Ancient Mediterranean Studies

This dissertation examines ancient anchoring practice in the Mediterranean through ca. 1500 CE, as well as the history and technological developments of iron anchors, which are among the most important tools inherited from the ancient world. The methodology employed is holistic in synthesizing archaeological finds, textual, and iconographic evidence, and includes statistical and geographical analysis based on a substantial catalogue of ancient anchor finds. An experimental project is also included where anchor reconstructions were used in the sea and their utility tested.

Mooring is one of the least studied aspects of everyday life for the people of the ancient Mediterranean. It has been elucidated that in most circumstances beaching would not have been a practical option, even for warships and the smallest cargo vessels. Rather, vessels were equipped with specialized gear for mooring off or near undeveloped shores. This included ship's boats enabling access to the shore. Lower draft vessels, particularly galleys, could approach unbuilt shores and employ mooring stakes and cables, and the ship's landing-ladder would be deployed into shallow water. Where available, however, ships would benefit from built quays which facilitated goods transport.

The iron stock-anchor displays the greatest longevity of any anchoring tool, evinced as early as the 5th c. BCE, and appears to have achieved dominance over wooden types by the 3rd c. CE. From its conception the iron-stock anchor undergoes a broad range of gradual changes to its form and features. The earliest known finds take a 'V' form in the bulk-arms and gradually develop through rounded to 'T' and 'Y' forms in the Byzantine Period. The stocks evolve from removable iron types, to permanent forms entirely of wood. Reintroduction of upward-oriented arm designs from northern Europe around the 13th c. CE, and incorporation of hydraulic mechanized smithing developments, heralded a revolution of anchoring technology. Larger, stronger and more efficient anchors were being produced to standardized dimensions and quality, promoting larger ships, and ultimately resulting in novel characteristics of navigation.

This course is an introduction to ancient gardens and their art historical, literary, and archaeology evidence.  Various aspects and methods of garden archaeology, which play an important role in locating and faithfully reconstructing ancient gardens, are emphasized.  Formal garden design, environmental diversity, and symbolic functions of gardens across Mediterranean and Near Eastern cultures are interpreted and compared.

This study aims to  create a general view about field surveys and excavations carried out in the ancient city of Phaselis in 2018. The focus of this study contains interdisciplinary urban and field archae-ology  carried  out  both  in  the  city -polis  and  ports-  and  in  territory -largely  in  the  borders  of  Kemer, Tekirova and Çamyuva- within the field surveys carried out between the dates July 9th– August 3rd 2018. As  for  the  settlement  archaeology  performed  between  the  dates  August  7th  and  November  28th  2018, some theoretical and practical research were done relating to the documentation, cleaning, conservation and restoration of the Tetragonal Agora, Small Bath and notably the Theater and the Hadrians’ Gate.

The Ancient Civilisation Lab (LabSA) of Trento (Italy) announces the second webinar of the webinar series “Conflict Management in Greek Antiquity” (organized by Professor Elena Franchi) which aims to explore experiences of conflict management of various kinds: intrapoleic, interpoleic and intrafederal. The lectures are addressed to the PhD students of the PhD program "Forms of Cultural Exchange", but they are also available to everyone via Zoom (registration is required, see below).
The second webinar will be held by Dr. Xenia Charalambidou (Senior Postdoctoral Researcher, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam):
The Lelantine Plain: a field of prosperity and a field of rivalry?
(05 April, 10.00 CET)

These webinars are also offered within the course of Greek History (MA): students will be supported through workshops of preparation and consolidation by their tutor. Before each webinar, an optional preparatory workshop for students will take place with the support of the tutors (PhD and final-year Master’s students). In these workshops, students will be divided into groups that work autonomously in Zoom breakout rooms on tasks prepared by the teacher in collaboration with the tutor. Groups will be selected in accordance with the principles of knowledge sharing so as to include diverse competences, as previously established through a student questionnaire. Group tasks will focus on the topics that the experts will discuss in the following webinar and will involve analysis of documents, reading of scientific articles, and preparatory activities that focus on the micro-language of topics to be dealt with by the webinar speakers. After each webinar there will be a consolidation workshop dedicated to discussing the most complex passages from the webinars and the analysis of sources discussed.

