Antisemitism/Racisms

This book shows how scholarly studies of prejudice, identity formation, and genocide studies can shed light on global examples of religious hatred. The book is divided into four parts, focusing respectively on: theories of prejudice and violence; historical developments of antisemitism, Islamophobia, and race; contemporary Western antisemitism and Islamophobia; and, prejudices beyond the West in the Islamic, Buddhist, and Hindu traditions. Each part ends with a special focus section.

Key features include:
- A compelling synthesis of theories of prejudice, identity, and hatred to explain Islamophobia and antisemitism.
- An innovative theory of human violence and genocide which explains the link to prejudice.
- Case studies of both Western antisemitism and Islamophobia in history and today, alongside global studies of Islamic antisemitism and Hindu and Buddhist Islamophobia
- Integrates discussion of race and racialisation as aspects of Islamophobic and antisemitic prejudice in relation to their framing in religious discourses.
- Accessible for general readers and students, it can be employed as a textbook for students or read with benefit by scholars for its novel synthesis and theories.

The book focuses on antisemitism and Islamophobia, both in the West and beyond, including examples of prejudices and hatred in the Islamic, Hindu, and Buddhist traditions. Drawing on examples from Europe, North America, MENA, South and Southeast Asia, and Africa, Paul Hedges points to common patterns, while identifying the specifics of local context.
Religious Hatred is an essential guide for understanding the historical origins of religious hatred, the manifestations of this hatred across diverse religious and cultural contexts, and the strategies employed by activists and peacemakers to overcome this hatred.

In 1900, the German Empire was extremely shaken by a violent crime. To the east of the country , in the province of West Prussia in the town of Chojnice (Ger. Konitz), a junior high school student, Ernst Winter, was murdered. The circumstances of the case and the manner of the crime led the local population to believe that the boy had been killed by the Jews in order to win his blood for ritual purposes. The accusation of the local Jewish population resulted in a rapid increase in the hostility of Christians (Germans and Poles) towards their Semitic neighbours. The lie about the guilt of the Jews quickly went through the entire province, and then reached the furthest corners of Germany. In Chojnice, riots and numerous attacks on Jews and their property took place. Anti-Jewish excesses have spread rapidly in West Prussia. The course of the investigation and its relationship with the anti-Jewish riots was described by the main representative of the Polish press in West Prussia – Gazeta Toruńska. Słowa kluczowe: antysemityzm, mord rytualny, przesądy, Żydzi, katolicy, Chojnice, ekscesy anty-żydowskie, Prusy Zachodnie, oskarżenie, Rzesza Niemiecka, " Gazeta Toruńska " W XIX wieku prasa stała się głównym środkiem rozpowszechniania informacji. Było tak do czasu zmonopolizowania rynku medialnego przez telewizję w XX wie-ku. Za pośrednictwem gazet propagowano różne idee społeczne i polityczne, w tym antysemityzm, który wzmógł się w Niemczech po 1871 roku. Rynek prasowy w zjed-noczonej Rzeszy był jednym z najlepiej zorganizowanych w Europie – obok Anglii i Francji. Z każdą dekadą poprawiała się jakość i szybkość dziennikarstwa na szczeb-lach lokalnych, gdzie prowadzono dyskusje o palących kwestiach, opisywano afery kryminalne lub nawoływano do głosowania do sejmiku itp.

A chronology of all measures introduced by the National Socialist municipal administration and other perpetrator agencies against the Berlin Jews. The day by day chronicle, based on many hitherto unknown sources, provides the reader with a detailed and graphic picture of how the exclusion of the Jews from all spheres of public life unfolded over time and who was responsible for it. The introduction discusses the overlooked importance of local institutions for the radicalization of the persecution in the capital of the Third Reich, yet also touches upon the reactions and resistance of the Jews.

Book review. Monographs "Anthropology and ethnology during World War II. The activities of Sektion Rassen- und Volkstumsforschung Institut für Deutsche Ostarbeit in the light of new source materials" edited by Małgorzata Maj. (Full text of review in Polish).

