- 9. reference_agelimit: A reference to the state session law or statutory compilation in which the law is found. (With limited exceptions, the dates and age limits are drawn directly from the state session laws, which are accessible through HeinOnline’s historical state law database.) For states with laws prior to 1880, this references the source of the age limits existing in 1880.
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- A child born in 1904 is coded as required to attend school in 1919, at age 15, despite the age 14 workage exemption, because they had not been required to complete the workyrs four years of schooling. Similarly, a child born in 1905 is coded as required to attend at ages 14 and 15, and a child born in 1906 is coded as required to attend at age 14. 2
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- A child born in 1907 was required to attend for four years (1917-1920), and so would qualify for the workage exemption at age 14, in 1921. 3
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- A child born in 1909 was required to attend six years of school (1917-1922, at ages 8-13). At age 14, the child would be exempt under the six years earlyyrs exemption. The child would also be exempt under the workage exemption, because they had more than four years of required attendance.
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- Acemoglu, Daron and Joshua Angrist (2000). “How Large Are Human-Capital Externalities? Evidence from Compulsory attendance Laws.†NBER Macroeconomics Annual 15: 9-59.
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- Alabama’s 1919 compulsory attendance law45 ARTICLE 15. SCHOOL ATTENDANCE.
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Angrist, Joshua D (1988). “Grouped Data Estimation and testing in Simple Labor Supply Models,†Industrial Relations Section Working Paper no. 234. 20 As found throughout the paper, the IV estimates of the returns to schooling using the continuous specification of the laws (columns 2 and 5 in Table 9) are larger than the estimates from using the categorical specification (columns 3 and 6).
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- Appendix: For Online Publication Appendix Figure 1: Effect of the Laws on Completed Schooling – Separate Continuation School Panel A: Compulsory Attendance Requirements Panel B: Continuation School Requirements Notes: Figures show the coefficients from regressing completed years of schooling on laws using individuals who were born between 1885 and 1912, inclusive. The outcome in each regression is a binary indicator for having completed at least as many years as shown on the axes. Results are shown for the all white men sample that has 18,887,147 observations. Each regression includes state of birth and region by year of birth fixed effects. See Appendix Table 2 for complete results.
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Card, David (1999). “The Causal Effect of Education on Earnings,†in the Handbook of Labor Economics, Volume 3, Part A, eds. Orley Ashenfelter and David Card: North Holland.
Chernozhukov, Victor and Christian Hansen (2006). “Instrumental quantile regression inference for structural and treatment effect models,†Journal of Econometrics 132:491-525.
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- Cook, W.A. (1912). “A Brief Survey of the Development of Compulsory Education in the United States,†The Elementary School Teacher Vol. 12, 331.
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- Data Appendix Table 1: Attendance Requirements for the 1902-1909 Alabama Birth Cohorts Birth Cohort 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 Calendar Year Cohort’s Age in Each Year 1916 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 1917 (first law in effect) 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 1918 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 1919 (law modified) 17 16 15 1 14 13 12 11 10 1920 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 1921 19 18 17 16 15 14 2 13 12 1922 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 1923 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 3 Years Required Attendance: 1 2 3 4 4 4 5 6 Notes: A child is coded as required to attend school in each highlighted cell. The bottom row shows the total years of required attendance for each birth cohort. 1
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- Eisenberg, M. J. (1988). “Compulsory attendance legislation in America, 1870-1915.†PhD Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania.
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- Ensign, Forest Chester (1921). “Compulsory School Attendance and Child Labor: A Study of the Historical Development of Regulation Compelling Attendance and Limiting the Labor of Children in a Selected Group of States.†PhD Dissertation, Columbia University.
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- Figure 1: Passage of State Laws Affecting School Attendance, 1880-1930 Notes: Figure shows proportion of states with a compulsory attendance law, child labor law exempting working children from compulsory attendance requirements, and continuation schooling law for working children in each calendar year. This figure shows the existence of a law on the books, not whether the law bound children in practice. See the dataset attached in the online Data Appendix for sources.
