Experiences, demographic variables and locus
of control orientation of individuals who
have been guided by diviners
Nicole Schluep
Weskoppies Hospital
Pretoria
South Africa
nicole.schluep@crossconcc.co.za
ricky Snyders
department of Psychology
University of South Africa
Abstract
In this study the first author explores the experiences, locus of control
orientation, and demographic variables of five individuals who have been
guided by diviners. The study is underpinned by three assumptions–that
multiple accounts of reality exist (postmodern philosophy), that knowledge
cannot be void of subjectivity (constructivist epistemology), and that
‘meaning’ is influenced by dominant discourses (social constructionist
paradigm). Individuals’ experiences with diviners are documented in
the form of thematic network analysis. using the levenson’s locus of
Control Questionnaire, it was established that an internal locus of control
orientation predominated amongst participants. This finding contradicts
existing literature. Implications for clinical practice and focal areas for future
research are highlighted.
Keywords: constructivism; divination; diviners; hermeneutics; locus of
control; paranormal; postmodernism; qualitative research; social constructionism; supernatural; superstitiousness; thematic network analysis
As an MA Clinical Psychology student, the irst author is curious about individuals’
quests for self knowledge and how these journeys are embroidered with healing.
Until recently, she primarily perceived healing as being that which occurs in
conversation between two people within the context of Western psychotherapy, in
which it is suggested that ‘dialogue’ and the skill of manoeuvering the relationship
between therapist and client are the primary avenues to facilitate change. However,
she came to experience within her the need to re-search her own conceptualisation
of what constitutes healing and, given her own profound experiences, is drawn to the
intriguing context of divination.
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Divination can be deined as the art or technique of gaining knowledge or exploring
the unknown in order to elicit answers to questions beyond the range of ordinary
human understanding, of future events or distant states, by means of observing
and interpreting psychometry (adapted from Cline, n. d.). The term psychometry,
hereafter referred to as ‘methods of divination’ includes, but is not limited to (a)
Natal astrology: Formulating a natal (birth) chart based on cosmological occurrences,
for example, planetary alignment, (b) Cartomancy: Interpreting symbols and signs
appearing on tarot cards, (c) Palmistry: Interpreting the lines on the palm of the
hand, (d) Numerology: The coniguration of numbers, (e) Necromancy (channeling):
Receiving messages from spirits, and (f) Clairvoyance: A ‘form of extra-sensory
perception wherein a person perceives distant objects, persons, or events and types
of energy not normally perceptible to humans’ (Wikipedia, 2008, p. 1). Individuals
demonstrating the art or technique of divination are more commonly referred to as
‘diviners’, whose role is to be mediators between the ‘known’ and ‘unknown’.
Divination is conceptualised and deined differently, depending on the geographic
location and frame of reference of individuals practising and consulting therein. The
most popular synonym for divination appears to be fortune telling (Maroney, 2002),
given that many individuals consult with diviners to know answers pertaining to
questions such as ‘What does the future hold for me?’ and ‘How should I handle
a speciic situation or dificulty?’ (Gibson & Gibson, 1973). According to the New
World Encyclopedia (2009), divination should be distinguished from fortune-telling
in that divination has a formal or ritualistic and often social character, usually in
religious contexts, while fortune telling is a more everyday practice for personal
purpose. Fortune telling is therefore, associated with questions pertaining primarily
to what the future holds, whereas divination is related to fundamental issues related
to living with meaning and purpose and is a way to a deeper understanding of events
and inluences surrounding an individual. Divination therefore, includes but is not
limited to the practice of fortune telling.
Many sceptics reject the divinatory context because it, unlike the secular/scientiic,
cannot always be explained rationally and because of the uncertainty it provokes,
many discredit the context all together. Yet, despite the incredulity, this context is
supported and sourced by many South Africans on a daily basis. If psychology can
be deined as ‘the study of behaviour and experience, carried out in a manner which
will enable us both to draw out general principles and to achieve an understanding
of the unique nature and quality of an individual’s personal experiences as a human
being’ (Louw & Edwards, 1997, p. 5), then one becomes unsettled by the fact that
the context of divination has not been given more credit within an academic milieu.
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AIMS
In an attempt to address this inadequacy, the study aims to:
Give voice to the experiences of individuals
who have been guided by diviners
Although detailed information is available about various methods of divination in
both academic and non-academic settings, individuals’ experiences of these methods
have not been given due credit or documented extensively. This study therefore,
aims to provide a context for individuals to share their unique experiences with
diviners, without being restricted or limited in terms of the nature of the information
they disclose.
Explore the locus of control orientation of individuals
who have been guided by diviners
A preliminary review of the literature proved interesting, because the methods
of divination were documented extensively under the umbrella term ‘paranormal
psychology’, and this ield appeared to evoke ambivalence, debate, scepticism and
dispute amongst researchers. However, the same did not apply when reviewing
the locus of control orientation of individuals consulting with diviners, because
here, there was less discrepancy and debate, with the greatest consensus amongst
researchers. The most prominent inding within the literature is that an external
locus of control orientation characterises individuals consulting with diviners.
Explore whether any traits or demographic variables
characterise individuals consulting with diviners
The irst author is of the opinion that an experience is inluenced by an individual’s
demographic variables, for example, age, gender and traits, such as interpersonal
style and temperament. The study therefore, also aims to explore whether individuals
consulting diviners could be typecast according to general traits or demographic
variables.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Individuals’ experiences with diviners
Individuals’ experiences with diviners have not, according to the researcher’s
knowledge, been documented in academic literature. Apart from this present study,
individuals have only used the opportunity to articulate their experiences on the
World Wide Web. Given that the internet is a ‘promising and powerful research
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medium, especially for non-representative studies which are exploratory in nature’
(Goritz & Schumacher, 2000, p. 2), web sites belonging to diviners were consulted
and the testimonials posted reviewed. Various testimonies were grouped together
into themes and these comprise the literature review pertaining to individuals’
experiences with diviners.
