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- (A) HIGHER SKILLED (B) LOWER SKILLED (C) UNSKILLED FIGURE A.7: FEMALE EMPLOYMENT IN THE MOST COMMON OCCUPATIONS Notes: This figure displays OLS estimates and 95 percent confidence intervals from separate regressions where the outcome is an indicator variable equal to one if working in the denoted occupation, and zero otherwise. Occupations are defined using the full digit HISCO code. All outcomes refer to 1910. Red circles denote regression coefficients for living in Stockholm 1910. Specifications correspond to that of Column 5, Table 1. Standard errors clustered at the family level.
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- (A) IN LABOR FORCE (B) MARRIAGE (C) ANY CHILD (D) HIGHER SKILL FIGURE 5: EMPLOYMENT, FAMILY FORMATION, AND SKILLS OVER THE LIFE CYCLE Notes: This figure displays binned scatter plots for the outcomes of migrants to Stockholm and rural areas between ages 20 to 46. Higher skill is an indicator for having an occupation with either medium or high skill according to HISCLASS. The graphs combine data on migrants in 1900 (when the sample is aged 20–36) and 1910 (when the sample is aged 30–46). Dark red and blue markers indicate the outcomes of migrants to Stockholm and rural areas in 1900, respectively. Light red and blue markers refer to outcomes in 1910. All estimates include for sibling fixed effects and individual controls following the method of Cattaneo et al. (2024). Section 4 for full list of control variables.
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- (A) INCOME SCORE RANK (B) HH INCOME SCORE RANK FIGURE A.10: INTERGENERATIONAL INCOME MOBILITY Notes: This figure displays a binned scatter plot of the association between father’s and daughter’s income ranks. Ranks are based on the average income for the occupation held by the father in 1880 and daughters in 1910. Red dots indicate the correlation among migrants to Stockholm. Blue dots indicate the correlation among rural migrants.
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- (A) MARRIAGE (B) ANY CHILD (C) SECTOR OF EMPLOYMENT FIGURE 4: FAMILY FORMATION AND SECTOR OF EMPLOYMENT BY POPULATION IN MIGRANT DESTINATION Notes: This figure displays OLS estimates of Equation (1) where the outcome is an indicator for being married (Panel A), for having any child (Panel B), or being employed in the service/industrial sector (Panel C) in 1910. The figure plots point estimates and 95 percent confidence intervals that capture the returns to migrating to different destinations ranked by their population size. Solid lines denote a specification using origin parish fixed effects as well as household and individual controls, while shaded lines denote estimates that include sibling fixed effects. See Section 4 for full list of control variables. Standard errors are clustered at the family level.
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- (A) MARRIAGE (B) ANY CHILD FIGURE A.3: FAMILY FORMATION AMONG MALE MIGRANTS BY POPULATION IN DESTINATION Notes: This figure displays OLS coefficients from separate estimations of Equation (1) on the sample of male migrants, where the outcome is an indicator for being married (Panel A) and having any child (Panel B) in 1910. The figure plots point estimates and 95 percent confidence intervals that capture the returns to migrating to different destinations ranked by their population size. Solid lines denote a specification using origin parish fixed effects as well as household and individual controls, while shaded lines denote estimates that include sibling fixed effects. See Section 4 for full list of control variables. Standard errors are clustered at the family level.
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- Countries included are Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, and the UK. The cross-country averages for the densest and less dense regions are highlighted in bold lines. Data on the employment share of services is drawn from Rosés and Wolf (2018). Panel B displays the employment share of services across Swedish counties. Stockholm county, including the capital, is highlighted in bold red. The average for all other counties is highlighted in bold blue. Data on the employment shares for Swedish (NUTS-3) regions is drawn from Enflo et al. (2014).
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- FIGURE 3: EMPLOYMENT BY POPULATION IN MIGRANT DESTINATION Notes: This figure displays OLS estimates of Equation (1) where the outcome is an indicator for an individual being part of the labor force in 1910. The figure plots point estimates and 95 percent confidence intervals for the returns to migration to parishes across the population percentile distribution. The sample consists of individuals born in rural parishes who have either migrated by 1910 or remain in the parish of origin (the omitted category). Estimates for females are reported in red, and for males in blue. Solid lines denote a specification using origin parish fixed effects as well as household and individual controls, while shaded lines denote estimates that include sibling fixed effects. See Section 4 for full list of control variables. Standard errors are clustered at the family level.
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- FIGURE A.4: AGE AT FIRST CHILD IN STOCKHOLM Notes: This figure displays the distribution of age at first child among women living in Stockholm in the 1910 census, based on women with a newborn child and no other own children in their household.
