Akcigit, U., Grigsby, J., and Nicholas, T. (2017b). Immigration and the rise of american ingenuity. American Economic Review, 107(5):327–331.
Almeida, P., Phene, A., and Li, S. (2015). The influence of ethnic community knowledge on indian inventor innovativeness. Organization Science, 26(1):198–217.
- Ambekar, A., Ward, C. B., Mohammed, J., Male, S., and Skiena, S. (2009). Nameethnicity classification from open sources. In Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
- Archibugi, D. (1992). Patenting as an indicator of technological innovation: a review. Science and public policy, 19(6):357–368.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
Arora, A., Belenzon, S., Kosenko, K., Suh, J., and Yafeh, Y. (2021). The rise of scientific research in corporate america. Technical report, National Bureau of Economic Research.
Arora, A., Belenzon, S., Patacconi, A., and Suh, J. (2020). The changing structure of american innovation: Some cautionary remarks for economic growth. Innovation Policy and the Economy, 20(1):39–93.
Becker, G. S. and Murphy, K. M. (1992). The division of labor, coordination costs, and knowledge. The Quarterly journal of economics, 107(4):1137–1160.
Bell, A., Chetty, R., Jaravel, X., Petkova, N., and Van Reenen, J. (2019). Who becomes an inventor in america? the importance of exposure to innovation. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 134(2):647–713.
Bloom, N., Jones, C. I., Van Reenen, J., and Webb, M. (2020). Are ideas getting harder to find? American Economic Review, 110(4):1104–1144.
Breschi, S., Malerba, F., and Orsenigo, L. (2000). Technological regimes and schumpeterian patterns of innovation. The economic journal, 110(463):388–410.
- Campello, R. J., Moulavi, D., and Sander, J. (2013). Density-based clustering based on hierarchical density estimates. In Pacific-Asia conference on knowledge discovery and data mining, pages 160–172. Springer.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
- Carlson, W. B. (2013). Innovation and the modern corporation: From heroic invention to industrial science. In Science in the twentieth century, pages 203–226. Routledge.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
- Chandler Jr, A. D. (1993). The visible hand. Harvard university press.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
Clancy, M. S. (2018). Inventing by combining pre-existing technologies: Patent evidence on learning and fishing out. Research Policy, 47(1):252–265.
- Delgado, M. and Murray, F. (2022). Faculty as catalysts for new inventors: Di↵erential outcomes for male and female phd students. In Academy of Management Proceedings, number 1, page 17297. Academy of Management Briarcli↵ Manor, NY 10510.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
- Ding, W. W., Murray, F., and Stuart, T. E. (2006). Gender di↵erences in patenting in the academic life sciences. science, 313(5787):665–667.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
Esposito, C. R. (2023). The geography of breakthrough invention in the united states over the 20th century. Research Policy, 52(7):104810.
- European Patent Office (2020). Patstat - worldwide patent statistical database - spring 2020.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
- Finally, we aggregate technology classes into broader categories using the classification of (Hall et al., 2001). Because this classification is not available for all patents, we infer a correspondence between NBER subcategories and USPC main classes, using the primary technology classes for patents that are classified in both systems. We use this correspondence to add the aggregated NBER classes to as many patents as possible.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
Fleming, L. (2001). Recombinant uncertainty in technological search. Management science, 47(1):117–132.
Furman, J. L. and MacGarvie, M. J. (2007). Academic science and the birth of industrial research laboratories in the U.S. pharmaceutical industry. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 63(4):756–776.
- Gertner, J. (2012). The idea factory: Bell Labs and the great age of American innovation. Penguin Press, New York.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
Gordon, R. J. (2016). The rise and fall of american growth. In The Rise and Fall of American Growth. Princeton University Press.
- Hall, B. H., Ja↵e, A. B., and Trajtenberg, M. (2001). The NBER Patent Citation Data File: Lessons, Insights and Methodological Tools. Working Paper 8498, National Bureau of Economic Research.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
Hanlon, W. W. (2022). The Rise of the Engineer: Inventing the Professional Inventor During the Industrial Revolution. Technical Report w29751, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA.
