TYPE
Review
14 September 2023
10.3389/fnut.2023.1233070
PUBLISHED
DOI
OPEN ACCESS
EDITED BY
Monika Thakur,
Amity University, India
REVIEWED BY
Saloni Sharma,
National Agri-Food Biotechnology Institute,
India
Neetu Singh,
Amity Centre for Biocontrol and Plant Disease
Management Amity University Noida U.P, India
Biofortification: an approach to
eradicate micronutrient
deficiency
Avnee 1, Sonia Sood 2, Desh Raj Chaudhary 2, Pooja Jhorar 1 and
Ranbir Singh Rana 1*
1
Department of Agronomy, CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur, India,
Department of Vegetable Science and Floriculture, CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi
Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur, India
2
*CORRESPONDENCE
Ranbir Singh Rana
ranars66@gmail.com
RECEIVED 01
June 2023
August 2023
PUBLISHED 14 September 2023
ACCEPTED 21
CITATION
Avnee, Sood S, Chaudhary DR, Jhorar P and
Rana RS (2023) Biofortification: an approach to
eradicate micronutrient deficiency.
Front. Nutr. 10:1233070.
doi: 10.3389/fnut.2023.1233070
COPYRIGHT
© 2023 Avnee, Sood, Chaudhary, Jhorar and
Rana. This is an open-access article distributed
under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License (CC BY). The use,
distribution or reproduction in other forums is
permitted, provided the original author(s) and
the copyright owner(s) are credited and that
the original publication in this journal is cited,
in accordance with accepted academic
practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is
permitted which does not comply with these
terms.
Micronutrient deficiency also known as “hidden hunger” refers to a condition
that occurs when the body lacks essential vitamins and minerals that are
required in small amounts for proper growth, development and overall
health. These deficiencies are particularly common in developing countries,
where a lack of access to a varied and nutritious diet makes it difficult for
people to get the micronutrients they need. Micronutrient supplementation
has been a topic of interest, especially during the Covid-19 pandemic,
due to its potential role in supporting immune function and overall health.
Iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), iodine (I), and selenium (Se) deficiency in humans are
significant food-related issues worldwide. Biofortification is a sustainable
strategy that has been developed to address micronutrient deficiencies
by increasing the levels of essential vitamins and minerals in staple crops
that are widely consumed by people in affected communities. There are
a number of agricultural techniques for biofortification, including selective
breeding of crops to have higher levels of specific nutrients, agronomic
approach using fertilizers and other inputs to increase nutrient uptake by
crops and transgenic approach. The agronomic approach offers a temporary
but speedy solution while the genetic approach (breeding and transgenic)
is the long-term solution but requires time to develop a nutrient-rich
variety.
KEYWORDS
biofortification, hidden hunger, selective breeding, sustainable, vitamins and
minerals
Introduction
Over 2 billion people worldwide suffer from micronutrient deficiency which has a
negative impact on their health and socio-economic condition (1). The principal reason is
the consumption of cereal-based food which provide enough calories but they are deficient
in phytochemicals (minerals, vitamins, antioxidants, and fiber). These phytochemicals are
essential for the normal growth and development of humans and their deficiencies can have
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10.3389/fnut.2023.1233070
reduce malnutrition and improve public health, particularly in
populations that rely heavily on a single staple crop for their
daily caloric intake. It requires a one-time investment unlike
supplements, reach malnourished poor population and provide
better quality food without compromising yield (see Figure 2).
This can be particularly important in developing countries
where micronutrient deficiencies are common and can have
serious health consequences. Iron, zinc, iodine and selenium
deficiencies are the most common, which account for around
60% of iron, 30% of zinc and iodine and 15% of selenium
deficiency (3). However, biofortification alone is not enough to
eradicate malnutrition. It cannot provide such a high level of
nutrients as through supplements or fortified food but they
improve daily dietary intake of nutrients (4). In the context of
climate change also, the anticipated drop in dietary
micronutrients makes biofortification more important for
vulnerable groups to maintain good health.
The concept of simultaneously biofortifying crops with
multiple essential micronutrients is an innovative and promising
strategy to address widespread nutrient deficiencies and improve
overall human nutrition. This approach, often referred to as
“multi-nutrient
biofortification”
or
“combinatorial
biofortification,” aims to create crops that contain a balanced
array of various essential vitamins and minerals. This strategy can
provide a more holistic and comprehensive approach to combating
malnutrition by addressing multiple nutrient deficiencies
concurrently. By combining different nutrients in crops, their
overall bioavailability and health benefits can be maximized.
Multi-nutrient biofortified crops can encourage dietary diversity
as people consume a wider range of nutrients from staple foods.
In addition to cost savings from development to distribution and
synergies through aggregated health effects, multi-nutrient
biofortification can result in significantly higher market coverage
by preventing competition between numerous single-nutrient
biofortified varieties (5).
70.00%
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
Central African Republic
North Korea
Uganda
Iraq
Afghanistan
Kenya
Ethiopia
Sudan
Pakistan
Bangladesh
India
Nigeria
Philippines
Myanmar
Peru
Sri Lanka
Nepal
China
South Africa
Iran
United Arab Emirates
percent population affected by
malnutrition
serious health consequences, including diminished cognitive
degeneration in children, increased risk of infections and a range
of other negative effects on physical and mental health.
Green Revolution, which took place from the mid-20th
century onwards, marked a significant shift in agricultural
practices and policies, particularly in developing countries like
India. During the revolution, the emphasis was shifted on
boosting crop productivity, notably that of rice and wheat,
which led to the domination of these two crops in the nation.
The increased productivity ensured food security in the country
but on the other hand, decreased bio-diversity resulted in a
monotonous cereal-based diet and thus increased concern about
nutritional security. The ever-growing population of India
further worsens the problem of providing sufficient nutrients to
all. Over 21.9% of the Indian population is living in extreme
poverty with limited access to resources (2). With their poor
purchasing power, they consume what they produce in their
fields. In order to alleviate malnutrition and to attain nutritional
security in the country, a second green revolution is therefore
required, with a particular emphasis on the development of
biofortified, nutrient-rich varieties.