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- For example, it is easier to link individuals with uncommon names, and name commonality has been linked to traits such as individualism and socio-economic status. With this in mind, Appendix Table B.1 compares matched individuals to the full population in the same age cohorts on observable characteristics measured in 1880. The table shows overall small differences between the two samples, suggesting that our sample is representative of the population. Nevertheless, we show that our results are nearly identical when we use probabilistic weights, reflecting the probability of an observation being selected into the sample (see Appendix Table A.15).44 44 To calculate these, we use the full census data to regress an indicator for being successfully linked on age, age squared, as well as fixed effects for birth order, childhood county, and father’s social class (using HISCLASS).
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- Next, we evaluate these candidate links by comparing first and last names. We do this in three steps. First, if two candidates have the exact same full list of first names (typically consisting of three names) and the full list of last names (typically consisting of one name), and there are no other candidates fulfilling the same criteria we consider this a match. Note that individuals with no explicit surname in the census cannot be matched in this first step. Given that children with an 42 See Berger et al. (2023) for a comparison of age-heaping between different national sources. explicitly reported surname are few, the amount of links established in this first step are few (only 1.6 percent of all children in the 1880 census are linked this way).
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- Notes: These figures display backward match rates between the 1910 census and the 1880 census. In panel A, match rates are displayed by birthyear and sex. In panel B, match rates are displayed by location (in terms of population percentile) and sex. candidates in more populated parishes. While we are able to achieve relatively high linkage rates, it is possible that matched individuals differ systematically from those that are unmatched, possibly yielding unrepresentative estimates.
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- Notes: This figure displays the evolution of the employment share of services in European regions 1900–2000. Panel A separately shows the outcome for the most densely populated NUTS-2 region within each country in red and the average share in other regions in blue.
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- Notes: This figure shows the relationship between the population decile rank of a parish or county and its female labor force participation (Panel A) and share employed in services (Panel B). Variables on the Y-axis are residuals after absorbing country fixed effects. Census data for England and Wales are from 1911, and from 1910 for Sweden and the United States. Most densely populated region Other regions 0 20 40 60 80 % service jobs 1 9 0 0 1 9 2 0 1 9 4 0 1 9 6 0 1 9 8 0 2 0 0 0 Year (A) EUROPEAN REGIONS Stockholm county Other counties 0 20 40 60 80 % service jobs 1 9 0 0 1 9 2 0 1 9 4 0 1 9 6 0 1 9 8 0 2 0 0 0
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- TABLE A.12: TWIN FIXED EFFECTS Dependent variable: In labor force Married Any children (1) (2) (3) Migrant: Stockholm (=1) 0.760∗∗∗ -0.744∗∗∗ -0.536∗∗∗ (0.107) (0.108) (0.121) Migrant: other urban area (=1) 0.054-0.017-0.023 (0.079) (0.083) (0.086) Individual controls Yes Yes Yes Twin fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Observations 502 502 502 Mean outcome 0.257 0.701 0.683 Notes: OLS regressions. Standard errors are given in parentheses and are clustered at the 1880 household level. ∗∗∗ - p < 0.01, ∗∗ -p < 0.05, ∗ - p < 0.1. TABLE A.13: INFLUENCE OF UNOBSERVED WITHIN-SIBLINGS CHARACTERISTICS (OSTER 2019) Dependent variable: In labor force Married Any child (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Baseline + lagged dep. var. Baseline + lagged dep. var. Baseline + lagged dep. var.
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- The sample consists of men and women who were between 30 and 37 years old in 1910. Each coefficient is from a separate regression with siblings fixed effects and individual controls. See Section 4 for full list of control variables. Standard errors are clustered at the family level. Data on death age are obtained from the Death Index.
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- van Leeuwen, Marco HD and Ineke Maas, HISCLASS: A historical international social class scheme, Universitaire Pers Leuven, 2011.
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- Year (B) SWEDISH REGIONS FIGURE 2: SERVICE SECTOR SIZE IN EUROPEAN REGIONS, 1900–2000.
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- Year UK Most densely populated region Other regions Notes: This figure shows that the most densely populated region in all European countries had a higher share of employment in the service sector compared to other regions. Data on the employment share of services is drawn from Rosés and Wolf (2018). For each country, we report the employment share in services in the most densely populated region and the unweighted average across all other regions in each country. A horizontal dashed line denotes the share of employment in services in the most densely populated region in 1900.
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- Young, Alwyn, “Inequality, the urban-rural gap, and migration,” The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 2013, 128 (4), 1727–1785. Figures .2 .25 .3 .35 .4 In labor force (=1) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 County/parish population (decile) England & Wales Sweden United States (A) IN LABOR FORCE .2 .25 .3 .35 .4 Service sector share 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 County/parish population (decile) England & Wales Sweden United States (B) SERVICE JOBS FIGURE 1: LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION AND THE SERVICE SECTOR IN THE EARLY 20th CENTURY.
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