemmologie AFG, 140, 32-35
Giuliani G, Chaussidon M, Schubnel H-J, Piat DH,
Rollion-Bard C, France-Lanord C, Giard D, de
Narvaez D, Rondeau B (2000) Oxygen isotopes
and emerald trade routes since antiquity.
Science, 287, 5453, 631-633
Groat LA, Giuliani G, Marshall DD, Turner D
(2008) Emerald deposits and occurrences: a
review. Ore Geology Reviews, 34, 87-112
Gromov AV, Granadchikova BG, Andreenko ED
(1990) Typomorphic peculiarities of emeralds
from
several
world
deposits.
Zapiski
Vsesoyuznovo Mineralogicheskogo Obshtestva,
119, 2, 102-112 (in Russian)
Grubessi O, Auriscchio C, Castiglioni A (1989) Lo
smeraldo delle miniere dei faraoni. La
Gemmologia, 14, 1-2, 7-21
Grundmann G, Morteani G (1982) Die Geologie des
Smaragdvorkommens im Habachtal (Land
Salzburg, Österreich). Archiv für Lagerstätten-
forschung der Geologischen Bundesanstalt A., 2,
71-107
Grundmann G, Morteani G (2008) Multi-stage
emerald formation during Pan-African regional
metamorphism: The Zabara, Sikait, Umm Kabo
deposits, South Eastern desert of Egypt. Journal
of African Earth Sciences, 50, 168-187
Gübelin EJ (1956) The emerald from Habachtal.
Gems & Gemology, 8, 10, 295-309
Gübelin EJ (1979) Internal World of Gemstones.
Second Ed., ABC Edition, Zurich, 234 p.
Gübelin EJ (1982) Gemstones of Pakistan: emerald,
ruby, and spinel. Gems & Gemology, 18, 3, 123129
Gübelin EJ (1988) The jewels of the Bavarian
Crown. In: Gemmologia Europa II. European
Gemmologist on Treasures of the World.
Milano, CISGEM, 114-145
Guerra MF, Calligaro T, Perea A (2007) The
treasures of Guerrazar: tracing the gold suppies
in the Visigothic Iberian Peninsula. Archaeometry, 49, 1, 53-74
Gupta SN, Mathur SM (1987) Emerald deposits of
Rajasthan and their future prospects. Indian
Minerals, 41, 4, 31-38
Harell JA (2004) Archaeological geology of the
world's first emerald mine. Geoscience Canada,
31, 2, 69-76
Harrell JA (2006) Archaeological geology of Wadi
Sikait. PalArch’s Journal of Archaeology of
Egypt/Egyptology, 4, 1, 1-12
Higgins RA (1980) Greek and Roman Jewellery. 2
Ed., Methuen & Co., London, 243 p.
Jennings RH, Kammerling RC, Kovaltchouk A,
Calderon GP, El Baz MK, Koivula JI (1993)
Emeralds and green beryls of Upper Egypt.
Gems & Gemology, 29, 100-115
Jordanov I (2002) Preslav. In: The Economic History
of Byzantium: From the Seventh through the
Fifteenth Century (Ed. by AE Laiou).
Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard
University, Washington, DC, 667-671
Kazmi AH, Lawrence RD, Anwar J, Snee LW,
Hussain S (1986) Mingora emerald deposits
(Pakistan): Suture-associated gem mineralization. Economic Geology, 81, 2022-2028
The Khakhuli Icon (G Abramishvili) (1979)
Khelovneba Publishers, Tbilisi, n. p.
Kievlenko EYa, Senkevich NN, Gavrilov AP (1982)
Geology of Gemstone Deposits. Nedra, Moscow,
279 p. (in Russian)
Kostov RI (1992) Amethyst. A GeologicalMineralogical and Gemmological Essay. Union
121
of Scientists in Bulgaria, Sofia, 249 p. (in
Bulgarian with an English abstract)
Kostov RI (2003) Precious Minerals: Testing,
Distribution, Cutting, History and Application
(Gemmology). Pensoft, Sofia-Moscow, X, 453 p.
(in Bulgarian)
Kostov RI (2006) Precious Minerals and Metals in
the Life of the Ancient Bulgarians. TANGRA
TanNakRa, Sofia, 246 p. (in Bulgarian)
Kostov RI (2007) Archaeomineralogy of Neolithic
and Chalcolithic Artifacts from Bulgaria and
their Significance to Gemmology. Publishing
House “St. Ivan Rilski”, Sofia, 126 p., I-VIII (in
Bulgarian with an English summary)
Kostov RI (2008) Theophrastus. On Stones (translation, notes and comments). Publishing House
“St. Ivan Rilski”, Sofia, 48 p. (in Bulgarian)
Kunz GF (1971) [1913] The Curious Lore of
Precious Stones. Dover, New York, 406 p.
Laskovenkov AF, Eliezeri IZ 1998. An update on
the Ural emerald mines. Gems & Gemology, 31,
2, 106-113
Lavrinenko LF, Levenshteyn ML, Polunovskiy RM,
Rozanov KI, Rozenberg DSh (1971) Emerald
find in the Ukraine. Mineralogicheskiy Sbornik,
L'vov, 25, 1, 85-87 (in Russian)
Leitmeier H (1937) Das Smaragdvorkommen in
Habachtal in Salzburg und seine Mineralien.