Convocation Address at Bethel University, August 29, 2016 about recent troubles in Minnesota, particularly the shooting of Philando Castille, and our responsibility as followers of the Gospel. There is an audio link also available. After you click the link, it's the first one in the queue; fast-forward to 15:00:  https://itunes.apple.com/us/itunes-u/2016-2017-chapel-college-arts/id1148681753?mt=10

The study is devoted to French antisemitism from the time of its very emergence. It presents the main stages through which it passed, the factors that influenced its development until the late 19th century when the definition "violent" anti-Semitism became justified and the period between the two world wars that could be characterized as a prelude to Vichy, the regime under which the Jews were subjected to genocide. It also presents the biblical and patristic grounds for its emergence and their use in later times by different churches and political forces, and in the "canonization" of anti-Semitism as one of the characteristics of the ideology of the National Revolution. Keywords: French antisemitism; biblical and patristic grounds; the regime of Vichy; National Revolution; Philippe Petain; genocide.

These poems, composed in Somali and in English, provide a poetic reflection of the recently emerged debate on the theme of Caddaan Studies which means "White Studies". The criticism and counter-criticism contained in the debate dug so deep into life nerve of Somali Studies that over a thousand people participated. The poems, under the title "Inaugurating Caddaan Studies" were composed with a critical observation of the debate.

A call for papers is now open for the forthcoming issue of JCA. Please submit your manuscript to jca@academicstudiespress.com. The deadline for submissions is November 15, 2019. All submissions are subjected to a blind peer review process. Your submission should comply with the authors’ guidelines, which may be found at https://www.academicstudiespress.com/s/InstructionsforJCAAuthors.pdf

My story on how one experienced Racism, Discrimination in Université Libre de Brussels. Hate continues because we stay quiet, shy away from denoucing it, speaking it or being compromised. Racism and hate or discrimination should never be condoned or tolerated, this paper narrate the ordeal i went through and an updated version will be posted. what one never think of, is now happening and the whole world should know this.

Criminal law is fragmentary. Nevertheless, it must be his claim to punish equal injustice the same, greater injustice more and lesser injustice less. Otherwise his evaluations threaten to lose traceability and acceptance. The sentencing rule of § 46 II 2 StGB and the criminal offense of incitement to hatred should therefore be adapted to the categories of the General Equal Treatment Act (AGG)  and the changed circumstances resulting from digitalization and globalization. Law enforcement agencies and courts should be enabled to consistently punish group-related enmity; this requires a revision of the RiStBV. The general right of personality must not serve as a protective cloak for statements that attack the dignity of others. Criticism of group-related misanthropy must be allowed to be expressed freely and, if necessary, sharply.

Ist Antisemitismus eine Form des Rassismus oder handelt es sich um zwei völlig verschiedene Phänomene? Und gibt es Analogien zur Islamfeindlichkeit oder ist dieser Vergleich abwegig? Der Aufsatz zeichnet die international geführte Fachdiskussion um das Verhältnis verschiedener Ausgrenzungsmuster und Diskriminierungsformen nach.

En 1240, le duc de Bretagne expulse tous les juifs du duché. Cet épisode peu connu signe la fin de la présence d’une communauté juive en Bretagne au Moyen Âge. Elle s’explique par la conjugaison du fanatisme religieux et la volonté d’effacer les dettes d’aristocrates bretons envers des prêteurs juifs. Cette expulsion faisait suite à des massacres qui auraient coûté la vie à 3 000 juifs, suscitant la réprobation du pape.

Of all the keywords frequently included in the modern lexicon of antisemitism, “anti-Zionism” may be the most resistant to conceptual analysis. In this essay, I offer a methodological critique of this predominant approach before proposing an alternative method of analysis focused on several main strands in anti-Zionism’s intellectual genealogy. Doing so promises a better understanding of the specific origins of anti-Zionism as a distinct, self-conscious ideology without reducing it to an essentialist definition. Furthermore, mapping such a historical genealogy allows us to see how the concept of anti-Zionism is repeatedly linked to antisemitism – though not in the ways many might assume.

Il libro delinea la storia di Radio Vaticana, dalla sua origine alla fine della seconda guerra mondiale. Seguendo il triplice filone della diplomazia, della propaganda, dell’apostolato, emerge così, da una prospettiva inedita, il complesso rapporto che la Santa Sede intrattenne con i totalitarismi e con le democrazie, e il suo atteggiamento nei confronti della Shoah e dell’antisemitismo. Attraverso la ricostruzione dei testi delle trasmissioni nelle diverse lingue, sono  approfondite le relazioni dell'emittente con i pontefici e la Curia romana, caratterizzate fra l’altro dagli spazi di autonomia che alcune rilevanti figure di speaker radiofonici seppero conquistarsi.

