Scientific Nature of the text Vṛkṣāyurveda – A critique

1 2 3 Scientific Nature of the text Vṛkṣāyurveda – A critique N. K. Sundareswaran1 मातङ्गजमदाक्तेन प्लवङ्गनलके न तु। फलानन नवद्धमूलस्य फलन्तत नहि वत्सरम्।।2 सद्योितवृषस्कतधचममणा नह्यते दृढम्।मिीरुिस्य शाखा या तस्यााः पाकाः फले न हि।।3 [The fruits of a tree, whose roots are pierced with the long bone of a monkey (nalaka) besmeared with exudation of a rutting elephant, will not ripen for one year. The fruits of a particular branch of a tree, which is tightly tied up with skin (from the shoulder) of a recently killed bull, will never ripen.]4 We find these statements in the Vṛkṣāyurveda, a Sanskrit work said to be written in the 12th century CE5. Certainly, a critical researcher would find it very difficult to accept the veracity of such statements, unless and until they are proved, based on facts. The work written by Surapala, is usually reckoned as a text on the “science of plant life”6. What should be our stand or attitude towards such statements, and the works containing such statements? 1 Professor, Department of Sanskrit, University of Calicut. 2 Verse 267, [Lallanji] 3 Verse 268, [Lallanji] 4 English renderings are carried out by the present author. 5 There is another work with the same name Vṛkṣāyurveda (see [Sadhale] for bibliographical details). Written in sūtra style, it is divided into six kāṇḍa-s - बीजोत्पत्तिकाण्ड, वनस्पनतकाण्ड, वानस्पत्यकाण्ड, गुल्मक्षुपकाण्ड, नवरुद्धवल्लीकाण्डाः, and त्तचहकत्साकाण्ड. It is ascribed to the authorship of Parāśara. Scholars hold the opinion that it is eponymous work. 6 For instance, see Sadhale’s translation of the title as “The science of Plant life by Surapala”. Many other writers too refer to this work as “Science of Plant Life”. In this connection, the general attitude towards works like Vṛkṣāyurveda is best reflected in the prefatory statement given by M. Ramakrishna Bhatt, to his English translation of the chapter named Vṛkṣāyurveda of the Bṛhatsaṃhitā. He writes: “This too is an important scientific topic that was cultivated in ancient India. Gardening is 4 Let us have a close look on the contents and the structure of the work Vṛkṣāyurveda of Surapala, to set the ground. The text contains 325 verses spread over 13 chapters. For convenience, the number of verses and the titles of the chapters are shown below in a table. Sl. No. No. of verses 1 2 Name of the chapter तरुमहिमा – 23 (Glorification of trees) 23 (1-23) 11 (24-34) तरुशभु ाशभु लक्षणम् – 11 (Auspicious/Inauspicious trees to be planted/avoided near the residence) 3 10 (35-44) भूनमननरूपणम् -10 (Setting and selecting the ground soil) 4 18 (45-62) बीजोत्पत्तिाः– 18 (Processing the seeds) 5 34 (63-96) वपननवनधाः– 34 (Process of planting) 6 10 (97-106) कुणपजलम्– 10 (Preparation and the prescription of Kuṇapajala) 7 58 (107-164) पोषणम्– 58 (Methods of nourishing the plants) 8 19 (165-183) रोगज्ञानम् -19 (Diagnosis) 9 39 (184-222) त्तचहकत्सा/रोगोपशमाध्यायाः – 39 (Treatment of diseases/ Medication) 10 70 (223-292) नवत्तचत्राध्यायाः– 70 ( Chapter on Marvels) closely connected with town planning, house building and construction of tanks. Ancient sages like Kāśyapa and Parāśara have laid down rules about the trees to be planted in gardens, grafting and transplantation of trees as well as diseases of trees and their treatments.” 