Perceptions of the diviner before and after the consultation
It seems that the majority of individuals were sceptical about going to see a diviner
for the irst time (Brownstone, 2008; Justis, 2008; Nirup, 2008). What seems
meaningful to individuals is the diviner’s ability to be ‘in tune with them’, or as a
testimonial described ‘understood my feelings as though she had known me for years’
(Kathleen, cited in Justis, 2008, testimonial section), or as was said by another ‘she
was like an old friend’ (Sedona, cited in Nirup, 2008, testimonial section). Diviners
were also described as generous, kind, welcoming, compassionate, loving, and
warm (Goldston, 2008). Numerous testimonials also acknowledged and appreciated
diviners accommodating interpersonal styles and tendency to self disclosure, as is
suggested by ‘it’s sharing of experiences at a reading that’s an eye opener’ (Janton,
cited in Brownstone, 2008, testimonial section).
Circumstances before consulting a diviner
Appointments are almost always preceded by a period of uncertainty, lack of
direction or dificulty (Brownstone, 2008; Justis, 2008; Lightwalker, 2008; Lori,
2008; Meredith, 2008; Nirup, 2008; Siegar, 2008). Most individuals experience
problems in and were confused in various areas of their lives, for example business
or relationships, and sought guidance in this regard. Others reported unresolved
‘business’ with a loved one who had crossed over and they needed to re-establish
contact one last time. Many individuals also doubted their experiences and perceptions
and required validation from an external source as evident in the following testimonial
‘I was unsure, uncertain if I could feel what I was feeling about people’ (Susanna,
cited in Justis, 2008, testimonial section). Some experienced stagnation in their
lives and required advice on how to facilitate growth and development, and others
experienced depression and found it dificult to remain optimistic as highlighted in
the testimonial ‘it was for me a time where everything was getting on top of me,
a time where I was close to throwing in the towel and going back to a ridiculous
existence’ (Lorna, cited in Lori, 2008, testimonial section).
Feelings during and after the consultation
One of the paramount reasons why individuals continually visit and re-visit diviners
seems to be a need to encounter or re-experience how they felt during the previous
consultations (Lori, 2008; Nirup, 2008). Individuals reported feeling enlightened,
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peaceful, rejuvenated and ‘balanced’ after consultations and others excited, inspired,
surprised and empowered (Judith, 2008; Lightwalker, 2008; Lori, 2008, Siegar, 2008).
Cleansing and cathartic experiences during consultations allowed individuals to feel
relieved, hopeful and optimistic and as one testimony highlighted, to experience ‘a
revived sense of joyfulness’ (Eric, cited in Nirup, 2008, testimonial section).
Nature of information provided by the diviners
The testimonials indicate that diviners provide information pertaining to the past,
present, and future, and offered advice pertaining to the following broad categories:
(a) relationships, family and romance; (b) health and illness, (c) career and
employment; (d) personality, character and temperament; (e) wealth, inances and
career; (f) travel and living arrangements, and (g) life purpose, goals, and aspirations
(Brownstone, 2008; Justis, 2008; Lightwalker, 2008; Lori, 2008; Meredith, 2008;
Nirup, 2008).
How the consultation impacted on individuals’ lives
It seems that any one single consultation ‘continues to affect day to day life and
decisions’ (Maggie, cited in Judith, 2008, testimonial section). The divinatory
experience also seems to facilitate intrapersonal and interpersonal growth and
development, given that it provides access to and knowledge about soul wishes,
needs and desires. Perhaps the most striking impact of divination is its ability to
provide guidance on how to proceed into the future. Through dialogue, individuals
ind for themselves a new path to follow; and thereby have a refreshed hope for and
faith in the future, as is suggested by the testimonial ‘I could see beyond the muck’
(Rachel, cited in Lightwalker, 2008, testimonial section).
Traits of individuals who consult diviners
The umbrella terms ‘supernatural’, ‘paranormal’, ‘superstition’, and ‘magical
thinking’, as well as their underlying constructs seem to have been used synonymously
and interchangeably by various authors over different decades. This is further
compounded by the fact that few authors use the term divination as referred to in this
study, and yet, their works on the paranormal (Beck & Miller, 2001; Clarke, 1991;
Hines, 1988; Irwin, 1993; Radford, 2000; Rice, 2003); superstitiousness (Dudycha,
1933; Jahoda, 1969; Routledge & Salter, 1971; Tyson, 1979; Watt & Wiseman, 2004);
and the supernatural (Scheidt, 1973) all encompass and include, to varying degrees,
the different methods of divination referred to in this particular study. The researcher
therefore presumes that indings from previous research studies are relevant to this
study and will, for purposes of transparency, cite terms and constructs as used by
speciic researchers in this section.
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Sensation seeking, creativity and imagination
Individuals with a creative personality are more inclined to have paranormal beliefs
(Irwin, 1993). It is also proposed that sensation-seeking behaviours are more
predominant amongst individuals with paranormal beliefs (Groth-Marnat & Pegden,
1998; Tobacyk & Milford, 1983).
World view
According to Aarnio and Lindeman (2007) there are three primary worldviews/
philosophies of life. ‘Paranormal’ believers are individuals who are inclined to
believe in the supernatural– ‘religious’ believers are those individuals who believe
in, and subscribe only to secular religions– for example, Christianity, while ‘double
believers’ are individuals who have both ‘paranormal’ and ‘religious’ world views.