Staple crops, such as rice, wheat and maize are the main
source of calories for a large proportion of the world’s
population, particularly in low-income countries. These crops,
however, often lack essential vitamins and minerals, which
might result in micronutrient deficiency. Biofortification can
help to address this problem more sustainably and economically
by increasing the levels of essential vitamins and minerals in
staple crops. It is the process of enrichment of bio-available
concentration in edible portions of food and aims at providing
nutrient-rich food to rural resource-poor people who do not
have access to diversified food, supplements and industrially
fortified food (see Figure 1). Biofortification can be a costeffective and sustainable way to address micronutrient
malnutrition at the population level with an ultimate goal to
Countries
FIGURE 1
Different countries and their percentage of population suffering from malnutrition.
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Approaches of biofortification
promising avenue for increasing the concentration and
bioavailability of essential nutrients in food crops, a strategy
known as “nanofertilizer-assisted biofortification.” Because of the
large increase in surface area and the NFs’ small size, plants can
easily absorb the particles (8).
Iron biofortification
Iron deficiency is a common problem, particularly in
developing countries and it can have serious health consequences
such as anemia affecting over half the population of children
under the age of five and pregnant women in India. Biofortification
can help to address this issue by increasing the iron content of
crops, which can in turn help to improve the iron intake of
individuals who rely on these crops as a dietary staple. Iron is a
vital nutrient for humans, it is required for proper body
functioning but cannot be produced by the body and must
be obtained from the diet. It is crucial for the production of red
blood cells and the transportation of oxygen within the human
body, supporting the immune system, providing energy and
maintaining healthy skin, hair and nails. It is especially important
for pregnant women, infants, and young children, as they have
higher iron requirements. Anemia, weariness, and immune
system impairment are just a few of the health issues that iron
deficiency can cause, especially in impoverished nations where
plant-based foods are the main source of Fe (9).
Applying iron-rich fertilizers to the soil and proper soil
management, such as maintaining the pH and nutrient balance of the
soil can help to improve the uptake of iron by crops. It is important to
note that the efficacy of these methods can vary based on the particular
crop and growing circumstances. Comparing vegans to meat-eaters,
the former should consume 1.8 times more of the recommended daily
intake (RDA) of Iron than later (10). Table 1 shows some of the crops
that are successfully agronomically biofortified with iron.
FIGURE 2
Methods of biofortification (Agronomic, Breeding and Transgenic).
Agronomic biofortification
Agronomic biofortification refers to the process of enriching
the nutritional value of crops through fertilization and soil
management. It offers an efficient and timely solution that is the
quickest and most affordable way to produce nutrient-dense
food, albeit it only offers a short-term fix. The majority of crops
can benefit from this very simple method of biofortifying with
iron, zinc, iodine, and selenium. To boost the content of
micronutrients in the plant’s edible parts, micronutrientcontaining organic/inorganic fertilizers or biofertilizers are
applied to the plant by foliar or soil application. Micronutrient
concentration depends on the source of fertilizer used, method
and rate of fertilizer application, stage of application, and
translocation of nutrients within plants. Due to variations in
mineral mobility, mineral accumulation among plant species and
soil compositions in the particular geographic region of each
crop, the success of agronomical biofortification is highly
variable (6). The effectiveness of agronomic biofortification has
increased with the development of high specialized fertilizers
with high nutrient uptake efficiency and greater nutrient
translocation to the consumable sections of a crop plant, which
include water-soluble fertilizers, chelated fertilizers and nanofertilizers (7).
Nanoparticles, which are extremely small particles with unique
properties due to their size and structure, have gained attention as
potential tools for biofortification. Nanofertilizers (NFs), a subset
of nanotechnology applications in agriculture, hold significant
potential to revolutionize traditional methods of enhancing crop
nutrient content and improving overall nutritional quality. By
harnessing the unique properties of nanoparticles, NFs offer a
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Zinc biofortification
Zinc is a crucial micronutrient that is necessary for both plants
and humans. It is involved in a wide range of physiological functions
including immune response, protein and DNA synthesis, wound
healing and involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and
fats. Zinc deficiency is a major public health problem affecting around
30% of the world’s population, making people more susceptible to
issues including maternal mortality, DNA damage, growth retardation,
changes in taste and smell, immunological dysfunction, and an
increased risk of infections (23).
Biofortification can assist to solve the issue of zinc deficiency and
improve the nutritional value of crops, particularly in areas where
deficiency is prevalent. Zinc deficiency in humans and soil show
geographical overlap (24). A high percentage of agricultural land
(36.5%) in India is zinc deficient and cultivating crops on these
deficient soils further reduces zinc levels in edible portions (25). The
deficit is particularly prevalent in low-income developing nations
where a plant-based diet is the norm (26). Agronomic biofortification
of zinc was reported to be successful in a large number of crops
(Table 2).
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TABLE 1 Agronomic biofortification of iron.
Crop
Treatment
References
Cereals
Rice
Foliar application of FeSO₄ sprayed @ 0.2% at panicle initiation stage, 7 days after flowering
(11)
(DAF), 14 DAF
Brown rice
0.5 and 1.0% FeSO4. 7H2O at maximum tillering, pre-anthesis and post-anthesis stages
(12)
Aerobic rice
Soil application of 67 mg FeSO₄.7H₂O per kg soil at the time of sowing; three foliar sprays (at
(13)
40, 60 and 75 DAS) of 3% FeSO₄.7H₂O solution and 0.05 M Fe-EDTA used as seed treatment
Wheat
Three foliar sprays of FeSO₄ at tillering, booting and heading stage
(14)
Foliar application of Fe3O4 nanofertilizer (5 mg L )
(15)
Foliar application of 0.5, 1 and 1.5% solutions of FeSO4 at branching and flowering stages.
(16)
−1
Pulses
Mungbean
Increased Fe concentration by 46% in grains.
Cowpea
Four foliar application rates (0, 25, 50 and 100 μM L−1) each of iron chelates and ferrous
(17)
sulfate.