David Nirenberg’s Anti-Judaism: The Western Tradition is an impressive scholarly accomplishment that matches a dauntingly large subject matter with a vast vault of personal knowledge. At 474 pages and 13 chapters covering more than 3000 years, it is thorough without being exhaustive. (1) The book cogently follows the development of anti-Judaism from Ancient Egypt through to the de-Judaising theories of Martin Heidegger and Joseph Goebbels. It is, however, first and foremost a history of ideas rather than of societies and some of Nirenberg’s focus and conclusions may sit uncomfortably with readers expecting a straight socio-political history of anti-Judaism. Jewish communities and their religion Judaism appear infrequently in the context of Nirenberg’s sources. They haunt his history like invisible ghosts, invoked by Judaism's critics to attack perceived enemies who were as likely to be non-Jews as Jews. Take for instance the war of words between the fourth-century Christian theologians St Jerome and St Augustine. Jerome (340/2–420CE) accused Augustine (354–430CE) of demonstrating ‘Judaising’ tendencies in his defence of Jewish law; Augustine in turn labelled Jerome a ‘Judaiser’ for reading original Hebrew texts rather than the Greek translations. Neither of them knew or had any actual contact with Jews, but their debates on the dangers of Judaism remained seminal guidelines for generations of Christian theologians (pp. 120–34).

Nirenberg focuses rather on how certain aspects of Christian teaching and culture used criticism of Jews and Judaism to make sense of their own religion and society. It is not a history of anti-Semitism, and Nirenberg differs from Robert Wistrich antithetically.(2) He does not examine anti-Judaism to explain the Holocaust, or contemporary western and Middle Eastern attitudes towards Israel. His purpose is more ambitious than this; he aims to show that ‘pathological’ fantasies of Judaism are central to the history of ideas that became deeply ingrained in the Western tradition (p. 468). Ancient civilisations, medieval kingdoms and modern industrial states each developed discourses on the Jewish threat that society could be defined against. For Nirenberg, the barbarism of the Holocaust is the conceivable product of the encoded threat of Judaism in western thought, but was not made inevitable by it. Previous historical instances of anti-Judaism did not create the anti-Semitic ideologies of the 20th century, but they did build on each other to create the cultural and political conditions for them to occur (pp. 469–70).

Nirenberg buttresses this argument with reference to influential thinkers from each era. The Ptolemaic historian Manetho’s (282–246BCE) demonising of the Jewish ‘shepherds’ was central to the development of a unique Egyptian historical and political thought (p. 22). St Jerome and St Augustine’s theological slanging match influenced the medieval Church and monarchies’ treatment of minorities (pp. 120–34). Martin Luther accused his papist opponents of ‘Pharasaism’ and attempted to ‘drain’ Jewish letters from the word of God (p. 252). Both Voltaire and Kant identified Jewish vices in the Old Testament as the source of intolerance in Ancien Régime society (pp. 352–60). And Marx, Heidegger and Sobert provided the philosophical context for Joseph Goebbels’ 1933 declaration ‘The age of rampant Jewish intellectualism is now at an end’ (p. 423).

With a book this ambitious, however, a wide ranging and generous smattering of primary source material drawn from lesser known thinkers is expected. Second-century writers such as Justin Martyr (pp. 100–3) and the chronicler Hegesippus (pp.92–8) inform the reader of the early Church’s anti-Judaism as much as Augustine and Jerome in Nirenberg’s narrative. Likewise Nirenberg uses Sebastian Brant’s Ship of Fools in 1494 to reveal the dramatization of Early Modern English concerns with the ‘Jewishness’ of Christian commerce as relevantly as Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice (1598) or Christopher Marlow’s Jew of Malta (1589). It is a testament to Nirenberg’s masterful scholarly skills that his interweaving of diverse primary sources – often across eras and continents –  feels appropriate and convincing.

It is hard to avoid the impression that Anti-Judaism: the History of a Way of Thinking represents for Nirenberg the culmination of a career volte-face in respects to his methodological approach. His 1996 work Communities of Violence: Persecution of Minorities in the Middle Ages rejected a longue durée history of anti-Semitism.(3) This approach, Nirenberg argued, was liable to assess individual events in structures contextually grounded in the Holocaust, and not in the climatic conditions in which they occurred. The Montcluse massacre of 1320 was more relevant for understanding socio-economic relations between Jews and their Aragonese overlords than explaining the Holocaust, for example.(4) Communities of Violence used a relatively narrow belt of sources covering southwest France and the Crown of Aragon. With Anti-Judaism, his work takes in 3,000 years of historical thought from the Ancient Egyptians to Nazi Germany on a subject almost impossibly vast: how anti-Judaism became the basis for people to criticise and understand their societies, and subsequently, how this became the bedrock of the Western tradition.