Studies suggest that a person inclined to religious beliefs is also likely to support
paranormal beliefs, and vice versa, given that ‘supernatural’ beings and phenomena
(for example, angels or ghosts) feature in both ‘paranormal’ and ‘religious’ belief
systems (Aarnio & Lindeman, 2007). Individuals consulting diviners generally have
an esoteric worldview, which is characterised by beliefs in transcendent phenomena,
planes of higher existence, hierarchy of spiritual beings, mysticism, and altered
states of consciousness (Ludwig & Madison, 1966).
‘Religious’ beliefs
A study conducted by Emmons and Sobal (1981) concluded that individuals with
more liberal religious beliefs (for instance, the Baptists) are more likely to believe
in nonreligious paranormal phenomena, as compared to, for example the Protestant
denomination, who have more conservative beliefs. Wagner (cited in Tyson, 1979)
found that Jewish participants reported being the most superstitious, while Catholics
reported being the least superstitious. Rattet and Bursik (2001) and Thalbourne
and Houtkooper (2002) found that individuals who believed in, and had alleged
experiences with the paranormal were more likely to describe themselves as religious.
Personality
One of the most prominent personality dimensions linked to superstitious thinking
is anxiety (Aarnio & Lindeman, 2007; Beck & Miller, 2001; Watt & Wiseman,
2004; Zebb & Moore, 2001). Belief in the paranormal is also stronger in the feeling,
perceiving and intuitive personality types, as proposed in Jung’s personality theory
(Rattet & Bursik, 2001).
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Locus of control orientation
Broadly speaking, locus of control orientation refers to an individual’s reactions to
and perceptions of an event, based on the ascribed role of reward, gratiication and
reinforcement (Rotter, 1966). There are two predominant loci of control orientations:
Internal locus of control orientation
Individuals with an internal locus of control are those that ascribe the outcomes
of events to their own behaviour/actions, such that they radiate more innate power
and control. An internal locus of control suggests that individuals will (a) elicit
information from present situations in order to improve future behaviour in similar
situations, (b) emphasise inner skill and goal achievement, (c) are more likely to
resist manipulation by others, and (d) make better mental health recovery (Joe, 1971;
Levenson, 1973; Phares, 1976; Rotter, 1966; Steptoe & Appels, 1989).
External locus of control orientation
External locus of control is ‘when a reinforcement is perceived by the individual
as following some action of his own, but not being entirely contingent upon his
action, typically perceived as the result of luck, chance, fate as under the control of
powerful others, or as unpredictable because of the great complexity of the forces
surrounding him’ (Rotter, 1966, p. 1). Individuals with an external locus of control
orientation (a) are more suggestible and less likely to resist coercion, (b) change
beliefs because of reinforcement from others, (c) more commonly report distress,
anxiety and symptomatic behaviour, (d) have a high need for social approval, (e)
make slower mental health recovery, and (f) feel they cannot do anything about
their problems (Joe, 1971; Levenson, 1973; Phares, 1976; Rotter, 1966; Steptoe &
Appels, 1989).
An external locus of control has been associated with a higher degree of belief
in the paranormal/superstition and divination (Aarnio & Lindeman, 2007; GrothMarnat & Pegden, 1998; Jahoda, 1969; Pelzer, 2003; Scheidt, 1973; Stanke, 2004;
Tobacyk, Nagot, & Miller, 1988; Vyse, 1997). Consulting with diviners seems to
provide an illusion of control and provides feelings of satisfaction and mastery (Irwin,
1993, Langer, 1975; Pervin, 1963). According to Levenson (cited in Lefcourt, 1981),
who designed a locus of control questionnaire comprising scales, male adults are
more likely to display externality on the ‘powerful others’ scale than female adults.
Younger individuals tend towards internality on the ‘powerful others’ and ‘chance’
scales and individuals 50 years or older, are more likely to believe that ‘powerful
others’ and ‘fate’ control their lives (Lao, cited in Lefcourt, 1981). This may be
related to increased fears of diminishing power and decline of abilities associated
with aging (Lefcourt, 1981). Internality features more pertinently in individuals who
were raised in small families and have irst-born status (Frischlag, cited in Lefcourt,
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1981). It seems that individuals with an internal locus of control orientation ‘who
are experiencing failure at a task consider that their ability, their effort, the dificulty
of the task, and chance, can all be contributing to their performance, and may alter
something within their performance to determine which, if any, of these factors may
be inluencing the outcome’ (Pittman & Pittman, cited in Lefcourt, 1981). Individuals
with an external locus of control orientation are therefore, more likely to continue
making the same ‘mistakes’ and experience elevated levels of helplessness.
RESEARCh DESIGN
Postmodernism formed the philosophical framework of this study and postulates
that there are as many truths, knowledge, and realities as there are people (Hibberd,
2005). This study was conducted using a constructivist epistemology, which suggests
that reality is constructed through an individual’s active experience of it and that the
observer creates reality by giving meaning to it (Doan, 1997; Raskin, 2002). Social
constructionism formed the ontological framework of the study. According to social
constructionism, an individual’s ‘meaning making’ is inluenced by the dominant
viewpoints, discourses and stories embedded within their environment (Doan, 1997).
Methodological underpinning of the study
The methodological underpinning of this study is a qualitative research approach,
although a questionnaire was utilised. Qualitative research seeks to discover and
capture the meaning of an individual’s experiences, and because emphasis is on
interactive dialogue and creating a shared view of reality, the researcher is more
involved with the participants (Neuman, 1997).