Increased Fe concentration by 29–32%.
Chickpea
Foliar application of FeSO4.7H2O resulting in an increased grain concentration by 21–22%
(18)
Lentil
Foliar spray of 0.5% FeSO4.7H2O at the pre-flowering stage.
(19)
Increase in concentration by 17.4 mg kg−1 in grains.
Vegetables
Potato
Soil (Amino acid-based Fe complex) and foliar applied EDTA chelated Fe
(20)
Red and green pigmented Lettuce
Soilless culture: Fe at conc. 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 mM iron
(21)
Brassicaceae microgreens (Arugula, red cabbage,
Soilless media: Fe conc. 0, 10, 20, 40 mg L−1
(22)
and red mustard)
Iodine biofortification
Selenium biofortification
Iodine is a necessary component of human metabolism and crucial
for the proper function of the thyroid gland in humans, energy
production and body temperature regulation, despite not being a
necessary element for plants, although its application has been linked to
higher yields and high iodine content in several crops (Table 3). It is
estimated that the iodine intake of 30–38% of people worldwide is
insufficient (45).
Iodine deficiency can lead to a variety of health
problems, including goiter, infertility, growth impairment,
hypothyroidism
and
intellectual
disability.
Iodine
biofortification can be a particularly useful approach in areas
where iodine deficiency is common and people rely heavily on
plant-based foods as a source of nutrients. Biofortified plantbased foods can help to increase the overall iodine intake of a
population and improve the nutritional status of individuals
who consume these foods. Adults should consume between 150
to 290 μg of iodine per day, with a tolerable upper limit of
1,100 μg per day (53, 54). One of the most common ways to
fortify iodine is through the addition of iodine to salt. This is
called iodized salt. Iodized salt may not be effective in
preventing iodine deficiency in all populations as it can raise
blood pressure which is a major risk factor for heart disease and
stroke. It is also linked to an increase in cases of osteoporosis, a
condition that causes the bones to become weak and brittle. A
promising strategy to raise the iodine content of crops is
agronomic biofortification.
Selenium is a trace element that is essential for human health. Due
to its incorporation into selenoproteins like glutathione peroxidase,
which perform a number of functions including antioxidant activity, it is
essential for the immune system’s proper operation (55). Se deficiency
affects hundreds of millions of people around the world (56). For plants,
Se is not essential (57, 58), but when applied at low doses, it is beneficial
for some groups of plants by increasing the activity of various enzyme
systems; selenium alone or in combination with iodine was found to
increase concentration, better quality in some plants (Table 4); for
example, it delays tomato fruit ripening by inhibiting ethylene
biosynthesis and enhancing the antioxidant defense system (80).
Plants can absorb selenium from the soil, but the availability of
selenium in the soil can vary widely. In some areas, the soil may
be naturally low in selenium, while in others, selenium may be present
but not in a form that plants can easily absorb. To ensure that plants are
getting sufficient selenium, it may be necessary to add selenium to the
soil. This can be done through the use of selenium fertilizers or through
the application of selenium-rich compost or manure. It is also possible to
provide selenium to plants through the use of selenium-rich irrigation
water or through the use of selenium-enriched seeds.
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Interaction among nutrients
The effectiveness of agronomic biofortification can be affected by
interactions between macronutrients and micronutrients (81) (see
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TABLE 2 Agronomic biofortification of zinc.
Crop
Treatment
References
Soil application of ZnSO₄.7H₂O @ 2.5, 5 and 7.5 kg/ha
(27)
Cereals
Maize
Aromatic rice
Soil and foliar application (at flowering) of zinc as ZnSO₄.7H₂O
(28)
Basmati rice
Different Zn sources applied at the rate 5 kg Zn/ha
Singh and Shivay (29)
Rice
Soil and foliar sprays (two) at maximum tillering and panicle initiation stage with different
(30)
sources of zinc at different rates
Wheat
Soil and foliar application of ZnSO₄.7H₂O and zinc-coated urea
Prasad and Shivay (31)
Soil and foliar sprays (two) at maximum tillering and booting stage with different sources
(32)
of zinc at different rates
Soil and foliar application of zinc as ZnSO₄.H₂O
(33)
Dextran sulfate (DEX (SO4))-coated ZnO Nanoparticles
Elhaj and Unrine (34)
Different rates and source of Zinc at 1/3- sowing, 1/3–3 weeks after sowing (WAS) and
Prasad and Shivay (31)
1/3–6 WAS
Bread wheat, durum wheat and triticale
Foliar application of 0.5% ZnSO₄.7H₂O at maximum tillering, flower initiation, milk and
(35)
dough stages.
The maximum percent increase was 145.9% in wheat, 178.1% in durum wheat and 157.4%
in triticale
Pulses
Chickpea
Soil application (5 kg/ha) through ZnSO4.7H2O
(36)
Increase in concentration of zinc by 5.4 mg kg−1
Pigeon pea
Soil application (20 kg/ha) ZnSO4.7H2O
Behera et al. (37)
Increase in concentration of zinc by 10.6 mg kg−1
Lentil
Foliar spray of 0.5% ZnSO4.7H2O at the pre-flowering stage.
(19)
Increase in concentration by 10.5 mg kg−1 in grains.
Oilseeds
Safflower
Linseed
Soil application (5 kg/ha) through ZnSO4.7H2O
Roy and Ghosh (38)
Foliar application of ZnSO4.7H2O and Zn-EDTA (0, 0.25, 0.50, and 0.75%) at flowering
(39)
and capsule formation stages
Vegetables
Brassicaceae microgreens (Arugula, red cabbage,
Soilless media: ZnSO4 (5–10 mg/L)
and red mustard)
75–281% increase in zinc content in crop
Arugula (Broad leaf)
(22)
Foliar application (Zn @ 1.5 kg/ha at 25 DAE)
(40)
279% increase in Zn content
Lettuce
Different Zn doses (0,5, 10, 20, 30 mg kg−1)
(41)
Broccoli
0.25% ZnSO4. 7 H2O @ 15 mL per pot
(42)
Pear
Foliar spray of 1.5% ZnEDTA
(43)
Banana
Injection of ZnSO4. 7 H2O in pseudostem @ 1, 2 and 4%
(44)
Fruits
Triple zinc content in fruit than control
Table 5). While previous biofortification initiatives have mainly
concentrated on increasing specific nutrients, a novel strategy could
be to simultaneously biofortify crops with a number of essential
micronutrients, providing a more comprehensive nutritional profile.