This volume offers a collection of essays dealing with the material and immaterial (metaphorical) reuse of Greek art in Roman times from various perspectives. Originating from the fruitful exchange and collaboration among the research teams hosted at the Laboratorio di Storia Archaeologia Epigrafia e Tradizione dell’Antico and further encouraged by the lively atmosphere of the seminar of Classical Archaeology at the Scuola Normale Superiore, this book project was spurred by the productive discussion and positive feedback received during the relevant dissemination activities in national and international venues. The first part of this book developed from the international conference Athena Nike della Fondazione Sorgente Group: un originale greco a Roma, held at the Scuola Normale Superiore in April 2014. The second part resulted from the session “Nobilia opera? Re-staging Greek Artworks in Roman Contexts: New Approaches and Perspectives” presented at the 25th Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference, held in Leicester in March 2015. The common thread of the volume is the reuse of Greek artworks in Roman times from an object-oriented and cultural-historical perspective, taking into account the “history” or “biography” of the artworks as a whole. The metaphor of “restaging” highlights the interest in the transformation of artworks and their contexts over time and space.
--
(with G. Adornato – I.B. Romano – G. Cirucci) Restaging Greek Artworks in Roman Times. With an Afterword by C.H. Hallett (Archeologia e Arte antica), LED - Edizioni Universitarie di Lettere Economia Diritto, Milano, 2018. ISBN 978-88-7916-832-8.

El artículo se publicó sin corrección de pruebas, lo que, entre otras cosas, motivó la pérdida de la distinción entre lo que originalmente eran apartados y subapartados. Para clarificar el contenido y la estructura del artículo, añadimos aquí el siguiente índice:


1. Introducción
Preámbulo
1.1. Imago mortis en la Siria antigua: la importancia de Ugarit

2. Consideraciones previas
2.1. Riesgos metodológicos generales
2.2. La naturaleza de las creencias sobre la muerte y el más allá
2.3. Ugarit y sus tradiciones en la Siria-Palestina preclásica

3. La información textual
3.1. Los mitos de Ugarit y su marco de referencia
3.2. La ideología de la muerte en los mitos ugaríticos
3.3. Testimonios particulares de creencias y prácticas relacionadas con la muerte

4. La información arqueológica
4.1. Consideraciones generales y particulares sobre la arqueología funeraria ugarítica
4.2. Estado de la cuestión tradicional y preguntas abiertas
4.3. Los hipogeos en piedra: carácter general, origen y motivación
4.4. El emplazamiento residencial de las tumbas y su naturaleza colectiva
4.5. Variedad (sincrónica y diacrónica) y representatividad de lo conocido
4.6. Los materiales asociados a las tumbas: restos muebles y antropológicos
4.7. Funcionalidad
4.8. En conclusión

This article covers naval warfare on Adriatic Sea in the years 48–47 BC between followers of Caesar and Pompey the Great. It climaxed in the battle of Tauridis which took place during first months of 47 BC. Improvised fleet of Caesar followers under the command of Marcus Octavius defeated qualitatively better fleet of Pompey. Thanks to such a success battle of Illiria was over and firmly in Caesar’s hands.

This Final Year Dissertation is about the practise of piracy in the period between the Late Bronze Age Crisis and the Early Archaic Period in the Aegean and Greek world. The first part of this dissertation is focussed on the material context where this practise took place and the navigation techniques and naval technologies required to practise piracy. The second one is focused on the role of piracy within the studied societies, how it changed throughout the studied period and how the social perception of piracy and pirates was changing over time.

In Near Eastern texts, mention is made of a goddess ‘ttrt ḫr/‘štrt ḥr which is sometimes rendered as the “Hurrian Astarte.” Until now, the second element * ḫr* has not been satisfactorily explained. In this article, a new etymology of the latter word is proffered
and this manifestation of the goddess Astarte is then associated with  Ἀφροδίτης λιµνησία “Aphrodite of the salt marshes.” It would then seem that this avatar of this Greek maritime goddess was borrowed from the Semitic world.