The irst author maintained validity in the study by (a) guarding against writing
about her study in a linear (cause-effect) manner, (b) substantiating her interpretations
and/or conclusions by referring to multiple information sources, (c) acknowledging
that the research indings were inluenced by her frame of reference, and may be
perceived differently when conducted or explored by another, and (d) by being
fully present in the interview, allowing freedom in discussion and presenting as a
mirror for that which has been said, in order for participants to feel invigorated and
energised during the interview process (Stiles, 1993). Reliability was established
by the researcher accentuating each participant’s social and cultural context and
engaging with the participants towards a shared view of reality (Stiles, 1993).
Methodological underpinning in ‘action’
Purposive sampling was used for selecting research participants and the convenience
selection method was used to locate and contact participants (Berg, 2007). Given
that the intention of this study was not to generalise its indings, a sample size of
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ive participants was selected. The researcher obtained participants through referrals
from unacquainted peers residing in both Johannesburg and Pretoria. Participants
needed to fulil two important criteria in order to be selected for this research study.
Participants needed to have consulted diviners, using any one of the following
divination methods– cartomancy, necromancy, numerology, natal astrology or
palmistry. The reason for this is that the irst author familiarised herself primarily
with these ive methods. Participants also needed to be of Caucasian ethnicity. In
selecting participants of different ethnic backgrounds, there was a greater likelihood
that the indings would be contaminated by additional intervening variables;
for example, culture-speciic beliefs and practices. There were no other variable
restrictions on the selection criteria of participants.
Ethical issues were addressed by (a) obtaining written consent from participants,
in which they agreed to participate in the study, and (b) discussing and guaranteeing
the conidentiality and anonymity of participants.
Method of information collection and information
analysis procedures
Aim One: Give voice to the experiences of individuals
who have been guided by diviners
Semi-structured interviews were used as the most appropriate information
collection method. Interviews with participants were guided by some of the
following questions, ‘what are the reasons for seeking consultations?’; ‘how did
you feel during consultations?’ and ‘how did the consultations impact on your life?’
Hermeneutics formed the theoretical stance for information analysis, which implies
that emphasis was on extracting ‘meaning’ as well as describing and interpreting
feelings (Sarantakos, 2005). The motivation behind using thematic network analysis
as the principal tool of analysis was that it ‘unearths the themes salient in a text at
different levels’ (Attride-Stirling, 2001, p. 387). During thematic network analysis
lower-order premises evident in the text were grouped together to form basic themes.
The more abstract principles were then elicited from the basic themes and grouped
together into organising themes. Super-ordinate ideas from the organising themes
were clustered into global themes and encapsulated the principal metaphors in the
texts as a whole (Attride-Stirling, 2001). The basic, organising and global themes
were then diagrammatically depicted in the form of networks.
Aim Two: Explore the locus of control orientation in
individuals who have been guided by diviners
Levenson’s (1973) self-report questionnaire was utilised. The questionnaire consisted
of the ‘Internal’, ‘Powerful others’ and ‘Chance’ scales, each of which is comprised
of eight items in Likert format. The ‘Powerful others’ and ‘Chance scales’, when
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combined, form the ‘external’ scale. Levenson (1973) accepted Rotter’s (1966)
internal and external locus of control scale, but made improvements and changes to
the total external locus of control scale by differentiating it into two separate scales;
namely, the ‘powerful others’ scale and ‘chance’ scale. The rationale for doing this
was that ‘people who believe that the world is unordered (chance) would behave and
think differently than people who believe that the world is ordered but that powerful
others are in control’ (Levenson, 1973, p. 398). Thus, even though individuals may
possess a general external locus of control, their behaviour will depend largely on
whether they expect to be controlled by forces of ‘chance’ (fate or luck); or by
‘powerful others’ (those who are perceived as more powerful, authoritative and
controlling).
An individual’s locus of control orientation is based on the scores he or she
obtains on each of the three scales. According to Levenson (1973), the test-retest
reliabilities obtained for the normal adult sample were 0.74 for the ‘Powerful
others’ scale and 0.78 for the ‘Chance’ scale. Split-half reliabilities (SpearmanBrown) for the normal adult sample were 0.62 for the ‘Internal’ scale, 0.66 for the
‘Powerful others’ scale, and 0.64 for the ‘Chance’ scale. These results suggest that
the questionnaire is reliable and will produce consistent indings. No overlap of the
items on the ‘Chance’, ‘Powerful others’, and ‘Internal’ control factors was reported
by Levenson (1973), and this suggests that each factor “is conceptually pure in that
only items from the appropriate scale load on that factor” (Levenson, 1973, p. 400).
Aim Three: Explore whether any traits or demographic
variables characterise individuals consulting diviners
Participants were given a biographical questionnaire compiled by the irst author
to complete before interviews commenced. The questionnaire elicited information
pertaining to (a) personal particulars– for example, date of birth, socio-economic
status, highest level of education and (b) family background– for example, birth
order, religious upbringing. The questionnaire was analysed qualitatively and no
statistical procedures were used.
DISCUSSION
The themes emerging from the interviews with each participant were organised into
thematic networks comprising basic, organising, and global themes. The global
themes encapsulate the interview as a whole; and therefore, form the focus of the
discussion.
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Avril
Avril1 is a 59- year old English-speaking woman. She qualiies her socio-economic
status as middle-class and reports Matric as her highest level of education. She is
married and has four children. Avril is the middle born of three children, and has two
sisters who are 53 and 63 years old. As a child Avril was sent to a Christian church by
her parents, but reports never having experienced strong religious feelings. Avril irst
became interested in divination and consulted a diviner ten years ago. She consults
the same clairvoyant approximately twice a year only, and has not experienced other
methods of divination. For an overview of Avril’s themes, see Figure 1.