Some nutrients work synergistically in the body, enhancing the
absorption and utilization of others. Zinc, for example, improves
nitrogen metabolism by promoting effective uptake and assimilation.
It also aids in the conversion of phosphorus into forms that are easily
absorbed by plants, as well as in the regulation of stomatal function
Frontiers in Nutrition
and water movement, both of which affect potassium absorption. The
synthesis of selenium-containing phytochemicals, such as
selenocompounds can be improved by selenium biofortification.
According to (82, 83), plants convert selenium into selenoamino acids,
which are then converted into phytochemicals. These substances have
antioxidant qualities beneficial to human health. Selenium also plays
a role in reducing element toxicity and regulating the concentration
of micronutrients in plants by modifying soil conditions, encouraging
microbial activity, taking part in crucial physiological and metabolic
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TABLE 3 Agronomic biofortification of iodine.
Crop
Treatment
References
Tomato
Potassium iodide (KI), KIO3 + SA, KI + SA @ I-7.88 μM and 7.24 μM
(45)
Pepper
KI at 0.25 to 1 mg/L
(46)
Increased iodine content by 350–1,330 μg/kg
Cabbage and cowpea
Potassium iodide @ 15 kg I /ha
(47)
Increase in iodine conc. to 109.1 mg/kg in cabbage and 5854.2 mg/kg in cowpea
Carrot
Iodine dose at 0.5 mg/L
(48)
Potato
KIO3 @ 2.0 kg iodine per hectare
(49)
Apple and Pear
Foliar application of KI and KIO3 (0.5, 1.0 and 2.5%)
(50)
Leafy greens
Soil and foliar Iodine application at different concentrations (0, 5, 10 kg/ha)
(51)
KI @10 μM
(52)
(Rapeseed and Amaranthus)
Sweet basil and lettuce
processes, generating element competition, stimulating metal
chelation, organelle compartmentalization and sequestration (84). It
is preferable to combine Zn, Se, and Fe in conjunction with the
employment of plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPR) and
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (AMF), in order to develop
biofertilizers that are ecologically benign yet result in crops that are
enriched in microelements (85).
In some cases, certain nutrients can compete with each other for
absorption. By ensuring an adequate balance of multiple nutrients,
competition for absorption can be minimized. Adequate levels of
nutrients like magnesium, zinc and manganese are important for
vitamin C synthesis. These nutrients can impact the enzyme systems
involved in ascorbic acid production. Certain micronutrients, such
as copper and manganese, are cofactors for enzymes involved in the
synthesis of antioxidants and flavonoids (86). Adequate levels of these
micronutrients can positively influence the production of these
compounds. The formation of roots, the movement of shoots and the
re-localization of nutrients from vegetative tissue to the seeds are all
positively impacted by a plant’s N and P status. As a result, the crop’s
edible sections absorb more micronutrients and have higher
concentrations of them (87).
Salt, high/low temperature, heavy metals, and drought all cause
the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the
induction of oxidative stress in plants (85). It has been
demonstrated that biofortification with Zn, Se, and Fe using
various types and forms of fertilizer can reduce the damage caused
by oxidative stress by increasing the content of ROS-scavenging
enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), ascorbate
peroxidase (APX), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPX),
monodehydroascorbate reductase (MDHAR), dehydroascorbate
reductase (DHAR), glutathione reductase (GR), glutathione
S-transferase (GST), and peroxiredoxin (PRX) content in different
sites of plant cells (88, 89).
involves selecting plants with desirable traits, such as higher
micronutrient content and crossing them with other plants to create
a hybrid with improved characteristics. Over time, this process is
repeated and the offspring are screened for desired traits.
Plant breeding techniques are used in the biofortification
approach to develop staple food crops with greater micronutrient
content (97), this assists to target low-income households in the
country. Numerous crops have been targeted for biofortification
through crop breeding due to their improved acceptance (Table 6).
A biofortified crop system is highly sustainable. Nutritionally
improved varieties will continue to be grown and consumed year
after year, even if government attention and international funding
for micronutrient issues fade (105). Since the last four decades, yield
qualities and resistance breeding have received the majority of
attention resulting in lower amounts of nutrients in the existing
varieties (106).
Biofortification by breeding is attained when crops have naturally
some concentrations of micronutrients, such as iron, zinc and vitamin
A, which means when genetic diversity is accessible in usable form.
Some examples of biofortified crops include iron-rich beans, zinc-rich
rice, selenium-rich rice, wheat and maize, iodine-rich cassava, maize,
and sweet potatoes and vitamin A-rich sweet potatoes.
This method is widely accepted as it is safe and does not raise the
same safety concerns as genetic engineering. However, traditional
breeding can be a slow and labor-intensive process, and it may take
many years to develop a crop with improved nutrient content.
Target crops for biofortification
Cereals
Rice, wheat and maize are the major calorie supplement for
two-thirds of the Indian population thereby ruling the people’s diet in
the country. Biofortification of cereals with iron, zinc, protein and
provitamin-A content can assist to bring down the issue of hidden
hunger in the population who does not have access to diversified food
or supplements. Cereals are typically deficient in both protein and
vitamin A. Proteins are vital for humans as they build cells, act as
enzymes for chemical reactions, regulate hormones, support the
immune system, aid in muscle function, and facilitate communication
Biofortification through conventional
breeding
Traditional plant breeding is a method of improving the
nutritional content of crops by selecting for desired traits through
controlled crosses between different plant varieties. The process
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TABLE 4 Agronomic biofortification of selenium.