5 11 8 (293-300) 12 19 (301-319) 6 (320-325) 13 उपवनप्रहिया– 8(Laying out a garden) कूपार्थं भूनमपरीक्षा/कूपभूनमपरीक्षा– 19 (Selection of land for digging wells) अन्नाहदननष्पत्तिाः – 6 (Production of grains and cereals – literal meaning of the term) It has been noted by scholars that out of these 324 verses, excluding the last one giving personal details7, 29 are taken verbatim from the Bṛhatsaṃhitā of Varāhamihira8. Further, it is shown that all the verses of the chapters 12 (dealing with water divination for digging wells) and 13 (dealing with surmising the prosperity of pulses and cereals from flowers and creepers9) are the same as those in the Bṛhatsaṃhitā. As has been pointed out by many scholars, the topics dealt with in all the texts on the topic of Vṛkṣāyurveda, written in later times 10 , are more or less the same as those in the Bṛhatsaṃhitā. Here in the present work too, it is verily the case. The chapter on the 7 The verse is : इनत धरत्तणरुिायुवेदमुद्यत्प्रतापप्रचरनरपनतश्रीभीमपालाततरङ्गाः। अकुरुत सुरपालाः कौतुकात् त्तसद्धयोगैजमगदमलयशाःश्रीवैद्यनवद्यावरेण्याः।। [Lallanji] 8 Cf [Lallanji], p.52 9 Lallanji’s Edition has the chapter title as अन्नाहदननष्पत्ति. The chapter, all the verses from the Kusumalatādhyāya (chapter 29) of the Bṛhatsaṃhitā, deal with the surmising the availability/prosperity of crops and produces from the presence/abundance of certain plants and flowers. 10 As is known, the topic has been dealt with in the Agnipurāṇa, Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, Śārṅgadharapadhati, and Mānasollāsa. 6 botanical marvels to which we are focusing our attention, has the largest number of verses. A cursory look on the above table will show that the design of topics is not well planned. However, it is a rich source material for the information on the knowledge and practices on Horticulture, Aboriculture and some allied topics in ancient and medieval India. The knowledge carried down by generations through oral and textual tradition might have been preserved in it. Now coming back to the chapter on Botanical marvels in the Surapāla’s work, a list of marvels that are dealt with (in the chapter) is given at the very beginning. सदा पुष्पफलापत्तिरकालफलपुष्पता। तर्था गतधसमुत्पत्तिरनन्स्र्थत्वं रसातयता।। वणमप्रवतमनं पुष्पपररवृत्तिाः फलातयता। गतधप्रवतमनं गतधबतधनं वनल्लपुष्पता। । लतात्वं वामनत्वं च नमश्रता त्तचरपाकता। अपाकाः फलदीर्मत्वं नाशाः सम्प्प्रनतजतम च।। तत्कालफलता पुष्पफलताजतमपीनता। नवयोननजननं चेनत नवत्तचत्रं तद्यर्थाधुना।।