Figure 1: Overview of Avril s themes
Creating order
The organising themes of ‘control’, ‘linearity’, ‘predictability’, and ‘rationality’ all
have in common Avril’s need to create order. Meredith (2008), Nirup (2008), and
Brownstone (2008) report that individuals are motivated to consult diviners because
they seek broad-spectrum guidance and advice. Avril, for example, consulted
diviners regarding problems pertaining to business, relationships, health, and
inances. It seems that the ability of diviners to answer her questions, advised on
how to proceed and inform her what she can expect in the future, created the order
and stability she desperately sought for in her life. Avril also only consults diviners
during intermittent periods of psychological ‘distress’ and not, as is suggested by
Irwin (1993), Rattet & Bursik (2001), and Zebb & Moore (2001), which is because
of pervasive anxiety and emotional instability.
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Soul expression
The organising themes of ‘intuitive experiences’, ‘connecting through storytelling’
and ‘different sources of healing’, when extracted on a higher logical level, speak
about Avril’s soul wishes and desires. Avril has dificulty expressing and nurturing
her soul within the context of daily living – hence she consults diviners. During
consultations diviners revitalise and energise her depleted soul and create a space in
which she can tap into and express her soul’s needs. This suggests that consultations
with diviners are therapeutic because the context choreographs healing and exudes
tranquillity. Similar experiences were reported by Judith (2008), Lori (2008), and
Siegar (2008), who documented testimonials in which individuals reported feeling
rejuvenated, enlightened, balanced and ‘cleansed’. In the global theme of ‘soul
expression’, Avril narrated paranormal experiences, described herself as intuitive
and indicated that feedback from diviners indicates that she has psychic abilities
(Irwin, 1993). It seems that she falls into the category of the feeling, perceiving and
intuitive personality type as outlined in Jung’s personality theory (Rattet & Bursik,
2001).
Elise
Elise is a 51-year old English-speaking woman. She is employed as a rental agent
and is of middle socio-economic status. She completed her matric. Elise is the second
oldest of four children, and she is divorced with two children. As a child, Elise was
raised in the Jewish faith and followed Jewish traditions. She has consulted with
channelers, pin code readers, chirologists, astrologers, sangomas, and intuitives. She
has also experienced crystal healing. For an overview of Elise’s themes, see Figure 2.
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Figure 2: Overview of Elise s themes
Control
According to Irwin (1993), Langer (1975), and Paulhus (1983), individuals consult
diviners to experience more control, structure, and manageability in their lives and
this is supported by Elise’s organising themes of ‘powerlessness’, ‘the ability to
inluence’, and ‘substitution’. All the three themes encompass, to varying degrees
the element of control. Elise does not perceive herself as having control over her
own life, or as being able to inluence her environment. In an attempt to fulil these
needs, she consults diviners, and as suggested by Judith (2008), Lightwalker (2008),
Lori (2008), and Siegar (2008), this is because consulting a diviner constellated
feelings of empowerment and self-conidence. Within the divinatory context, Elise
can for example, choose whether to accept or reject the contents of the astrological
reports and by doing so, is able to exercise decision making as well as inluence and
regulate her own behaviour.
Belonging
The organising theme of ‘substitution’ suggests that Elise is inclined to use substitution
as a irst order attempt to address that which is lacking in interpersonal relationships.
Elise, for example, uses material objects and food as a substitution for the lack of
acceptance and emotional fulilment she experiences in relationships. When extracted
to a higher logical level, this global theme makes reference to Elise’s inability to
experience belonging. It seems that Elise struggles to co-create relationships in such
a manner that who she is and what she believes in, is unconditionally accepted. It
seems that she is only able to maintain certain relationships by for example, keeping
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her experiences with diviners covert. Within the divinatory context however, Elise
experiences positive regard as diviners respect her as a fully functioning person.
Abel
Abel is a 38- year old, Afrikaans-speaking male and an only child. His highest level
of education is a PhD in Philosophy, and he is of middle class socio-economic status.
He qualiied as a psychologist and minister. Abel is divorced and does not have
any children. During his ministry in the Christian church, he preached against any
divinatory or alternative belief systems and opposed diviners. Three years ago his
life changed as he started questioning the fundamental principles of his religious
beliefs. He was inspired to consult diviners after hearing about their ‘healing powers’
from others. Abel attributes the nature and number of the diviners he has consulted
to his curious nature and need to experience the unfamiliar. He has consulted with
chirologists, mediums, astrologers, psychics, and numerologists. For an overview of
Abel’s themes, see Figure 3.
Figure 3: Overview of Abel s themes
Inclusion versus exclusion
The content of the organising themes of ‘rigid boundaries’ and ‘ambivalence’
highlights Abel’s profound experiences of inclusion and exclusion. When Abel
challenged the religious ‘dominant voices’ he initially supported, he was ostracised
from his community and shunned upon. It was however, precisely this exclusion,
that permitted him inclusion into the esoteric and Buddhist contexts. ‘Inclusion’
versus ‘exclusion’ is also apparent in Abel’s thinking. By perceiving himself and
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the universe and all the energies therein to be interdependent on each other, Abel
demonstrates inclusive thinking. However, this could also be evidence of exclusive
thinking, as Abel is excluding the possibility or notion that everything is not
interdependent or interconnected.
In the organising theme of ‘ambivalence’, Abel voiced his scepticism of certain
diviners and divination methods; and this suggests that he does not shape experiences
according to what is said by a diviner, but rather uses what he considers useful to
complement his life and enhance meaning (Meredith, 2008; Justis, 2008). Given that
Abel, the only male participant, was least supportive of diviners, this study would
concur that men in general are the least likely to have superstitious or paranormal
beliefs (Aarnio & Lindeman, 2007; Clarke, 1991; Irwin, 1993).