Crop
Targeted micro-nutrient
Treatment
References
Pulses
Chickpea
Selenium
Two foliar Se fertilizers (sodium selenate and sodium selenite) at four rates
(59)
(0, 10, 20, 40 g ha−1)
Soybean
Selenium
Lentil
Selenium
Foliar application of sodium selenite and Se-enriched fertilizer
(60)
Foliar application of 40 g/ha of Se as potassium selenate (K2SeO4) (10 g/ha
(61)
during full bloom and 30 g/ha during the flat pod stage)
Increased seed Se concentration from 201 to 2,772 μg/kg
Oilseeds
Mustard
Selenium
Accumulation of 358 mg kg−1 in seed
(62)
Carrot and Broccoli
Selenium
Selenium conc. at 1.65 mg/kg, 0.92 mg/kg and 88 μg/L, 48.6 μg/L
(63)
Carrot
Iodine and selenium
KI + Na2SeO3 & KIO3 + Na2SeO3
(64)
Turnip
Selenium
Selenite at 50 to 100 mg L
Radish
Selenium
Selenate and selenite @ 20 μmol L
(66)
Carrot
Iodine and selenium
KI + Na2SeO4 (4 kg I /ha: 0.25 kg /ha)
(67)
Root crops
(65)
−1
−1
Iodine and selenium content (7.7 and 4.9 times)
Carrot
Iodine and selenium
KI and Na2 SeO4
(68)
(4 kg I ha−1: 0.25 kg Se ha−1)
Cole crops
Broccoli
Selenium
Se dose, selenite and selenate
(69)
Cabbage
Selenium
Na2O4Se: betaine: adjuvant (10 μM: 10 μM: 1%)
(70)
Broccoli and Carrot
Selenium
Selenium enriched S. pinnata (soil amendment)
(71)
Broccoli
Selenium
Sodium selenate (50 μM)
(72)
Mustard sprout
Selenium
Selenate and selenite @ 20 μmol L−1
(66)
Cabbage
Selenium
8 mg kg and 16 mg kg Se yeast
(73)
Selenium and iodine
Selenium and iodine combination
(74)
Lettuce
Selenium
Selenate at 40 μmol L−1
(75)
Lettuce
Selenium
Selenate application at low concentration
(58)
Lettuce
Iodine and selenium
Foliar application of Na2SeO4 and Na2SeO4 + KIO3 and for iodine content
(76)
−1
−1
Cucurbits crops
Pumpkin
Leafy vegetables
in roots KIO3 and Na2SeO4 + KIO3
Solanaceous vegetables
Tomato
Selenium
Selenium dose at 10 mg L−1
(77)
Tomato
Selenium
Sodium selenite at 5 mg L−1
(78)
Accelerated accumulation of selenium by 53%
Cherry tomato
Selenium
Selenium at 2.0–4.0 μmol L−1 + grafting (soilless media) Se concentration
(79)
(9.8 mg kg−1)
between cells, among other essential roles in maintaining overall
health and bodily functions. Dietary protein deficiency can lead to
varied effects on body weight and composition. Inadequate protein
intake often results in increased food consumption, body weight, and
fat mass. Extremely low protein diets cause fatty liver, reduced energy
absorption, and persistent decreases in lean mass (107). Vitamin A
aids in cell communication, supports reproduction and growth, and
acts as an antioxidant to protect cells. Its deficiency can cause problems
Frontiers in Nutrition
in the eyes (ophthalmological), skin (dermatological), and immune
system (immune impairment) (108).
Polished rice is a poor source of micronutrients; 60–80% of Fe
and around 30% of Zn are lost during polishing (109) yet consumers
prefer polished rice because of their long storage and their taste
preference. Pureline varieties of rice developed by ICAR-IIRR are
DRR Dhan 45, DRR Dhan 48 and DRR Dhan 49 having zinc content
ranging from 22.6–25.2 ppm. Protein-rich variety CR Dhan 310 has
07
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TABLE 5 Effect of nutrients on other nutrients and phytochemicals.
Crop
Targeted nutrient
Treatment
Improved traits
References
Macro (N, P, K, Ca, and Mg) and
Zn Chelate and Zn Sulphate
Antioxidant activity and macro and
(90)
Micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, and Ni)
(25 to 50 μM)
micro-nutrient content
Borax (0.5 and 1%) and
Increased oil and protein content
(91)
8 mg kg−1 and 16 mg kg−1 Se
Antioxidant activity and nutritional
(73)
yeast
quality (ascorbic acid, soluble sugar, free
Legume crops
Green beans
Oilseeds
Mustard
Boron and nitrogen
urea (1%)
Cole crops
Cabbage
Selenium
amino acids, SOD activity, Glucosinolates,
and Phenolic compounds)
Broccoli
Nitrogen and Zinc
0.25 + 0.25 of N and Zn
Antioxidant activity, Zn (more than
(foliar application)
50 mg K−1) and total phenol content
(92)
Potassium sulphate at
Potassium content
(93)
PSB + FYM applied at
Micronutrients (Ca, Mg, Zn and Fe),
(94)
different stages
vitamin C and beta-carotene
Soil and foliar application of
Phenolic compounds
(95)
Anthocyanin concentration
(66)
Ascorbic acid
(46)
Ascorbic acid, soluble sugar, chlorophyll-a
(67)
Cucurbits crops
Cucumber
Potassium
0.014–4 g L−1
Leafy vegetables
Spinach
Lamb’s Lettuce
PSB
Selenium
Selenium
Alfalfa
Selenium
Selenate and selenite @
20 μmol L−1
Solanaceous vegetables
Pepper
Iodine
Hydroponic experiment: KI
conc. 0.25–5 mg L−1
Tomato
Selenium
Selenium dose at 10 mg L−1
content, peroxidase, catalase, and
superoxidase dismutase
Tomato
Selenium
Sodium selenite at 2 mg L
Selenium
Selenite at 50 to 100 mg L−1
−1
Biosynthesis of phytochemical compound
(96)
Selenium content and other minerals viz.,
(65)
Root vegetable
Turnip
Mg, P, Zn, Mn, and Cu.