(223-226) [Several special processes with reference to the plants will be described hereunder. They are: bearing flowers and fruits round the year; bearing flowers and fruits out of season; producing fragrance; changing the tastes, changing the colours, changing the flowers; changing the fruits; changing the fragrance; arresting of fragrance, producing flowers on (non-flowering) creepers; transforming trees into a creeper, dwarfing the trees; mixing, longevity of ripeness; non-ripening; longevity of crop; destruction and quick rejuvenation; quick production of fruits; increasing the size of fruits and flowers at the very appearance; transformation into another species and so on.]11 And in the ensuing verses, processes and procedures are prescribed for obtaining such botanical wonders. Certain types of wonders can be included in the botanical manipulations. However, some prescriptions seem to be wild imagination or fantasy. For instance, see this statement: “The fruits of a particular branch of a tree, which is tightly 11 Translation is Sadhale’s. She translates the title of the chapter as ‘Horticultural wonders’. 7 tied up with skin (from the shoulder) of a recently killed bull, will never ripen” (original verse cited above). What is the logic or rationale behind this statement? We are unable to surmise. At the least, we may say, we can accept its veracity only when it is verified by experimentation. See another passage: वरािमेिकीलालकोल्िपानीयसेत्तचता। कदळी कुरुते त्तचत्रं फनलता दानडमीफलै ाः।। (246) It is said that plantain trees would bear pomegranate fruits when watered with the mixture of urine of hog, blood/honey and Kolhā.12Another statement says that a seed of castor-oil, treated with the fat of a pig, and if administered with the above-said (verse 246, cited above) prescription will bear bitter gourd fruits13. There is another statement which says that one can transform a tamarind plant into a creeper by a prescription. It is: पूनतपलान्तवतनतलयवमाषजचूणैजमलान्तवतैाः त्तसक्ता। रजनीचूणमनवधूपात् नतत्तिनडका वरलता भवनत।। (253) [A tamarind plant is grown into an excellent creeper if fed with water, mixed with the powder of Triphala, sesame, barley and black gram, and then smoked well with turmeric powder.] – [Sadhale] A similar prescription for transforming tamarind plant into creeper is there in the Bṛhatsaṃhitā. The passage runs as: 12 For a comparison, the translations of Lallanji Gopal and Nalini Sadhale are given hereunder. A plantain tree creates wonder by bearing pomegranate fruits, (when) irrigated with the wine of a boar, honey (kilala) and the beverage of Kolha (=Ankola). [Lallanji] Plantain trees create wonderby producing pomegranate fruits if fed by water mixed with the urine of hog and ankolha [Sadhale]. She notes in the footnote, ‘a word is unintelligible’ 13 सूकरवसानभभानवतबीजाज्जातस्तर्थैव ऐरण्डाः। पूवोक्तयोगत्तसक्ताः संसतू े कारवेल्लफलम्।। (247) 8 नतन्ततडीत्यनप करोनत वल्लरीं व्रीहिमाषनतलचूणमसक्तुनभाः। पूनतमांससहितैश्च सेत्तचता धूनपता च सततं िररद्रया।। M. Ramakrishna Bhatt, following the commentary of Utpala, translates this into English, as: ‘Even a tamarind seed will produce a sprout when sprinkled with a compound of the flour of rice, black gram and sesamum and wheat particles along with stale meat, and repeatedly fumigated with turmeric powder’14. The phrase वल्लरीं करोनत is taken to mean “will produce a sprout”. Utpala explains it as अनभनवाङ्कुरा सम्प्पद्यते (will bear new sprouts). However, when we look into the very next set of verses15 where a similar prescription is enunciated in the case of wood apple, we would tend to differ with Utpala’s interpretation. There, in the beginning it is said that the prescription is for the vallīkaraṇa of wood apple (कनपत्र्थवल्लीकरणाय). The word Vallīkaraṇa means: ‘to make nonvallī into a vallī’16. And ‘vallī’ is creeper. Again at the end of the passage, there is this statement: ‘वल्ली भवत्याश ु शभु प्रवाळा नवस्मापनी मण्डपमावृणोनत।’. Here again it is explicitly stated that the seed becomes a creeper (vallī) with beautiful shoots. Utpala explains as : “शोभनपल्लवा वल्ली भवनत सम्प्पद्यते।”. Hence what Varāhamihira might have meant is transformation into a creeper. And the Surapāla’s verse might be a preservation of the old oral tradition, which might be a common source for both (Varāhamihira and Surapāla). 14 Cited in [Lallanji] 15 कनपत्र्थवल्लीकरणाय मूलातयास्फोतधात्रीधववात्तसकानाम्। पलात्तशनी वेतससूयमवल्ली श्यामानतमुक्तैाः सहिताष्टमूली।। क्षीरे शृते चाप्यनया सुशीते ताला शतं स्र्थाप्य कनपत्र्थबीजम्। हदने हदने शोनषतमकम पादैमामसं नवनधस्त्वेष ततोनधरोप्यम्।। िस्तायतं तहिगुणं गभीरं खात्वावटं प्रोक्तजलावपूणमम्। शष्ु कं प्रदग्धं मधुसनपमषा तत् प्रले पयेद्भस्मसमन्तवतेन। चूणीकृतैमामषनतलै यमवैश्च प्रपूरयेतृत्तिकयाततरस्र्थैाः। मत्स्यानमषाम्प्भस्सहितं च ितयाद्यावद्घनत्वं समुपागतं तत्।। उप्तं च बीजं चतुरङ्गुलाधो मत्स्याम्प्भसा मांसजलै श्च त्तसक्तम्। वल्ली भवत्याश ु शभु प्रवाला नवस्मानपनी मण्डपमावृणोनत।। (बृित्संहिता 54.22- 26, Sampurnanand Sanskrit University Edition, 1997) 16 Vide Pāṇinisūtra अभूततद्भावे कृभ्वन्स्तयोगे सम्प्पद्यकतमरर न््वाः 5.4.40 9 Many other such cases are there in this Vicitrādhyāya of Surapāla’s work, which do not seem to be having any scientific rationale behind. Just one example is added here. नूनं कलायसहिताजगराहदचममपूतीकृतानतबहुकदममपूणममूलााः। मांसोदके न बकुलााः सततं नननषक्तााः पुष्पन्तत चम्प्पकुसुमप्रचयैननमताततम्।। (245) [Bakula trees blossom forth producing lots of champaka flowers if continuously fed with flesh water after filling the bottom with plenty of mud mixed with kalaya and skin of a python or snake.]17 Now when we want to assess the acceptability of such passages, there are two stands we may opt for – one is to refuse to accept them unless and until proven by scientific methods, and the other is to believe them unless proved otherwise. There is a third stand, a well-balanced one, which is held by tradition towards such cases in many a discipline. Before seeing what it is, it might be better to have a bird’s eye view of the rich tradition of ancient India regarding nurturing plants, developing a keen