Proactivity versus reactivity
The organising theme of ‘transformation versus conservation’ alludes to Abel’s
narrative of alternating between periods of proactivity and reactivity. Although
a minister (‘proactivity’) in the Christian church, Abel admits that he merely
followed the Christian belief system (‘reactivity’) because this was propagated
by his environment. The most pertinent example of Abel’s proactive nature was
when he decided to leave the ministry, in pursuit of an alternative belief system,
comprising Buddhist and esoteric principles. Abel is of the opinion that individuals
are not proactive enough in religious contexts and merely react to and believe the
illusions created by others. He proposes that it is an individual’s lack of education
and knowledge that keeps them trapped in a reactive process and holds society’s
‘narrow mindedness’ accountable for this. Abel’s proactive nature is inspired by a
need to encounter the un-encountered, explore the unknown and satisfy a curiosity
in what lies ‘beyond’. This was alluded to in literature, where sensation-seeking
behaviour and a need for stimulation and variety of experience featured strongly in
individuals with paranormal beliefs (Groth-Marnat & Pegden, 1998; Irwin, 1993;
Tobyack & Milford, 1983).
Vanessa
Vanessa is 47 years old and English speaking. She is the eldest of three children.
Vanessa’s husband was murdered eight years prior to the interview, and there is
ambiguity regarding the circumstances surrounding his death. She has since entered
into a new relationship and is engaged. Vanessa holds a diploma and is of middleclass socio economic status. She grew up following the principles and attitudes
of the Methodist religion but is non-practising at present. She consults mediums
primarily, with the hope that they can communicate with her husband and receive
answers from him about the cause and circumstances of his death. For an overview
of Vanessa’s themes, see Figure 4.
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Figure 4: Overview of Vanessa s themes
Helplessness
The organising theme of ‘reactivity’ points to Vanessa’s tendency to (prior
consultations with diviners) respond to what has been created for her and not what
she has created for herself. When extracted to a higher logical level, the theme
speaks about the helplessness she experiences in relationship with others and
her environment. According to Goldston (2008) and Judith (2008), consultations
with diviners are preceded by feelings of confusion and uncertainty, as is the case
with Vanessa, who consulted diviners for clarity surrounding the circumstances
surrounding her husband’s death. Diviners were however, unable to provide her
with the answers she sought, and this, combined with fatalistic thinking, further
perpetuated her helplessness. Diviners have however, also contributed meaningfully
to Vanessa’s life– for example, enhancing her perceptions that personal inluence
and contributions have more credence than limitations.
Intermediate states
The term ‘intermediate states’ refers to the process of being in ‘limbo’ or being/
interacting between two different realms or stages simultaneously– and for Vanessa,
this theme seems to be a ramiication of the mystery surrounding her husband’s
murder. Vanessa’s current lived experiences irstly appear to centre around and
within both the physical and metaphysical realms (‘connection within the context
of disconnection’). Within the physical realm Vanessa is disconnected from her
husband. However, by regularly consulting diviners, she also interacts with the
metaphysical realm, and is able to connect with the images of her deceased husband.
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Vanessa also hangs in limbo between the past and present (‘incomplete themes’). It
seems she cannot fully embrace the present or plan for the future, until such time that
she has made peace with her past.
Anisa
Anisa is 39 years old– her home language is Afrikaans and she stays with her husband.
Her younger brother has passed away. She has her own business selling home décor,
but aspires to start her own ‘mind-body emporium’ company, which focuses on
spiritual growth and development. Anisa is of middle-class socio-economic status
and has matric as her highest qualiication. Anisa was raised in a Catholic home by
her mother and father, whom she describes as very religious. According to Anisa,
she stopped attending church from a very young age but again attended services
in support of her husband, who is an active member of the NG Church. For an
overview of Anisa’s themes, see Figure 5.
Figure 5: Overview of Anisa s themes
Conservation
Conservation can be described as the process of conserving the status quo, in such a
way that stability is maintained. In the organising themes of ‘rigidity’, ‘control’ and
‘true self’, Anisa maintains that ‘dominant voices’ in society maintain homeostasis
and subsequent power, by moulding others into meek individuals, who are scared to
voice their own opinions. She criticises psychologists and the Christian church as
rigidly clinging to what was in the past and not embracing and welcoming what is in
the present; namely spirituality, divination and esotericism. Anisa supports the notion
that every individual should present themselves authentically and live in accordance
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with who they are, and what they believe in and not in terms of what is superimposed
on them by others supports. It seems then, that Anisa is anti ‘conservation’ and is
inclined to rebel against ‘norms’.
Transformation
The global theme of ‘transformation’ is the polar opposite of the global theme of
‘conservation’. ‘Transformation’ can be described as a signiicant or noteworthy
change in functioning or character. In both the organising themes of ‘freedom’ and
‘becoming’, it seems evident that Anisa’s consultations with diviners have encouraged
her to undergo a journey of personal transformation, as was also reported by Judith
(2008). Since leaving the Christian church, Anisa has discovered a kaleidoscope
of spiritual practices and beliefs, which have paved the way for self actualisation,
transformation and personal development. Through her consultations with diviners,
she has developed self conidence, more empathy for others, and has acquired skills
to cope better with complex emotional stimuli. Diviners, as documented by Judith
(2008) and Nirup (2008) also inspired some ‘a-ha moments’ within Anisa; and it was
these that facilitated her intra-and interpersonal growth.