In Anti-Judaism, Nirenberg allows for a continuation of trends in the development of a shared concept of anti-Judaism built on and progressed over the periods covered in his book. Nirenberg would not consider this a determinist argument: that questions of Judaism in the history of ideas necessarily connected with each other, or culminated in 20th-century anti-Semitism (pp. 456–7). He attempts to combine his disdain for a structural approach by viewing anti-Judaism within the context of each period ‘and with an awareness of potential futures- that is, of how that material will be put to the work of generating different worldviews in later periods and places’ (p. 11). This leads to dead ends as often as open doors. It is a history of how ideas on Judaism drove forward key concepts of Western thought concerning Christian (and Muslim) society, but that this tradition was not what inherently drove Western civilisation towards the Final Solution. This is perhaps an unsettling conclusion: by implication that the Holocaust was far from inevitable, but equally that it could have occurred not in Germany but in France, Britain, the United States or anywhere in the Western world (p. 458–9).

Inscindibile dalle vicende della Germania nazista, la musica scandì l'ascesa e il crollo del regime hitleriano, assumendo un ruolo di preminenza assoluta su tutte le arti. Que-sto libro ne indaga l'intimo intreccio con la politica tedesca tra il 1933 e il 1945, analizzandone le tappe principali: i presupposti; l'epurazione di ebrei e oppositori politici; la costruzione del «mito» del Terzo Reich da parte dei musicologi; l'ascesa e la caduta di nuovi e vecchi astri; l'effimero tentativo di colmare il vuoto lasciato dalle epurazioni; in-fine, la sorprendente organizzazione musicale del sistema concentrazionario. Accanto alle vicende dei musicisti ebrei, vittime predestinate e oggetto delle più gravi vessazioni, emerge un groviglio indistricabile di partigianerie e atti di resistenza, fedeltà cieca al regime e op portunismo, invidie e ri-valità tra potenti, sullo sfondo della più spa-ventosa tragedia collettiva del XX secolo.

In this paper we take issue with both the new antisemitism thesis and its most ardent critics. We argue that a correlation exists between antisemitism and anti-Israelism, but the correlation varies widely in strength by social context. It follows that, in some cases, extremists on both sides of the debate are correct. However, in most cases they are not. We make our case by examining the Canadian context and referring to research from Canada and other countries. Specifically, we demonstrate that the level of antisemitic sentiment in Canada is relatively low. Moreover, with the exception of the actions of a small number of extremists, antisemitic incidents are not skyrocketing in frequency, contrary to the claims of some observers. We also argue that, while antisemitism and anti-Israelism are correlated in some categories of the population, circumstantial evidence leads one to believe that, in the population at large, the correlation is weak. This finding suggests that antisemitism and anti-Israelism are typically independent attitudinal and behavioral dimensions, with the overlap between them varying by context. It further implies that strong emotional attachment to the Jewish state is compatible with a critical stance toward the current state of political and social affairs in Israel, even a highly critical stance.

My article that was featured in the NY Times in September 2014, is more relevant now than ever with escalating anti-Semitism in Europe and on US campuses.

Time and again, Jews are persecuted and terrorized. Being Jewish myself, I often ponder the purpose of this relentless agony. Some believe that the atrocities of WWII are unimaginable today. And yet, we see how easily and abruptly the state of mind preceding the Holocaust is re-emerging, and “Hitler was right” shouts are sounded all too often and all too openly.

But there is hope. We can reverse this trend, and all it requires is that we become aware of the bigger picture.

Rudolf Steiner (1861-1925) is one of the most well-known and influential thinkers of the twenty/early twenty-first centuries, particularly within alternative spiritual circles. He was the founder of Anthroposophy, a spiritual world view for which he became known, which is grounded on his spiritual experiences. His ideas, including his educational approach, have become widely popular across the globe, including Israel.