observation towards the different aspects of plant life (such as botanical, medicinal, ecological and so on), and agriculture as well. It is well known that the Vedic texts like Ṛgveda and the Atharvasaṃhitā contain many passages reflecting the knowledge of different kinds of medicinal plants. The Oṣadhisūta of the Ṛgveda (10.97) is well known. The Atharvasaṃhitā contains much more information reflecting the significant awareness of many an aspect allied to medicinal plants – their nomenclature, classification, though not systematic, the different regions where they grow, different treatment methods utilizing them as well incantations of some mantra-s and like. The seventh hymn of the eighth book is a fine example comprising all these aspects. Refraining from explaining each and every aspect, only one 17 Translation Sadhale’s. She notes that some words are unintelligible, in the manuscript. 10 aspect is highlighted here. There are 28 mantra-s.18 It might be very interesting to note that, in three mantra-s, viz. 23rd to 25th, the fact that the animals have a better awareness of medicinal plants than human beings, is described. 18 या बभ्रवो याश्च शि ु ा रोहिणीरुत पृश्नयाः । अत्तसक्ीाः कृष्णा ओषधीाः सवाम अ्छावदामत्तस ॥ १॥ त्रायततानममं पुरुषं यक्ष्माद्देवेनषतादनध । यासां द्यौाः नपता पृनर्थवी माता समुद्रो मूलं वीरुधां बभूव ॥ २॥ आपो अग्रं हदव्या ओषधयाः । तास्ते यक्ष्ममेनस्यमङ्गादङ्गादनीनशन् ॥ ३॥ प्रस्ृणती स्तन्म्प्बनीरेकशङ्गु ााः प्रततवतीरोषधीरा वदानम । अंशमु तीाः कन्ण्डनीयाम नवशाखा ह्वयानम ते वीरुधो वैश्वदेवीरुग्रााः पुरुषजीवनीाः ॥ ४॥ यद्वाः सिाः सिमाना वीयं१ यच्च वो बलम् । तेनेममस्माद्यक्ष्मात्पुरुषं मुञ्चतौषधीरर्थो कृणोनम भेषजम् ॥ ५॥ जीवलां नर्ाररषां जीवततीमोषधीमिम् । अरुतधतीमुन्नयततीं पुष्पां मधुमतीनमि हुवेऽस्मा अररष्टतातये ॥ ६॥ इिा यततु प्रचेतसो मेहदनीवमचसो मम । यर्थेमं पारयामत्तस पुरुषं दुररतादनध ॥ ७॥ अग्नेर्ामसो अपां गभो या रोिन्तत पुनणमवााः । ध्रुवााः सिस्रनाम्नीभेषजीाः सतत्वाभृतााः ॥ ८॥ अवकोल्बा उदकात्मान ओषधयाः । व्ृषततु दुररतं तीक्ष्णशृङ्ग्याः ॥ ९॥ उतमुञ्चततीनवमवरुणा उग्रा या नवषदूषणीाः । अर्थो बलासनाशनीाः कृत्यादूषणीश्च यास्ता इिा यतत्वोषधीाः ॥ १०॥ {१७} अपिीतााः सिीयसीवीरुधो या अनभष्टुतााः । त्रायततामन्स्मन् ग्रामे गामश्वं पुरुषं पशमु ् ॥ ११॥ मधुमन् मूलं मधुमदग्रमासां मधुमन् मध्यं वीरुधां बभूव । मधुमत्पणं मधुमत्पुष्पमासां मधोाः सम्प्भक्ता अृतस्य भक्षो घृतमन्नं दुह्रतां गोपुरोगवम् ॥ १२॥ यावतीाः हकयतीश्चेमााः पृनर्थव्यामध्योषधीाः । ता मा सिस्रपण्यो ृत्योमुमञ्चतत्वंिसाः ॥ १३॥ वैयाघ्रो मत्तणवीरुधां त्रायमानोऽनभशन्स्तपााः । अमीवााः सवाम रक्षांस्यप ितत्वनध दूरमस्मत्॥ १४॥ त्तसंिस्येव स्तनर्थोाः सं नवजततेऽग्नेररव नवजतते आभृताभ्याः । गवां यक्ष्माः पुरुषाणां वीरुत्तद्भरनतनुिो नाव्या एतु स्रोत्यााः ॥ १५॥ मुमुचाना ओषधयोऽग्नेवैश्वानरादनध । भूनमं संततवतीररत यासां राजा वनस्पनताः ॥ १६॥ या रोितत्यानङ्गरसीाः पवमतेषु समेषु च । ता नाः पयस्वतीाः त्तशवा ओषधीाः सततु शं हृदे ॥ १७॥ याश्चािं वेद वीरुधो याश्च पश्यानम चक्षुषा । अज्ञाता जानीमश्च या यासु नवद्म च संभृतम् ॥१८॥ सवामाः समग्रा ओषधीबोधततु वचसो मम । यर्थेमं पारयामत्तस पुरुषं दुररतादनध ॥ १९॥ अश्वत्र्थो दभो वीरुधां सोमो राजाृतं िनवाः । व्रीहियमवश्च भेषजौ हदवस्पुत्रावमत्यौ ॥ २०॥ {१८} उन्ज्जिीध्वे स्तनयत्यनभितदत्योषधीाः । यदा वाः पृत्तश्नमातराः पजमतयो रेतसावनत ॥ २१॥ तस्याृतस्येमं बलं पुरुषं पययामत्तस । अर्थो कृणोनम भेषजं यर्थास्छतिायनाः ॥ २२॥ वरािो वेद वीरुधं नकुलो वेद भेषजीम् । सपाम गतधवाम या नवदुस्ता अस्मा अवसे हुवे ॥ २३॥ यााः सुपणाम आनङ्गरसीहदमव्या या रर्टो नवदुाः । वयांत्तस िंसा या नवदुयामस्च सवे पतनत्रणाः । ृगा या नवदुरोषधीस्ता अस्मा अवसे हुवे ॥ २४॥ यावतीनामोषधीनां गावाः प्राश्नतत्यघ्न्या यवतीनामजावयाः । तावतीस्तुभ्यमोषधीाः शमम य्छतत्वाभृतााः ॥२ ५॥ यावतीषु मनुष्या भेषजं नभषजो नवदुाः । तावतीनवमश्वभेषजीरा भरानम त्वामनभ ॥ २६॥ पुष्पवतीाः प्रसूमतीाः फनलनीरफला उत । संमातर इव दुह्रामस्मा अररष्टतातये ॥ २७॥ उत्त्वािाषं पञ्चशलादर्थो दशशलादुत । अर्थो यमस्य पड्वीशाहद्वश्वस्माद्देवहकल्ल्बषात्॥ २८॥ 11 It is well known that agriculture is extolled as a worthy act in the Ṛgveda ( कृनषनमत् कृषस्व - Hymn of gambler). But the fact that there is a beautiful passage extolling the natural and uncultivated produce of the wilderness is not that known. In the Araṇyānisūkta, there appears this mantra: आञ्जनगन्तधं सुरनभं बह्वन्नामकृषीवलाम् । प्रािं ृगाणां मातरमरण्याननमशंत्तसषम् ॥ ६॥ Again, it is well known that the Taittirīya Saṃhitā gives a list of many parts of a plant.19 The significance and necessity of planting trees and maintenance of good water reservoirs were also known. It was highlighted too in the Epics and Purāṇa-s. In the Vālmīkirāmāyaṇa, polluting water resources is reckoned as sin20. In the Anuśāsanaparvan (of the Mahābhārata) we get a full chapter (58th one) which praises the construction of water reservoirs and planting of trees as great acts of piety. It equates the result of the pious act of construction of water reservoirs with those of great sacrificial acts like Aśvamedha, Atirātra, and Agniṣṭoma.21 The verses दशकूपसमा वापी दशवापीसमो ह्रदाः। दशह्रदसमाः पुत्रो दशपुत्रसमो द्रमु ाः।। 22 (5), तेनेष्टा बिवो यज्ञास्तेन दिा वसुतधरा। स सदा ब्रह्मचारी स्याद् येन धात्री प्ररोनपता।। 12।। and 19 Cf ओषधीभ्याः स्वािा मूलेभ्याः स्वािा तूलेभ्याः स्वािा काण्डेभ्याः स्वािा वल्शेभ्याः स्वािा पुष्पेभ्याः स्वािा फले भ्याः स्वािा गृिीतेभ्याः स्वािाऽगृिीतेभ्याः स्वािाऽअवपन्नेभ्याः स्वािा शयानेभ्याः स्वािा सवमस्मै स्वािा ॥ (7.3.19 अनुवाक 19 अश्वमेधगतमतत्रकर्थनम्) वनस्पनतभ्याः स्वािा मूलेभ्याः स्वािा तूलेभ्याः स्वािा स्कतधोभ्याः स्वािा शाखाभ्याः स्वािा पणेभ्याः स्वािा पुष्पेभ्याः स्वािा फले भ्याः स्वािा गृिीतेभ्याः स्वािाऽअगृिीतेभ्याः स्वािाऽवपन्नेभ्याः स्वािा शयानेभ्याः स्वािा त्तशष्टाय स्वािाऽनतत्तशष्टाय स्वािा पररत्तशष्टाय स्वािा सꣳत्तशष्टाय स्वािोन््छष्टाय स्वािा ररक्ताय स्वािाऽररक्ताय स्वािा प्रररक्ताय स्वािा सꣳररक्ताय स्वािोहद्रक्ताय स्वािा सवमस्मै स्वािा ॥ (7.3.20 अनुवाक 20 अश्वमेधगतमतत्रकर्थनम्). 20 पानीयदूषके पापं तर्थैव नवषदायके । यिदेकाः स लभतां यस्यायोऽनुमते गताः।। (अयोध्याकाण्डम् 66.56) 21 For more details see [Sundar] 22 It is very popular. 12 चतुणां प्लक्षवृक्षाणां रोपणान्नात्र संशयाः। राजसूयस्य यज्ञस्य फलं प्राप्नोनत मानवाः।। 