Shared experiences
Literature documents the intrapersonal functioning of individuals who are likely
to consult diviners (Beck & Miller, 2001; Musch & Ehrenberg, 2002; Tobacyk &
Milford, 1983), but neglects to report on the nature of interpersonal relationships and
patterns of relatedness. The researcher and participant relationship in many ways
mirrors the participants’ relationships with others and as such, participant themes
can comment on what previous research has overlooked. Anisa, Avril, and Abel’s
tendency to defend their viewpoints and vigorously assert their opinions, suggests
that they have experienced interpersonal rejection, and have also been ridiculed and
labelled. Elise, Abel, and Anisa’s global themes suggest that they are disconnected
from signiicant others because of their unconventional beliefs, and are inclined to
question the status quo. It therefore, seems that all participants have struggled to
experience belonging and are disconnected from signiicant others.
A large body of research is available on the worldview and religious beliefs
of individuals who believe in the superstitious and paranormal. Worldview as a
concept is interpreted differently by various researchers. According to Aarnio and
Lindeman’s (2007) conceptualisation, Abel, Elise, and Anisa would have an esoteric
worldview as all projected a belief in planes of higher existence and spiritual beings.
From Aarnio and Lindeman’s (2007) deinition of worldview, Abel and Anisa would
be ‘paranormal’ believers and Avril, Elise, and Vanessa ‘double’ believers. In terms
of religious beliefs, Anisa who is Catholic and Elise, who is Jewish, appear equally
interested in divination and regularly consult diviners and this does not concur with
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Wagner’s (cited in Tyson, 1979) indings that Catholics are less likely than Jews to
have superstitious beliefs.
Locus of control orientation
In order to ground the discussion pertaining to the participants’ locus of control
orientations, Table 1 provides each participant’s locus of control orientation as it
pertains to differentiating variables.
Table 1: Locus of control orientations
Avril
Elise
Abel
Vanessa
Anisa
Chance Scale
Internality
Internality
Externality
Externality
Externality
Powerful Others
Scale
Internality
Internality
Context
speciic
Internality
Internality
Total External
Orientation
Internality
Externality Externality
Internality
Internality
Internal Scale
Internality
Internality
Internality
Context
speciic
Internality
Total Locus of
Control Scale
Internality
Internality
Context
speciic
Internality
Internality
Avril, Elise, Abel, and Anisa all displayed internality on the ‘internal’ scale, which
indicated that these four participants strongly believed that they have control over
their own lives (Rotter, 1966). Vanessa was the only participant who obtained a
mid-point score on this scale; and this suggests that her perception of whether or
not she controls her own life is relative to the context. Avril, Elise, Vanessa, and
Anisa all presented with internality on the ‘total locus of control’ scale, which means
that they perceived their lives and the outcome of situations to be determined by
their own actions (Lefcourt, 1981). This study therefore, challenges one of the most
pertinent indings in literature; namely, that individuals with an external locus of
control orientation are more likely to consult diviners and have paranormal and
superstitious beliefs (Groth-Marnat & Pegden, 1998; Irwin, 1993; Jahoda, 1969;
Pelzer, 2003; Scheidt, 1973; Stanke, 2004; Tobacyk et al., 1988; Tyson, 1979; Vyse,
1997). Avril, Elise, Vanessa, and Anisa displayed internality on the ‘powerful others’
scale, and this implies that they are less dependent on external reinforcement (Joe,
1971; Levenson, 1973; Phares, 1976; Rotter, 1966; Steptoe & Appels, 1989). Abel,
Vanessa, and Anisa are more inclined to believe that their world is unpredictable,
given that they believe ‘chance’ and ‘luck’ intercepts their lives. Avril and Elise are
more likely to describe their lives as ordered, structured and predictable (Rotter,
1966) as they do not believe in the inluence of ‘chance’ or ‘luck’.
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Birth order did not, as suggested by Lao (cited in Lefcourt, 1981), inluence
individuals’ locus of control orientation. Avril, the oldest participant, and Anisa, the
youngest participant, both had internal locus of control orientations, despite their age
discrepancies – this also suggests no correlation between age and locus of control
orientation (Lao, cited in Lefcourt, 1981).
Integrative analysis of interview themes
and locus of control orientation
Of interest is whether or not participants’ interview themes resonate with indings
pertaining to locus of control orientation. For purposes of this article, the irst author
has grouped the main premises of each of Rotter’s (1966) scales into three locus
of control themes: ‘self’, ‘control’, and ‘others/environment’. The locus of control
theme of ‘self’ covers the ‘Internal’ scale; ‘control’ the ‘Powerful others’ scale
and ‘others/environment’ the ‘Chance’ scale (see Table 2). Although documented
independently, there is a strong overlap between the themes as one informs the other.
Table 2: Interview themes and locus of control themes
Locus of control
theme: self
Avril s themes
Locus of control Locus of control
theme: control theme: others/
environment
Soul expression
Creating order
Creating order ,
Soul expression
Elise s themes
Self assessment
Inluence ,
Perfectionism
Self assessment ,
Belonging
Abel s themes
Interdependence
Illusions
Interdependence ,
Inclusion/exclusion ,
Proactivity/reactivity
Vanessa s
themes
Helplessness
Incomplete
themes ,
Connection
within the context
of disconnection
Incomplete themes
Anisa s themes
Transformation
Conservation ,
Control ,
Rigidity ,
Transformation
Transformation
Given that Avril, Elise, Vanessa, and Anisa have an internal locus of control
orientation and Abel a context speciic one, the researcher synthesized only the
literature pertaining to an internal locus of control orientation (Groth-Marnat &
Pegden, 1998; Joe, 1971; Tobacyk et al., 1988; Levenson, 1973).