10.6% protein content in polished rice in comparison to 7.0–8.0% in
popular varieties.
Wheat is the second main crop of India after rice. Breeding wheat
to improve the quality of the crop has become the recent focus.
However, farmers’ acceptance of nutrient-dense cultivars and the
introduction of new biofortified varieties into wheat-growing areas is
crucial in the fight against hidden hunger (110, 111). Although iron
and zinc are abundantly present in the aleurone layer, however, their
bioavailability is affected by the presence of phytate (112).
Supplementing with vitamin A presents a problem due to its high
cost and need for efficient transportation and storage methods, which
are challenging to implement in remote, sparsely populated locations
(113). Maize is an ideal crop for biofortifying it with provitamin A due
to its natural diversity in carotenoid content, which includes
predominant carotenoid components lutein and zeaxanthin, as well as
β & α-carotene and β-cryptoxanthin (114). Traditional maize contains
less amount of proteins, lysine and tryptophan, over-dependency on
Frontiers in Nutrition
this cereal causes diseases such as kwashiorkor and pellagra (115,
116). There are presently several varieties of quality protein maize
(QPM) being grown throughout the country having high lysine and
tryptophan levels.
Pulses
Pulses are a major source of protein and other vital nutrients for
millions of people, especially in developing countries. Biofortification
can effectively address malnutrition by providing more of the key
nutrients needed for proper growth, development and overall health.
Pulses are not only nutritionally valuable but also environmentally
beneficial, as they have the ability to fix nitrogen in the soil, enhancing
its fertility. Lentils and beans are particularly promising candidates for
enhancing iron and zinc content through conventional breeding
methods. These pulses exhibit inherent genetic potential for heightened
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TABLE 6 Varieties developed through conventional breeding.
Crop
Variety
Trait
Country
Year release
References
DRR Dhan 45
Zn
India
2016
(98)
DRR Dhan 48, DRR Dhan 49
Saurbhi
Zn
India
2017
(98)
Zn
India
2017
(98)
Fedearroz BIOZn 035
Zn
Colombia
2021
(99)
Inpara 11 Siam HiZInc
Zn
Indonesia
2022
(99)
BRRI Dhan 64
Zn
Bangladesh
2014
(99)
Cereals
Rice
Wheat
Maize
CR 310, CR 311
Protein
India
2018
(100)
Zinco Rice MS
Zn
India
2018
(101)
WB 02, HPBW 01
Fe, Zn
India
2017
(102)
Pusa Tejas
Protein, Fe
India
2017
(102)
Pusa Ujala
Protein, Fe, Zn
India
2017
(102)
HD 3171
Zn
India
2017
(102)
Nohely F2018
Zn
Mexico
2018
(99)
TARNAB-REHBAR
Zn
Pakistan
2023
(99)
TARNAB-GANDUM-I
Zn
Pakistan
2023
(99)
Zinc Gahun-1
Zn
Nepal
2020
(99)
HI 8777
Zn, Fe
India
2018
(102)
MACS 4028
Protein, Zn and Fe
India
2018
(103)
PBW 752
Protein
India
2018
(103)
Vivek QPM 9
lysine and tryptophan
India
2008
(102)
Pusa HM8 Improved, Pusa HM4
lysine and tryptophan
India
2017
(102)
Pusa Vivek QPM9 Improved
provitamin-A, lysine and tryptophan
India
2017
(102)
ZS246A
Vitamin A
Africa
2016
(99)
ZS500A
Vitamin A
Africa
2019
(99)
ICTA HB-18ACP + Zn
Zinc
Guatemala
2018
(99)
Fortaleza 17
Zinc
Guatemala
2020
(99)
SGBIOH2
Zinc
Colombia
2019
(99)
Pusa HQPM 5 Improved, Pusa HQPM 7
provitamin-A, lysine and tryptophan
India
2020
(2)
RHB 233, RHB 234
Iron and zinc
India
2019
(103)
ICSR 14001, ICSH 14002
Iron
India
VR 929
Iron
India
2020
(2)
LCIC MV5
Iron
Nigeria
2023
(99)
Chakti
Iron
Nigeria
2018
(99)
Improved, IQMH 201
Pearl millet
Sorghum
Finger Millet
Little Millet
(104)
CFMV1, CFMV 2
Calcium, iron and zinc
India
2020
(2)
CLMV1
Iron and zinc
India
2020
(2)
Parbhani Shakti
Zinc
India
2018
(99)
Pusa Ageti Masoor
Iron
India
2017
(102)
IPL 220
Iron and zinc
India
2018
(103)
IPL 220
Iron and zinc
India
2018
(103)
Kufri Manik, Kufri Neelkanth
Anthocyanin
India
2020
(2)
Pulses/Legumes
Lentil
Bhu Sona, Bhu Krishna
Provitamin-A, Anthocyanin
India
2017
(102)
Rasuwa black
Iron
Nepal
2020
(99)
Barimasur-4, B-5, B-6
Iron
Bangladesh
2010
(99)
(Continued)
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TABLE 6 (Continued)
Crop
Variety
Trait
Country
Cowpea
CBC6
Iron
Zimbabwe
2021
(99)
Pant Lobia-7
Iron
India
2019
(99)
Beans
Year release
References
BRS Araca
Iron
Brazil
2009
(99)
RWR 2245; RWR 2154; MAC 42; MAC 44;
Iron and zinc
Rwanda
2014
(99)
Delvia
Vitamin A
Zimbabwe
2021
(99)
Kokota, Chumfwa, Olympia
Vitamin A
Zambia
2014
(99)
CAB 2; RWV 1129; RWV 3006; RWV 3316;
RWV 3317; RWV 2887
Vegetables
Sweet Potato
Cassava
Gerald, Joweria
Vitamin A
Uganda
2013
(99)
Slicass 12
Vitamin A
Sierra Leone
2014
(99)
UMUCASS 44
Vitamin A
Nigeria
2014
(99)
UMUCASS 52, UMUCASS 53, UMUCASS 54
Vitamin A
Nigeria
2022
(99)
Fruits
Banana
Apantu, Bira, Pelipita, Lai, To’o
Vitamin A
Uganda
Mango
Amarpali, Pusa Arunima, Pusa Surya, Pusa
Beta-carotene, Vitamin C
India
Ataulfo
Beta-carotene, Vitamin C
Mexico
Pusa Navrang
Antioxidants
India
(99)
IARI, India
Pratibha, Pusa Peetamber, Pusa Lalima, and
Pusa Shreshth
Grapes
mineral accumulation. Harnessing this natural richness entails
meticulous selection of parental genotypes demonstrating superior
mineral concentrations. Through systematic interbreeding over
successive generations, novel cultivars can be developed wherein
augmented iron and zinc levels are seamlessly integrated while preserving
key agronomic attributes. Consequently, these biofortified varieties
emerge as pivotal assets for ameliorating micronutrient deficiencies and
fostering enhanced nutritional quality within food systems.
