Aaberge, R., Atkinson, A., and Modalsli, J. (2013). The Ins and Outs of Top Income Mobility. IZA Discussion paper No. 7729.
- After avoir fiscal system was abolished, there was a shift towards the partial double taxation of dividends. Part of the dividends were tax-free under personal taxation. 70 per cent of the dividends from publicly listed companies were included in the personal capital income base and the rest was tax free. Dividends from privately held businesses are assigned as capital or labour incomes depending on the amount of dividend and net wealth of the business. If the return on the shares was less than 9 % of the firms net wealth and the dividends was below 90 000 € (60 000 € after 2011), the receiver paid no taxes. The dividends exceeding these thresholds were 30% tax-free and 70% taxable under capital taxation. If the return on the shares were more than 9 % of the net worth, the exceeding amount was taxable under labour taxation for the 70% part and tax-free for 30%.
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Albrecht, J., Björklund, A., and Vroman, S. (2003). Is There a Glass Ceiling in Sweden? Journal of Labor Economics, 21(1):145–177.
Alstadsæter, A., Jacob, M., Kopczuk, W., and Telle, K. (2016). Accounting for Business Income in Measuring Top Income Shares: Integrated Accrual Approach Using Individual and Firm Data from Norway. Working Paper 22888, National Bureau of Economic Research.
Alvaredo, F., Atkinson, A., Piketty, T., and Saez, E. (2013). The Top 1 Percent in International and Historical Perspective. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 27:1–21.
Armour, P., Burkhauser, R. V., and Larrimore, J. (2013). Deconstructing Income and Income Inequality Measures: A Crosswalk from Market Income to Comprehensive Income. American Economic Review, 103(3):173–77.
Atkinson, A. B., Piketty, T., and Saez, E. (2011). Top Incomes in the Long Run of History. Journal of Economic Literature, 49(1):3–71.
Atkinson, A., Casarico, A., and Voitchovsky, S. (2016). Top Incomes and the Gender Divide. Melbourne Institute Working Paper Series, (No. 27/16).
Auten, G., Gee, G., and Turner, N. (2013). Income Inequality, Mobility, and Turnover at the Top in the US, 1987-2010. American Economic Review, 103(3):168–72.
Bertrand, M., Goldin, C., and Katz, L. F. (2010). Dynamics of the Gender Gap for Young Professionals in the Financial and Corporate Sectors. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 2(3):228–55.
Bertrand, M., Kamenica, E., and Pan, J. (2015). Gender Identity and Relative Income within Households . The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 130(2):571– 614.
Boschini, A., Gunnarsson, K., and Roine, J. (2017). Women in Top Incomes: Evidence from Sweden 1974–2013. IZA Discussion Papers 10979, Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA).
Burkhauser, R. V., Hahn, M. H., and Wilkins, R. (2015). Measuring Top Incomes Using Tax Record Data: a Cautionary Tale from Australia. Journal of Economic Inequality, 13:181–205.
Cirillo, P. (2013). Are Your Data Really Pareto Distributed? Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications, 392(23):5947 – 5962.
- Clauset, A., Shalizi, C. R., and Newman, M. E. J. (2009). Power-Law Distributions in Empirical Data. SIAM Rev., 51(4):661–703.
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Fortin, N. M., Bell, B., and Böhm, M. (2017). Top earnings inequality and the gender pay gap: Canada, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. Labour Economics, 47(Supplement C):107 – 123. EALE conference issue 2016.
- From 1990 onwards until 2005, the corporation taxes were fully imputed (avoir fiscal system). The meaning here was to remove the double taxation of dividends and certain kind of interests. In this system, the corporation tax base included the dividends and interests which were payed out to the owners. The individual receiving the dividend or interest payment could then reduce his own tax burden with the same amount that the corporation had paid. This meant that if the dividend was capital income (after 1993), the individual did not have to pay any tax for this income, as the two tax rates (capital and corporation) were at the same level.
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Guvenen, F., Kaplan, G., and Song, J. (2014). The Glass Ceiling and The Paper Floor: Gender Differences among Top Earners. In Revision, earlier NBER working paper.
- In 1993 Finland started to apply the dual income tax system. The earned income (wages, benefits, pensions, transfers, earnings shares, i.e. items not listed as capital) is taxed at a progressive tax rate and capital income (interests, part of dividends and realized gains, rents, insurance income, enterprise capital share, forest capital share) at a flat tax rate. The tax rate on capital (and corporations) was 25 per cent in 1995, 28 per cent between years 1996-1999 and 29 per cent between years 2000-2004, 28 per cent between years 2005-2011. Since 2012 there has been two tax rates for capital income, first set to 30 per cent for income that was less than 50 000 € and 32 for income that was over the threshold.
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Jenderny, K. (2016). Mobility of Top Incomes in Germany. Review of Income and Wealth.
Jenkins, S. P. (2017). Pareto Models, Top Incomes and Recent Trends in UK Income Inequality. Economica, 84(334):261–289.
- OECD (2017). The Pursuit of Gender Equality. OECD Publishing.
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Piketty, T. (2003). Income Inequality in France, 1901–1998. Journal of Political Economy, 111(5):1004–1042.
Piketty, T. and Saez, E. (2003). Income Inequality in the United States, 1913–1998. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 118(1):1–41.
Roine, J. and Waldenström, D. (2015). Long-Run Trends in the Distribution of Income and Wealth. In Atkinson, A. B. and Bourguignon, F., editors, Handbook of Income Distribution, volume 2A, chapter 7, page 469–592. Elsevier B.V. Saez, E. and Veall, M. (2005). The Evolution of High Incomes in Northern America: Lessons from Canadian Evidence. American Economic Review, 95:831–49.
Selin, H. and Pirttilä, J. (2011). Income Shifting within a Dual Income Tax System: Evidence from the Finnish Tax Reform of 1993. The Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 113(1):120–144.
- Since 2005 the corporation tax rates and capital tax rates have not moved hand in hand anymore, in fact the corporation tax rates are much lower.
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- Statistics Finland. Suomen virallinen tilasto (SVT) (Finnish official statistics) ):Tulonjaon kokonaistilasto [verkkojulkaisu] (Total statistics on income distribution) , Tuloerot 2014, Laatuseloste: tulonjaon kokonaistilasto.
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Suoniemi, I. and Rantala, J. (2010). Income mobility, persistent inequality and age, recent experiences from Finland. Labour Institute for Economic Research, Discussion papers(263). Appendices A Income concepts The incomes are drawn from the Statistics Finland’s total statistics where the disposable income concept differs from the income distribution statistics. The primary difference is that the income concept used here includes the taxable realized capital gains.
- The common interests are under tax-at-source since 1991. These are not part of the income statistics. Wealth tax was abolished from the beginning of 2006. C Additional tables
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