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- Figure 2: Completed Years of Schooling by Year of Birth, Native-Born White Men Notes: Figure shows the population-weighted proportion of native-born white males reporting at least six, eight, nine, or twelve years of schooling, by year of birth. Data are from the complete count of the 1940 census. Figure 3: Required Years of Education by Year of Birth Notes: Figure shows the population-weighted average years of required education by year of birth, according to state compulsory attendance laws (accounting for years of schooling exemptions, in which children who had completed sufficient schooling could drop out, and child labor exemptions, in which employed children with sufficient schooling could drop out) and state continuation schooling laws (accounting for years of schooling exemptions).
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- Figure 4: Effect of the Laws on Completed Years of Schooling, Native-Born White Men Notes: Figure shows the coefficients from regressing completed years of schooling on laws using individuals who were born between 1885 and 1912, inclusive. The outcome in each regression is a binary indicator for having completed at least as many years as shown on the axes. Results are shown for the all white men sample that has 18,887,147 observations. Each regression includes state of birth and region by year of birth fixed effects. See Appendix Table 1 for full results.
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- Figure 5: Quantile Instrumental Variable Regression Estimates of Returns to Schooling, NativeBorn White Men Notes: Each coefficient is from a separate regression, and error bars show 95% confidence intervals. Results are shown for a random 25% sample of the working men sample: all white men who reported positive earnings and positive weeks worked in 1939. This sample contains 3,306,178 observations. Each regression includes state of birth and region by year of birth fixed effects. See Appendix Table 3, Panel A for full results.
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- Figure 6: Quantile Instrumental Variable Regression Estimates of Returns to Schooling, NativeBorn Parents and Comparison Samples Panel A: Sample Line Individuals Panel B: Native Parents Only Sample Line Individuals Notes: Each coefficient is from a separate regression, and error bars show 95% confidence intervals. Results are shown using the working men sample: all white men who reported positive earnings and positive weeks worked in 1939. Panel A uses the 638,239 observations from the working men sample who are sample line individuals. Panel B uses the 471,363 observations from the working men sample who are sample line individuals and have both parents that are native born. Standard errors are clustered by state and year. Each regression includes state of birth and region by year of birth fixed effects. See Appendix Table 5, Panels B and C for full results.
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Finlay, Keith and Leandro Magnusson. (2009). “Implementing Weak Instrument Robust Tests for a General Class of Instrumental Variables Models,†Stata Journal, 9(3):1-24.
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- Goldin, Claudia and Lawrence Katz (2002). Data Appendix to “Mass Secondary Schooling and the State: The Role of State Compulsion in the High School Movementâ€, 2002. Revised 2007.
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- Goldin, Claudia and Lawrence Katz (2008). The Race Between Education and Technology. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
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Goldin, Claudia and Lawrence Katz (2011). “Mass Secondary Schooling and the State: The Role of State Compulsion in the High School Movement†in Understanding Long-Run Economic Growth: Geography, Institutions, and the Knowledge Economy, Dora L. Costa and Naomi R. Lamoreaux, eds., University of Chicago Press.
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Lindert, Peter (2000). “Three Centuries of Inequality in Britain and America,†in Handbook of Income Distribution, eds. Anthony B. Atkinson and Francois Bourguignon. Amsterdam/New York: Elsevier/North Holland.
Lleras-Muney, Adrianna (2002). “Were Compulsory Attendance and Child Labor Laws Effective? An Analysis from 1915-1939.†Journal of Law and Economics, 45: 401-435.
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- McAfee, Ward M. (1998). Religion, Race, and Reconstruction: The Public School in the Politics of the 1870s. Albany: State University of New York Press.
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Moehling, Carolyn (1999). “State Child Labor Laws and the Decline of Child Labor.†Explorations in Economic History, 36:72-106.
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- Sections 10-15 [describes treatment of truants, state reporting, and school vacations] 46 The child labor law of 1919 provided for legal employment at age 14 so long as the child had a fourth-grade education. 1919 Ala. Acts 867.
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Stephens Jr., Melvin and Dou-Yan Yang (2014). “Compulsory Education and the Benefits of Schooling.†American Economic Review, June 2014, 104(6):1777-1792.
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- Years of required education are calculated for each birth cohort as described in the online Data Appendix. Weights are calculated from the size of year-of-birth cohorts in the 1940 census.
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