IARI, India
treatments for diseases and enhancing the nutritional quality of crops.
Biotechnology allows more precise and efficient targeting of specific
nutrients than other means.
Nutritional quality in crops can be enhanced either by adding new
genes that supply the plants with more vitamins or minerals or by
enhancing the expression of already present genes that are involved in
nutrient biosynthesis (see Table 7). Transgenic techniques can be used
to simultaneously incorporate genes that increase the concentration of
micronutrients, their bioavailability and inhibit antinutritional factors
(ANFs) in crops that restrict the utilization of nutrients (117). Transgenic
approach presents a rational solution to improve the concentration and
bioavailability of micronutrients (106, 118) especially when there is a
limited genetic base present in different plant varieties (119, 120).
Scientists have used biotechnology to develop crops that are high
in beta-carotene, a precursor of Vitamin A, iron and zinc which are
essential for human health but often lacking in the diet of people in
developing countries. One of the examples is the development of
vitamin A-rich rice called “golden rice,” which could help to address
vitamin A deficiency in developing countries. Additionally,
biotechnology can be used to improve the quality of food by increasing
its shelf life, enhancing its flavor, reducing its allergenicity and
producing food ingredients with health benefits like functional
proteins, fibers and lipids. These ingredients can be used to improve
the nutritional value of food products, making them more healthful
and beneficial for consumers. This can help to make food more
accessible and affordable for consumers, particularly in areas where
food is scarce or expensive. It is a promising approach to improve the
nutritional value of crops, but it is also a controversial issue and
further research is needed to fully understand its potential impacts
and risks.
Vegetables and fruits
The consumption of vegetables and fruits is important for a healthy
diet, as they are rich in vitamins, minerals, fiber, and other essential
nutrients. They offer a diverse, low-calorie, protective and nutrientdense diet. It has long been understood that eating the recommended
amounts of vegetables and fruits has favorable health effects and
frequent consumption of a range of these foods has been associated
with decreased risk of diseases. The benefits of biofortifying vegetables
and fruits include reducing the risk of chronic diseases, increasing
economic productivity and promoting overall health and well-being.
Biofortification through transgenic/
biotechnological means
Biotechnology is a field of science that uses living organisms, cells
or their components to make useful products or services. It has the
potential to solve many of the world’s most pressing problems, such as
producing enough food to feed a growing population, developing new
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USDA Agricultural Research Service
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TABLE 7 Genes involved in micronutrient enrichment.
Crops
Wheat
Genes involved
Micronutrient
References
TaVIT1& TaVIT2
Fe and Mn
(121)
NAM B1, GPC 1 and PhyA
Zn and Fe
(122)
Ama1
Tyrosine, lysin,
(123)
cysteine, methionine
Rice
CrtI, CrtB, Bacterial PSY
Vitamin A
Ferritin TaFer
Fe
(125, 126)
(124)
OsVIT1, OsVIT2,
Fe
(127)
OsNAS1, OsNAS2 and OsNAS3
Fe and Zn
(128, 129)
AtTC, AtHP
Vitamin E
(130)
THIC, THI1, TH1
Vitamin B1
(131)
AtPDX1.1, AtPDX02
Vitamin B6
(132)
ADCS, AtGTP cyclohydrolase 1
Vitamin B9
(133)
Carotene desaturase, daffodil PSY
Provitamin A
(134)
GmFAD3, ZmC1, chalcone synthase, phenylalanine ammonia
Flavonoid, linoleic acid
(135)
Lyase
Maize
GmFER, aspergillus phytase, aspergillus phy2
Fe
(117)
Zmpsy 1
Vitamin A
(136)
crtI, crtB
Vitamin A
(124)
HGGT
Vitamin E, tocotrienol
(136)
Corynebacterium glutamicum cordapA
Lysine
(137)
Sorghum
LPA-1, PMI, PSY-1, CRT-I
Vitamin A
(138)
Barley
DHPS
Lysine, Zn
(117, 139)
Phytase, AtZIP
Fe
(122, 139)
Zn transporter gene
Zn
(117)
AtVTE3, AtVTE4
Tocopherol
(140)
HvCs1F
β-glucans
(140)
VLCPUFA
Cholesterol-lowering agents
PSY, crtB
Carotenoids
(142)
Canola
PSY, crtB, phytoene desaturase, and lycopene cyclase
Carotenoids
(142, 143)
Aspartokinase (AK) and dihydrodipicolinic acid synthase (DHDPS)
Lysine
(144)
Mustard
FAD3
Linoleic acid
(145)
Soybean
Phytoene synthase crtB
β-carotene
FATB1-A and FAD2-1A
Linoleic acid
SINCED1
Vitamin A, pectin and lycopene
(147, 148)
Delila, Rosea1, SIANT1
Anthocyanin
(149, 150)
Oilseeds
Linseed
Newton (141)
(126, 146)
(137)
Vegetables
Tomato
Potato
Cauliflower
HMT, S3H, SAMT
Iodine
(151)
GBSS
Starch quality
(152)
FPGS, HPPK/DHPS
Folate
(153)
AmA1, tar-1, Boxla, BoxIIa & BoxaIIa-2
Protein
nptII
Amylopectin component of starch
Or gene
β-carotene
(3)
(154)
(155, 156)
(Continued)
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TABLE 7 (Continued)
Crops
Genes involved
Micronutrient
Cassava
Erwinia crtB phytoene-synthase gene, & Arbidoopsis 1-deoxyxylulose-5-
β-carotene
References
(157, 158)
phosphate synthase
Sweet potato
EFA1 gene
Fe
(159)
Ferritin FEA1
Fe
(157)
ASP 1, Zeolin
Protein
IbMYB1, npt II
Anthocyanin, carotenoids and
(160, 161)
antioxidants
Crtl, CrtB, CrtY, LCYe
ß-Carotene
Apple
Stilbene synthase
Antioxidants
Banana
PSY2a
β-carotene
(126, 162, 163)
Fruits
Challenges
Waltz (165)
an increasingly important area of study as the global population
continues to hike and the demand for nutrient-rich food is growing.