Der 2004 verstorbene Judaistik-Professor Hyam Maccoby liefert in seinem Werk eine „anthropologische“ (Maccoby 2019, 177) Analyse der Entstehung des Antisemitismus. Der anthropologische Zugang, so Maccoby, befasst sich mit Mythen und Bräuchen vornehmlich vormoderner Gesellschaften in vergleichender Perspektive. Im Zentrum stehen dabei Opferkulte und Kastenstrukturen, die herangezogen werden, um die Spezifik der Judenfeindschaft zu untersuchen. Die vergleichende Perspektive führt Maccoby dazu, gegen postkoloniale Nivellierungen oder bloße Xenophobie-Theorien (177, 219), die Spezifik des Antisemitismus herauszuarbeiten, die ihm zufolge in der einmaligen Kombination auch anderweitig anzutreffender Elemente besteht, nämlich des bestimmten Usurpationsmythos einer siegreichen Mehrheit, eines theologisch-gesellschaftlich begründeten Pariastatus einer Minderheit und des Mythos vom „Heiligen Henker“. (216)

The goal of the paper is to stimulate discussion about literary antisemitism in modern Slovak literature exemplified by one of its most notable writers, František Švantner (1912-1950). In line with the research trends in the Czech and German contexts, it draws attention to interconnections between literature and other discourses at that time, and the ambivalent nature of depicting Jews in literature, where negative stereotypes are combined with seemingly positive ones (literary "allosemitism"). The analysis of two selected novels and one novella reveals a modernized stereotype of the "Jewish usurer", which was present in Slovak literature from the early 19 th century. Under the influence of the rasist discourse the usurer stereotype was transformed into the parasite stereotype using the symbol of blood as the central metaphor. In the novel Nevesta hôľ / The Bride of the Ridge Švantner suggests the variant of vampirism, which is further developed in the novel Život bez konca / Life without an End in the sense of "racial impregnation", i.e. infection and contagion. In the novella Sedliak / The Peasant thematizing his personal experience with persecution of Jews during the World War II, the ambivalent nature of literary antisemitism is refferred to by questioning the victim status of the literary character, who he again portrayed by conforming to the parasite stereotype.

In 1952, Arthur Miller wrote The Crucible – a fictionalised staging of the 1692 Salem witch trials. As an allegory of McCarthyite anti-communist hysteria in 1950s America, the play could itself be considered a form of sublimation: firstly, of course, in the way that all creative works can be understood, in the Freudian context, as a diversion of the drives (1916-17). But secondly, and as allegory specifically, we could consider it a sort of sublimated political gesture: Miller’s protest against a modern-day witch hunt finding its expression in an alternative form. However, for the purposes of this paper what I want to identify is the socio-political mechanism of sublimation at work both in the context of the production of The Crucible and within its narrative and staging.

Specifically, I intend to explore The Crucible in relation to Slavoj Žižek’s theory of the “sublime object of ideology” (1989). To this end, I will address Miller’s own adaptation of his stage play in Nicholas Hytner’s 1996 film, for the ways in which its formal strategies emphasise the key features of social conflict that drive persecution. And while it might, at first face, seem almost an error of category to examine the “sublime” in the context of a symposium on sublimation, it is worth noting that both Freud (1930) and Lacan (1992) emphasised the social function of sublimation. Moreover, Žižek’s theory relies specifically on Lacan’s most succinct definition of sublimation, as the elevation of the object “to the dignity of the Thing” (1992: 134), which we can understand here as the raising of something quotidian to a privileged position within the social fabric. Reflecting the terrible fascination of the Thing, such an object may be venerated or, indeed, denigrated, like the totemic animal that is both worshipped and sacrificed in order to ensure the cohesion of the tribe or clan (Freud 1913). In this paper, I will focus on what Žižek calls the sublime object as “negative magnitude” (1997: 81) to explore the logic of scapegoating – where the internal contradictions or antagonisms of a particular society are ideologically displaced onto an external figure of the Other – that we can chart from (at least) the Salem witch trials to the present day refugee crisis.

Basierend auf einem umfangreichen Quellenstudium zeigt der Band, wie die Rechtsstellung des wissenschaftlichen Personals an der Universität Wien von 1848 bis 1938 theoretisch und praktisch ausgestaltet war. Dabei werden sowohl Besoldungsfragen und Kollegiengelder als auch der Hochschulantisemitismus, die universitären Netzwerke und die Zulassung von Frauen zur Habilitation behandelt. Insbesondere das bislang vernachlässigte Gebiet des Disziplinarrechts wird ausgiebig dargestellt. Die Autorin ermittelt anhand der Einzelfälle, welches Verhalten generell als disziplinarwidrig erachtet wurde und ob sich diese Auffassungen im Wandel der Zeit veränderten. Abgerundet wird der Band durch die Darstellung der über 150 Disziplinarfälle – von Sigmund Freud über Hans Kelsen zu Max Adler – samt kurzen biographischen Daten zu den Betroffenen.