Ce volume réunit les actes d’un colloque dont l’objet était d’étudier les processus d’islamisation en
Méditerranée centrale entre le VII e et le XI e siècle. A cette fin, ont été débattus à la fois les modèles d’analyse et la nature des critères retenus, tant à partir des sources écrites que des sources archéologiques (qui posent la question spécifique des indicateurs chronologiques). Ont été pris en examen les espaces égyptien, ifrîqiyen, sicilien, et plus largement insulaires, le comparatisme avec les régions proches paraissant à même d’éclairer les évolutions de chacune de ses aires.

Il volume raccoglie gli atti di un colloquio dedicato ai processi di islamizzazione nel Mediterraneo centrale tra il VII e l’XI secolo d.C. In quest’ottica sono stati discussi sia i modelli d’analisi che la natura dei criteri validi, a partire dalle fonti scritte e da quelle archeologiche (con il particolare problema degli indicatori cronologici). Sono stati presi in esame gli ambiti dell’Egitto, dell’Ifrīqiya, della Sicilia e delle altre isole, confrontandoli con le regioni limitrofe, in modo da illuminare più chiaramente l’evoluzione di ogni area.

This paper intends to present the archaeological evidence concerning the practice of some Egyptian rites and rituals on the Western shore of the Black Sea in the Hellenistic period. Egypt has always exerted a great deal of fascination, upon the Greeks in particular, the first who recognized not only possible analogies between Egyptian and Greek religion, but also a great influence on their own beliefs and rites and even on their major rituals. Phoenician sailors, followed by the Greeks of Naukratis, had been trading daily commodities, but as well objects of worship of the Egyptian Pantheon even before Alexander the Great, through which the valley of the Nile has been made known to the more distant areas, such as the Western pontic cities. Egyptian cults will become extremely important until the end of the IIIrd century BC and they will have social, economic, psychological, even politically, negligible at all, parts, in the Greek cities from the Black Sea area. Largely because they offered an alternative to the rigors of the traditional religion, a hope of something different for some social groups which for a long period of time have been rejected to the periphery of the society. The interest for Egyptian religion will be followed by a curiosity that led to the attraction of many more members among the communities which considered that only destiny represents the saving solution offered by the Universe to every single living being of this world.

Keywords: Egyptian religion, Black Sea, Hellenistic period, Greeks, rites, rituals.

Cultural identity is defined by the ways in which groups can be distinguished from other individuals and groups in their social relationships.1 Facets of identity can include ethnicity, gender, age, sexuality, class, power and myriad other social categories. Needless to say, these facets overlap and combine in unexpected ways that are contingent upon immediate social contexts. Because identity is a notoriously fluid concept, it can be best understood through case studies that highlight the relational capabilities of individual and group identities. Case studies and contextualizations can take many different forms. For example, in the past decade, numerous scholars have turned to the life cycle in order to address the various identity changes individuals experience from birth to adolescence, adulthood and old age.2 Holistic and contextualized studies of identity, such as these, allow for deeper explorations of individual life experiences and fluid self-perceptions. Scholars of the ancient Mediterranean have generally explored single facets of identity, rather than the interaction between multiple markers of identity. In particular, scholars have focused upon ethnicity, due to the complicated interconnections that occurred in this region. Studies that have had particular impact include Jonathan Hall's Hellenicity3 and Andrew Wallace-Hadrill's Rome's Cultural Revolution.4 Both volumes explore ethnicity and culture as particularly important considerations for scholars of the ancient Mediterranean by examining the spread of Greek and Roman cultures across a broad geographic expanse. These prior works are worth noting when examining the present volume because they serve as resources to Gruen's contributors and enable us to place Gruen's volume within current ancient Mediterranean identity studies. The Ancient Mediterranean can make a considerable contribution to interdisciplinary studies of identity. In particular, scholars can contribute case studies that closely link appropriate theoretical vantages to data in order to explore the longitudinal development of identities within interlinked geographical locales. Gruen's Cultural Identity in the Ancient Mediterranean clearly demonstrates the value in this approach. This volume steers clear of murky theoretical debates on identity and ethnicity, which both Hall and Wallace-Hadrill explored in their volumes. Instead, Gruen's volume focuses on case studies of identity using different methodological and disciplinary lenses. Gruen's pragmatic approach allows for greater accessibility than many recent volumes on identity, although it would have been