Tschermak's Mineralogische und Petrographische Mitteilungen, 49, 4-5, 245-368
Lucas A, Harris JR (1962) Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries. E Arnold, London, 523 p.
Martinizard A, Paniagua A, Moreiras D, Acevedo
RD, Pascual CM (1995) Metasomatism at a
granitic pegmatite-dunite contact in Galicia; the
Franqueira
occurrence
of
chrysoberyl
(alexandrite), emerald, and phenakite. Canadian
Mineralogist, 33, 775-792
Maçoudi (1950) [1864] Les praires d’or. Tome III.
Societe Asiatique, Paris
Meen VB, Tushingham AD (1968) Crown Jewels of
Iran. University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 159 p.
Minchev A (2003) Early Christian Reliquaries from
Bulgaria (4th-6th century AD). Stalker, Varna, 72 p.
Morgan D (2007) From Satan's Crown to the Holy
Grail: Emeralds in Myth, Magic, and History.
Praeger, Westport, CT, 192 p.
Morteani G, Grundmann G (1977) The emerald
porphyroblasts in the penninic rocks of the
Tauern Window, Austrian Alps. Neues Jahrbuch
für Mineralogie Monatshefte, 11, 509-516
Moroz I, Panczer G, Roth M (1999) Laser-induced
luminescence of emeralds from different
sources. Journal of Gemmology, 26, 5, 316-320
Moroz I, Roth M, Boudeulle M, Panczer G (2000)
Raman microspectroscopy and fluorescence of
emeralds from various deposits. Journal of
Raman Spectroscopy, 31, 485-490
Niedermayr G (1988) Precious and valuable oblects
from the Imperial Collecions in Vienna. In:
Gemmologia Europa II. European Gemmologist
on Treasures of the World. CISGEM, Milano,
44-71, 169
Nordrum FS, Raade G (2006) Das SmaragdVorkommen von Byrud (Eidsvoll) in SüdNorwegen. Mineralien-Welt, 17, 4, 52-64
Petrussenko SI, Kostov RI (1992) The Precious and
Decorative Minerals in Bulgaria. Publishing
House of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences,
Sofia, 90 p. (in Bulgarian with a Russian and
English abstract)
Platonov AN., Taran MN, Dorfman MD,
Tarashchan AN (1978) Spectroscopic study of
emeralds from different deposits. Konstitutsiya i
Svoisv Mineralov, 12, 115-121 (in Russian)
Pliny the Elder (1991) Natural History. A Selection.
Penguin Books, London, 400 p.; (1999)
Naturalis Historia (Ed. by KFT Mayhoff);
English Transl. (Ed. by J Bostock, HT Riley)
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgibin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0138:toc
The Preslav Treasure (2007) In: Treasures of
Medieval Bulgaria. Catalogue of the Exhibit (V
Pavlova). Regional Historical Museum, Varna,
4-15 (in Bulgarian)
Rafiq M, Qasim Jan M (1985) Emerald and green
beryl from Bucha, Mohmand Agency, NW
Pakistan. Journal of Gemmology and
Proceedings of the Gemmological Association of
Great Britain, 19, 5, 404-411
Rapp G (R) (2009) Archaeomineralogy. 2nd Ed.,
Springer, Berlin-Heidelberg, 348 p.
Sachanbinski M, Weber-Weller A, Sobczak T
(2003) New data on emeralds from Panjshir
valley, Afghanistan. Mineralogical Society of
Poland, Special Papers, 22, 189-192
Shaw I (1999) Hatnub; Wadi el-Hudi; Sikait/Zubara.
In: Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient
Egypt (Ed. by K Bard). Routledge, London, 363365, 731-733, 871-872
Shaw I, Jameson R, Bunbury J (1999) Emerald
mining in Roman and Byzantine Egypt. Journal
of Roman Archaeology, 12, 203-215
122
Sinkankas J (1989) Emerald and Other Beryls.
Geoscience Press, Prescott, Arizona, 665 p.
Strack E (2006) Pearls. Rühle-Diebener-Verlag,
Stuttgart, 707 p.
Strack E (2008) A study on the origin of emeralds in
Mogul objects at the State Hermitage Museum,
St. Petersburg. In: Geoarchaeology and Archaeomineralogy (Ed. by RI Kostov, B Gaydarska, M
Gurova). Proceedings of the International Conferencе, Sofia, 29-30 October 2008. Publishing
House “St. Ivan Rilski”, Sofia, 139-140
Superchi M (1988) Volvinio’s altar gems in St.
Ambrose’s, Milan. In: Gemmologia Europa II.
European Gemmologist on Treasures of the
World. CISGEM, Milano, 72-99
Totev (1986) The Preslav treasure. Proceedings of
the Varna Museum, 22 (37), 81-107 (in
Bulgarian)
Totev (1993) The Preslav Treasure. Sofia, 114 p.
Twining L (1967) European Regalia. BT Batsford,
London, 334 p.
Vlasov KA, Kutukova EI (1960) The Emerald
Diggings. Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 251
p. (in Russian)
Wood DL, Nassau K (1968) The characterization of
beryl and emerald by visible and infrared spectroscopy. American Mineralogist, 53, 777-800
Accepted November 6, 2009
123