This book takes a closer look at the legal position of the University of Vienna’s research staff between 1848 and 1938. It compares and contrasts theory and practice based on a comprehensive analysis of the sources provided. The subject matter primarily deals with salaries and fees, anti-Semitism in academia, networks within the university and women’s post-doctoral qualifications, among others. Disciplinary law in particular, which can be classed as a somewhat neglected field of study, is extensively examined. On an abstract level, the author looks into which behaviours led to disciplinary action and how exactly these views changed over time. The volume presents over 150 disciplinary cases, including those of Sigmund Freud, Max Adler and Hans Kelsen, as well as biographical data on said persons.

At the Berlin Sports Stadium in 1933, in front of 20,000 supporters, the cross was denounced as 'a ridiculous debilitating remnant of Judaism, unacceptable to National Socialists.'  Nazis believed that it was un-aryan to let Jesus take our sins on the cross.  Bonhoeffer responded by forming the Confessing Church movement which rejected racism and hatred of others. The Confessing Church started five seminaries/centres for training future pastors. Many Confessing Churches were firebombed by gangs of Hitler Youth.  On December 1935, the Nazis declared the Confessing Church to be illegal.

Le qualificatif de « raciste » est de plus en plus répandu, que ce soit pour qualifier le Front national, un ministre du gouvernement Sarkozy (Hortefeux, Besson), un politicien (Georges Frèche, Manuel Valls), un romancier (Michel Houellebecq, Oriana Falacci, Renaud Camus), un philosophe (Alain Finkielkraut) ou une historienne (Hélène Carrère d'Encausse). Il est si fréquemment employé qu'il a fini par ne plus avoir de sens politique précis et à se réduire à une simple invective, exactement comme « facho » ou fasciste chez les libertaires, les gens de gauche ou d'extrême gauche. Ce manque de rigueur conceptuelle a été avant tout favorisé par l'antiracisme de la « génération morale » qu'ont promu SOS Racisme et ses soutiens intellectuels au milieu des années 80. Cet antiracisme démocrassouillard, à tonalité soit multiculturaliste (Wieworka, Touraine, Todorov) soit républicaine-souverainiste (Taguieff), a formé plusieurs générations de militants et de sympathisants de gauche ou d'extrême gauche qui ont fini par « oublier » totalement l'importance des déterminations de classe dans l'analyse politique. Le point final (on ose l'espérer !) de cette lente dégénérescence politique a été atteint à partir du milieu des années 2000, avec les Indigènes de la République, la Tribu Ka (devenu ensuite Génération Kemi Seba), le Mouvement des damnés de l'impérialisme et le Parti antisioniste qui, chacun à sa manière réactionnaire, ont fini par réhabiliter la lutte des « races » au détriment de la lutte de classe, de la lutte des prolétaires (de toutes origines et de toutes religions) contre leurs exploiteurs. Le texte qui suit est issu d'une discussion avec plusieurs lecteurs de la revue autour de la définition du racisme et du rapport entre « haine de l'Autre », rivalités et haines religieuses et racismes. Racisme ordinaire, racisme pseudo-scientifique et xénophobie Pour débrouiller un peu le terrain, il faut différencier : a) le racisme tripal qui fait référence à une hiérarchie pseudo-scientifique entre les ethnies ou les races. Ce racisme, mélange de haine irrationnelle et de raisonnements pseudo-scientifiques, diffère de b) la xénophobie (des préjugés contre un « étranger » pouvant parfois être très semblable physiquement à soi, voire même partager la même religion que soi ; quand elle cherche à être un peu sophistiquée, la xénophobie invoque davantage des arguments d'ordre historique, économique ou politique que des arguments biologiques). Le racisme contre les Africains et les Antillais relève de la première catégorie (le racisme pseudo-scientifique). Celui contre les Espagnols et les Italiens de la seconde (la xénophobie). c) le « racisme ordinaire » : les conneries qu'on entend tous les jours au boulot, dans le métro, par des gens que l'on ne connaît pas, ou des amis. Seule une bonne connaissance des individus qui profèrent ces âneries permet de décider de la bonne tactique à adopter. Sont-ce juste des remarques isolées, par ailleurs totalement contradictoires avec leur comportement personnel (mariage ou cohabitation avec quelqu'un que ces personnes devraient en