This essay presents a comparative study of ancient Egyptian vessels that sailed both the Nile and the Seas during the eighteenth dynasty of the New Kingdom.
We will start with the ships that have navigated the Nile. They will be analysed in two different spheres. It is firstly proposed to observe the vessels used in the Nile as the main Egyptian artery for transportation of people and goods. Secondly, considering a more religious and mythological perspective, the iconography of the barque used in several representations to illustrate the daily travel of Re in the underworld, during his perpetual cycle to be reborn each day, will also be addressed.
This study will then approach two particular Seas where ships, far different from those used on the Nile, sailed to satisfy the needs of the Egyptians during the dynasty XVIII.
Seafaring vessels where launched into the Mediterranean, mainly under Tuthmoses III military campaigns, to maintain the Syrian-Palestinian corridor under Egyptian control. Both the type of ships and the military strategies will be here analysed. It is conclusive that these strategies resulted on the enormous advantage that a swift displacement of a large number of troops by sea, from Egypt to far away lands in rebellion, had in the maintenance of Tuthmoses III Empire.     
Regarding the Red Sea, the use of ships by Hatshepsut deserves a closer look, mainly to establish a counterpoint with the military sea ships of Tuthmoses III. Was the commercial nature of the Expedition of Hatshepsut to tA nTr, via Mersa Gawasis and the Red Sea, made using sea ships with different designs from those of Tuthmoses III? Or did the ancient Egyptians only develop one design of ships to the Seas and another to the Nile?
To answer these questions and understand the Egyptian armada, the specificity of its vessels and their designs, a comprehensive analysis of archaeological findings and iconographic fonts is proposed, among them the richest representations of the Expedition to tA nTr, found in Hatshepsuts’ Deir el-Bahri Temple, will be of insurmountable value to establish the type of ship used in specific endeavours. Lastly, the use of ships in the Mediterranean with a military purpose will be understood and supported by several academic works that focus this exact theme.
It is the objective of this essay to illustrate, as detailed as possible, the industrious mind of ancient Egyptians, the adaptability to different waters, the development of adequate ship designs and sailing techniques needed to conquer both the River and the Sea. Ultimately, it will be showed how a civilization surrounded by desert was able to develop a clear way to control the opposite element, the water. This was done in such a great and efficient way that created not only the possibility to maintain and increase Egypt’s’ domain over an extremely vast territory but also to keep alive vibrant commercial relations with other civilizations and ultimately sustain an enormous sphere of political influence during more then half a millennium.

This article examines passages in Sirach which posit that travel fosters understanding (Sir. 34.9–13) and that the sage knows how to travel in foreign lands (Sir. 39.4). The references are discussed in the context of two ancient Mediterranean corpora, that is, biblical and Greek literature. Although the evidence in Sirach is insufficient for demonstrating the existence of a specific social practice, the text at least attests to an attitude of mental openness, imagining travel as a professional enterprise with positive outcomes. This article argues that the closest parallels to Sir. 34.9–13 and Sir. 39.4 are not to be found in the Hebrew Bible or Hellenistic Jewish literature but in (nonJewish) Greek writings which refer to travels undertaken by the sages who roam around for the sake of learning. The shared travel motif helps to demonstrate that Sirach belongs to a wider Hellenistic Mediterranean context than just that of biblical literature.

Significant continuities bridge the supposed gap between the "Dark-Age era of Migrations" (11th-8th centuries BCE) and that of "Archaic colonization" (mid-eighth to early fifth centuries). Both shared maritime perspectives, in both we find the same typology of maritime settlement-sites (offshoreislands, promontories) and in both periods the hinterland orientation (chôra) and the practice of terrestrial space follows the same orientation and practice. Unlike the "Aegean" Philistines who became cut off from maritime networks (cf. the Geloni), those who stuck to the coasts and shared in the networks of the Mediterranean Small Greek World both retained aspects of their collective Greek identity and became more "Greek" through the practice of shared space and their role in the Hellenic networks.