15।। which appear in Surapāla’s work are just a reflection of this tradition. And finally we get a flood of references to creating, maintaining and getting recreation in the Upavana-s in the Epics, Purāṇa-s and classical Sanskrit literature. Hence one cannot sweepingly reject the ‘marvels’ of the Vicitrādhyāya of Vṛkṣāyurveda discussed above, as rubbish. At the same time the statements do not fall in conformity with common experience. When we go to seek an answer to the question as to why we get such statements and what to do with them, we come across the third stand noted earlier. There is term शास्त्रपूत्यै which literally means ‘to make (the discipline/text) comprehensive’ in the śāstric tradition. That is, in order to make a system/work comprehensive, all the concepts, theories, philosophies, rationales, and popular sayings too are exhaustively included. In the Mahābhāṣya, there is a statement अस्त्यप्रयुक्ताः. It is said that to get to know the words which are not in popular usage, one should learn the science of language. And for that, the words/usages which are obsolete also are to be included in the Book of grammar. Patanjali cites the case of great sacrifices (दीर्मसत्र) which cannot be performed by human beings of our times, for it would take a long period (say, thousands of years) for its performance. However the performance of such sacrifices should not be left out in a book of Śāstra. अप्रयुक्ते दीर्मसत्रवत् – यद्यप्यप्रयुक्ता अवश्यं दीर्मसत्रवल्लक्षणेनानुनवधेयााः। तद्यर्था – दीर्मसत्रात्तण वाषमशनतकानन वाषमसाित्तस्रकात्तण च। न चाद्यत्वे कत्तश्चदप्यािरनत। के वलृनषसम्प्प्रदायो धमम इनत कृत्वा यात्तज्ञकााः शास्त्रेणानुनवदधते। (Mahābhāṣya, Paspaśānhika 10.4) Hence the (seemingly) unscientific statements of the Vicitrādhyāya of Vṛkṣāyurveda may be treated as the cases of śāstrapūrtti statements, until their veracity is proved otherwise. ----------- 13 References [Lallanji] : Lallanji Gopal, Vṛkṣāyurveda in Ancient India, (With original Texts and Translation), Sandeep Prakashan, New Delhi, (2000) Girija Prasanna Majumdar, Vanaspati – Plants and Plant Life [Majumdar] : as in Indian treatises and Traditions, University of Calcutta, (1927) [Ramakrishna] : M. Ramakrishna Bhatt, Bṛhatsaṃhitā with English Translation (2 Vol.s), Motilal Banarssidas, Delhi, (1981) [Sadhale] : Nalini Sadhale (Eng. Tr.), Surapala’s Vrikshayurveda, (The Science of plant life by Surapala), Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad, (1996) [Sircar] : N. N. Sircar and Roma Sircar,Vṛkṣāyurveda of Parāśara (Ed. and Tr.), Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi, (1996) [Sundar] : N. K. Sundareswaran, Environmental and Ecological Awareness in the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata, in Saṃskṛtakairalī, Vol. V (2016-2017), University of Calicut, (2017) [Utpala Vivṛti] : (with Krishnachandra Dwivedi Ed., Bṛhatsaṃhitā of Varāhamihira, Utapala’s Vivṛti commentary, Sampurnananda Sanskrit University, Varanasi (1998) ------14