Scientists are working on developing new varieties of crops that are
high in essential vitamins and minerals, such as iron, zinc and
vitamin A. As research in this field continues to advance, it is likely
that we will see an increasing number of nutrient-rich crop varieties
that can help to address global malnutrition and improve public
health. Improved plant uptake and absorption of crucial nutrients is
the subject of another field of biofortification research. This includes
the use of fertilizers and other agricultural practices that can increase
the availability of nutrients in the soil and enhance the plants’ ability
to absorb them.
Overall, the future prospects for biofortification are very
promising. Some potential benefits of biofortification include:
Expanding the range of biofortified crops: Currently, the main focus
of biofortification has been on staple crops such as rice, wheat and
maize, but there is potential to biofortify other crops as well, such as
fruits, vegetables and legumes.
Improving the efficiency of biofortification: Scientists are working
on ways to increase the nutrient content of crops using fewer
resources, in order to make biofortification more cost-effective
and sustainable.
Improving the distribution and access to biofortified crops: This may
involve developing new storage and transport technologies, as well as
working with governments and other organizations to create
supportive policies and infrastructure.
Promoting the awareness and understanding of biofortification: This
could involve educating the public about the benefits of biofortified
crops and addressing any concerns or misconceptions about their
safety or nutritional value.
Reducing malnutrition and improving public health:
Biofortification can increase the nutrient value of locally-grown
crops, which can help to address deficiencies in essential vitamins
and minerals and improve the nutritional status of populations that
rely on these crops as a major source of energy and nutrients and
contribute to food security by increasing the availability of
nutritious foods.
Supporting sustainable development: Biofortification can
be implemented at a relatively low cost and can be integrated into
existing farming practices, making it a sustainable and scalable
solution for improving nutrition.
There are several challenges that need to be overcome in order to
effectively implement biofortification programs:
Limited availability of biofortified varieties: Many biofortified crops
are still in the development or testing phase and may not yet be widely
available for cultivation.
Limited awareness and understanding of biofortification: Many
people may not be aware of the benefits of biofortified crops or may
have misconceptions about their safety or nutritional value.
Limited distribution and access: Even if biofortified crops are available,
they may not reach the people who need them most, due to factors such
as inadequate infrastructure, lack of storage facilities, or high costs.
Political and regulatory challenges: The development and
distribution of biofortified crops can be hindered by political and
regulatory barriers, such as concerns about intellectual property
rights, biosafety and trade issues. The development and
commercialization of genetically modified (GM) crops, which are a
potential tool for biofortification, can be subject to complex and often
controversial regulations.
Agricultural constraints: Biofortified crops may not always
perform as well as non-biofortified varieties under certain growing
conditions, such as drought or pests.
Limited adoption: Even if biofortified crops are available, farmers may
not choose to grow them if they are not familiar with the benefits or if
they are not convinced that the crops will be more profitable.
Consumer acceptance: Biofortified crops may be perceived as
being different or inferior to non-biofortified varieties, which could
affect consumer acceptance.
Funding: Biofortification programs require ongoing funding
in order to support research, development, and implementation efforts.
Coordination: Biofortification programs often involve multiple
stakeholders, including governments, NGOs, farmers, and the private
sector. Ensuring effective coordination among these stakeholders can
be challenging.
Future prospects
The discipline of biofortification has a number of intriguing
research areas that hold great potential for the future. It is becoming
Frontiers in Nutrition
(164)
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Author contributions
Improving gender equity: Women and children are often the most
vulnerable to malnutrition, and biofortification can help to reduce
gender disparities in access to nutritious foods.
First draft designed by Avnee, reviewed by SS, DC and reviewed
and revised by PJ and RR. All authors contributed to the article and
approved the submitted version.
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
Biofortification heralds a transformative paradigm in a battle
against malnutrition and hidden hunger, which is often not visible to
the naked eye, as people may appear well-nourished but still
be deficient in essential vitamins and minerals. In some cases,
biofortified crops may also have higher yields, which can help to
improve food security and increase income for farmers. It can be a
cost-effective and sustainable way to improve nutrition, as it relies on
using existing agricultural infrastructure and practices. It can help to
address dietary deficiencies and improve nutrition in low-income
populations, which may not have the same access to nutrient-rich
foods as those in higher-income groups. The integration of multinutrient biofortification and cutting-edge nano-technology marks a
groundbreaking leap.
However, there are several challenges that need to be overcome in
order to effectively implement biofortification programs, including
limited availability of biofortified varieties, high costs of production,
limited awareness and understanding, limited distribution and access,
and political and regulatory barriers. Biofortified food crops have the
potential to significantly improve the lives and health of millions of
underprivileged people in India with careful planning, execution, and
implementation while requiring a low investment in research.
Authors are thankful to PANF, CAAST, NAHEP-ICAR & World
Bank funded project for providing technical and financial support in
publishing the article.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the
absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could
be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Publisher’s note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors
and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations,
or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product
that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its
manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
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