A Cultural History of Color is a six-volume series examining the changing cultural understandings, interpretations, and utilizations of color throughout history. Each volume has the same structure and begins with a general overview of the major attitudes toward and uses of color in the historical period examined. The introduction is followed by contributions from experts, who investigate color under ten chapter headings which are identical in each of the volumes: philosophy and science, technology and trade, power and identity, religion and ritual, body and clothing, language and psychology, literature and performing arts, art, architecture and interiors, and artefacts. Accordingly, the reader has the option of taking either a synchronic or a diachronic approach to the information provided. One volume can be read to gain a broad knowledge of color in a specific period or, alternatively, a theme or topic can be followed throughout history by reading the appropriate chapter in several volumes. The six volumes divide the history of color as follows:
Volume 1: A Cultural History of Color in Antiquity (ca.3000 BCE–500 CE)
Volume 2: A Cultural History of Color in the Medieval Age (500–1400)
Volume 3: A Cultural History of Color in the Renaissance (1400–1650)
Volume 4: A Cultural History of Color in the Age of Enlightenment (1650–1800)
Volume 5: A Cultural History of Color in the Age of Industry (1800–1920)
Volume 6: A Cultural History of Color in the Modern Age (1920–the present)

Resumen del libro
(de la solapa de la edición original en papel, 2003)


La presente obra pretende incorporar a los estudios fenicios un tipo de trabajo que ha resultado extremadamente fructífero en otras especialidades. Una aproximación característica que hace del hombre o los hombres de una determinada época o cultura el objeto principal de su estudio, mediante la presentación de diferentes perfiles, tipos o personajes. Una forma de trabajo que permite, a la vez, profundizar en aspectos particulares de la cultura estudiada y reflexionar sobre ella y sobre nuestras formas de comprenderla, situando al hombre en el centro de toda atención.

Los estudios fenicios y púnicos constituyen una especialidad peculiar a la que no es fácil incorporar novedades historiográficas. Involucran a una larga variedad de investigadores unidos más por su objeto de estudio que por la documentación con la que trabajan, enormemente diversa. Las fuentes, extendidas desde el Oriente mediterráneo hasta el Atlántico a lo largo de más de un milenio, frecuentemente indirectas y condicionadas, presentan infinidad de lagunas y dificultades. Una obra del estilo propuesto, cerrada y homogénea, cuyas categorías fueran expuestas de forma acabada y completa, falsearía la imagen del conjunto o resultaría en exceso vaga e hipotética.

Sin embargo, intentar hacer uso de esta nueva aproximación, a pesar de los previos problemas documentales, puede servir para señalar, y quizás superar, los límites existentes. Con este objetivo se han reunido en esta obra una veintena de contribuciones a cargo de buenos conocedores de cada materia. Los especialistas han acometido –de formas diversas, según su criterio y de acuerdo a las posibilidades de la investigación– el estudio de una serie de figuras características del mundo fenicio-púnico. Una serie de trabajos que pretenden configurar –o proporcionar la información necesaria para configurar– un conjunto de tipos o personajes que, a su vez, permita al lector construirse una nueva imagen del protagonista de la cultura fenicio-púnica: "el hombre fenicio".

El elenco incluye algunos personajes obvios e imprescindibles (el rey, el magistrado, el sacerdote, el escriba, el soldado y el mercenario, el caudillo, el campesino, el artesano, el mercader o el esclavo). Pero añade así mismo figuras que remiten a ámbitos ineludibles (la mujer, el niño) o característicos del mundo fenicio y púnico (el emigrante, el indígena). Del mismo modo, estudia también la relación de tales hombres con condicionantes fundamentales de su cultura (como p. ej. el protagonismo constante del mar o de la metalurgia) o de su propia naturaleza (como la necesidad de alimentarse y la inevitable obligación de morir).

El libro se presenta así, en su conjunto, como una obra de investigadores y para investigadores. Pero quiere abrirse, como se apreciará en el tono de muchas de las contribuciones, a especialistas y lectores en general no necesariamente implicados en la investigación fenicia y púnica.