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Locus of control theme: ‘Self’
Avril, Elise, and Anisa all seemed to utilize the methods of divination and its
‘teachings’ to facilitate more healthy and effective intra-and interpersonal functioning.
Abel, as relected in his theme of ‘proactivity versus reactivity’, also encountered a
‘metamorphic’ process of interpersonal growth but he, unlike the other participants,
preferred to source his ‘spirituality’ to achieve this. Pittman and Pittman (cited in
Lefcourt, 1981) are of the opinion that individuals with an external locus of control
orientation are likely to continue making the same mistakes and often report elevated
levels of helplessness. Helplessness featured as Vanessa’s global theme, but she,
contrary to what has been reported in literature, has an internal locus of control
orientation.
Locus of control theme: ‘Control’
Elise, as evident in her themes of ‘inluence’ and ‘perfectionism’ tried to
create contexts for herself, in which she could experience increased control and
manageability over her life. Avril consulted with diviners to ‘create order’ and
stability in her life. For Vanessa, the themes of ‘connection within the context of
disconnection’ and ‘incomplete themes’ demonstrate that she, despite her husband’s
death and the negative consequences thereof, reclaimed control over her life after
consulting diviners. Anisa strongly opposed the ‘control’ and ‘rigidity’ imposed
on her by others and advocates for ‘freedom’ of beliefs. Abel, on the other hand,
welcomed reciprocal inluence and persuasion, as he tried to inluence and persuade
others, while simultaneously allowing others to exercise inluence and control over
him. Avril and Elise were the only two participants who had an internal locus of
control orientation and also believed that their lives were not controlled by ‘chance’
or ‘powerful others’, and yet it was their global interview themes which prominently
emphasised the need to ‘create order’ and ‘control’.
Locus of control theme: ‘Others/Environment’
Vanessa permitted others to control her and was overly concerned about the opinion
of others, but since consulting diviners, her actions have become less dependent on
external reinforcement. Abel, as demonstrated in his themes of ‘proactivity versus
reactivity’, ‘transformation/conservation’ and ‘interdependence’, seemed to be
negotiating a balance between changing his beliefs because of reinforcement from
others (externality) and resisting external inluence and pressure (internality). Anisa
(‘transformation’) and Avril (‘creating order’) were the two participants most likely
to resist intimidation and coercion by others.
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IMPLICATIONS FOR CLINICAL PRACTICE
The salient themes from the participants’ interviews suggest that clinicians should
explore the divinatory experiences of individuals and acknowledge the divinatory
context as a support system, facilitator of interpersonal growth and soundboard for
many who seek direction and reassurance. By inquiring about divinatory experiences,
a clinician gains access into an individual’s world of struggles and vulnerabilities and
comes to know which areas of the psyche have been wounded. For those clinicians
who neglect to engage in or are weary of discussions pertaining to divination, it is
hoped that this research will stimulate a new appreciation for and understanding
of the divinatory context, thereby challenging some of the negative stereotypes
associated with consulting diviners. Furthermore, it appears that this study taps into
the domain of the transpersonal, given that participants communicated about their
spiritual and self transcendent experiences. Therapeutically, dialoguing about the
existential and transpersonal domains of an individual’s functioning is invaluable
as it, for example, facilitates ‘building resilience by helping a person to draw from
spiritual resources when confronting life’s adversities; and mobilising relational
support during crises’ (Grifith, 2005).
STRENGThS OF ThE STUDy
One of the strengths of this study is that is provokes the need for future research. It
also has the potential to evoke ‘heated’ debates, amplify and challenge differences
of opinions and as such, energises avenues for psychological research. The design
served the study well as it encouraged respect for differences and appreciation for
individuality. Additional strengths of this study are that it uniquely documented
individuals’ experiences with diviners, and is one of the few to address the relationship
between locus of control orientation and experiences with diviners. The study also
has exploratory and descriptive value and has contributed towards the limited body
of knowledge available on the topic.
LIMITATIONS OF ThE STUDy
The researcher acknowledges that her participation inluenced the way in which
the interviews were constructed and recognises that her perceptions tainted how
she ‘dialogued’ with the information and documented indings. A shortcoming of
this study pertains to the literature review. Reports from recent literature were not
cited and internet sites were referenced, both of which, impact the study’s validity.
The study was also not punctuated from various theoretical and psychological
frameworks and as such, has weaker psychological sophistication.
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RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCh
The irst author recommends that:
Future studies should explore the variables inluencing the shift from being a
predominant ‘religious believer’ to becoming either a ‘paranormal believer’ or
‘double believer’.
Individuals’ experiences with diviners be conceptualised within the context of
existential theories.
A longitudinal study be conducted in which participants are given Levenson’s
(1973) Locus of Control Questionnaire to complete before their irst consultation,
and a few months after their initial consultation and that comparisons be made.
That the study should explore the role of psychologists versus the role of diviners
during periods of psychological ‘distress’
Researchers explore whether individuals who have a ‘calling for healing’ or
describe themselves as intuitive are more likely to consult diviners
Researchers test the hypothesis that ‘individuals consulting diviners believe their
lives are controlled by ‘chance’.
NOTE
1
Not the participants’ real names.
BIOGRAPhICAL NOTES
Prior to obtaining her M.A. in Clinical Psychology, Nicole
Schluep qualiied as a social worker and focused on the
treatment of alcohol and substance dependence. She is
currently an intern psychologist at a psychiatric hospital. Her
interests include alternative healing practices and paranormal
experiences.
Ricky Snyders is a professor in the Department of Psychology at Unisa. His interests include family and couples psychotherapy, psychotherapy supervision and training, and groups
and organisations as systems.
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