A la hora de rastrear los orígenes del complicado triángulo geopolítico que Cartago, Roma y la Península Ibérica acabaron conformando, resulta imprescindible referirse a sus contactos diplomáticos y muy especialmente a los previos a su segundo enfrentamiento. En este sentido, los conocidos tradicionalmente por la historiografía como tratados romano-púnicos constituyen el principal referente. Los textos de estos acuerdos están, en buena parte, traducidos al griego, transcritos y comentados en la obra del historiador megalopolitano Polibio. El autor los integra en el análisis que realiza sobre los antecedentes, pretextos y causas que habrían conducido a las dos potencias a enfrentarse en la Segunda Guerra Púnica, la que fuera más decisiva en la evolución histórica de ambos estados. Respecto a su naturaleza y contenidos, mientras que los dos primeros textos esbozan un marco legal de actuaciones internacionales, el tercero recoge medidas militares y políticas contra un enemigo común, Pirro. El último, firmado con Asdrúbal y conocido como Tratado del Ebro, establece ese río como límite a la expansión cartaginesa en Hispania.

Audio-Video of Presentation Slide Show is Available Through URL Listed as 'Attached File'----

Intro & Big Picture;
Cultural Genography;
    Mapping by Epoch,
    Ancient Haplogroup Matching,
    Ancient Ethnic Typology,
    Scatter Chart Studies;
Rabbinical Lineages;
Levi Cohen Tribal Tree;
How To Begin

Conference ‘Using Ostraca in the Ancient World: New Discoveries and Methodologies’

As has become increasingly clear, the study of ostraca cannot be
confined to the preserved texts alone, but must necessarily consider the
circumstances in which they were produced and used. The content and
types of texts on ostraca, combined with knowledge of their material
culture and archaeological context, permit better understanding of the
economic and societal conditions in which they were produced. Over
the last decades, various approaches were being developed that allow
for careful recording and interpretation of the quantitative and
qualitative characteristics of ostraca in relation to the archaeological,
cultural and economic parameters of the settlements where they are
found.
The principal aim of this conference is to bring together scholars of
various fields who work with recycled inscribed sherds and address the
issue of writing on ostraca as a cultural practice with particular attention
to material aspects of the ostraca, the type and purpose of texts, the
context in which they were produced (geographical, historical, social,
and archaeological).

"Various goddesses of the ancient Mediterranean world were once understood to be Virgin Mothers - creators who birthed the entire cosmos without need of a male consort. This is the first book to explore evidence of the original parthenogenetic power of deities such as Athena, Hera, Artemis, Gaia, Demeter, Persephone, and the Gnostic Sophia. It provides stunning feminist insights about the deeper meaning of related stories, such as the judgment of Paris, the labors of Heracles, and the exploits of the Amazons. It also roots the Thesmophoria and Eleusinian Mysteries in female parthenogenetic power, thereby providing what is at long last a coherent understanding of these mysterious rites. "Rigoglioso explores the power of virgin birth, or parthenogenesis, as the primal creative process. The clarity of her analysis reveals how pervasive and influential this motif and its rites were in the ancient world. Most interesting is her remarkable explication of the Eleusinian Mysteries, where - by her application of the ‘missing piece’ of virgin birth - she makes sense of much that has been passed over or ignored in the ancient texts. This is an original piece of scholarship that dares to imagine traditions at the foundation of Western culture in an entirely new light. As with any paradigm-shifting theory, some may challenge Rigoglioso’s interpretations, but all readers will recognize that parthenogenesis, as a symbol of profound spiritual perception, could not have received a more articulate spokesperson. One feels in reading her work that she is writing from inside a tradition that we didn’t even know existed, and the authenticity of her writing makes it all the more accessible and inviting." - Gregory Shaw, Professor of Religious Studies, Stonehill College and author of Theurgy and the Soul: The Neoplatonism of Iamblichus "With this study, Rigoglioso has substantively corrected the common perception that ‘a few’ of the Greek goddesses have an inconsequential association with parthenogenesis. Her insightful explication of the parthenogenetic motif in the attributes of all the pre-Greek goddesses, as well as in the Thesmophoria and the Eleusinian Mysteries, establishes the generative powers of the Virgin Mother goddesses as a central dynamic in the pre-Greek substratum of Western religion." - Charlene Spretnak, author of Lost Goddesses of Early Greece"