Henderson, R., Ja↵e, A. B., and Trajtenberg, M. (1998). Universities as a source of commercial technology: a detailed analysis of university patenting, 1965–1988. Review of Economics and statistics, 80(1):119–127.
- Hertz, D. B. (1950). The theory and practice of industrial research.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
- Hounshell, D. A. (1996). The evolution of industrial research in the united states. In Rosenbloom, R. S. and Spencer, W. J., editors, Engines of Innovation. Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
- Jones, B. F. (2009). The burden of knowledge and the “death of the renaissance man”: Is innovation getting harder? The Review of Economic Studies, 76(1):283–317.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
- Jost, L. (2006). Entropy and diversity. Oikos, 113(2):363–375.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
- Jung, T. and Ejermo, O. (2014). Demographic patterns and trends in patenting: Gender, age, and education of inventors. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 86:110– 124.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
- Kaltenberg, M., Ja↵e, A., and Lachman, M. E. (2021). Matched inventor ages from patents, based on web scraped sources.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
Kerr, W. R. (2013). Us high-skilled immigration, innovation, and entrepreneurship: Empirical approaches and evidence. Technical report, National Bureau of Economic Research.
- Klepper, S. (1996). Entry, exit, growth, and innovation over the product life cycle. The American economic review, pages 562–583.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
Lamoreaux, N. R. and Sokolo↵, K. L. (2001). Market trade in patents and the rise of a class of specialized inventors in the 19th century united states. American Economic Review, 91(2):39–44.
- Lamoreaux, N. R., Levenstein, M., and Sokolo↵, K. L. (2007). Financing invention during the second industrial revolution: Cleveland, ohio, 1870–1920.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
Lenoir, T. (1998). Revolution from above: the role of the state in creating the german research system, 1810-1910. The American Economic Review, 88(2):22–27.
Li, Y. and Ne↵ke, F. (2023). Evaluating the principle of relatedness: Estimation, drivers and implications for policy. Technical report, Center for International Development at Harvard University.
Lissoni, F. and Miguelez, E. (2024). Migration and innovation: Learning from patent and inventor data. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 38(1):27–54.
- Marco, A. C., Carley, M., Jackson, S., and Myers, A. F. (2015). The uspto historical patent data files: Two centuries of innovation. SSRN working paper.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
- McInnes, L., Healy, J., and Melville, J. (2018). Umap: Uniform manifold approximation and projection for dimension reduction. arXiv preprint arXiv:1802.03426.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
- Michaelis, A. R. (2003). Justus von liebig, frs: creator of the world’s first scientific research laboratory. Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, 28(4):280–286.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
- Mowery, D. C. and Rosenberg, N. (1999). Paths of innovation: Technological change in 20th-century America. Cambridge University Press.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
Muneepeerakul, R., Lobo, J., Shutters, S. T., Goméz-Liévano, A., and Qubbaj, M. R. (2013). Urban economies and occupation space: Can they get “there” from “here”? PloS one, 8(9):e73676.
- National Research Council (1956). Industrial Research Laboratories of the United States, Including Consulting Research Laboratories. National Research Council, Washington, D.C. Ne↵ke, F. and Henning, M. (2013). Skill relatedness and firm diversification. Strategic Management Journal, 34(3):297–316.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
- Ne↵ke, F. M. (2019). The value of complementary co-workers. Science advances, 5(12):eaax3370.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
Ne↵ke, F. M., Otto, A., and Weyh, A. (2017). Inter-industry labor flows. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 142:275–292.
- Neither adding technology-year fixed e↵ects, nor dropping patents assigned to non-firm organizations changes results by much. 35 Technological sector refers to the 6 high-level groupings in Hall et al. (2001). Table D3: Novelty regression -
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
Pakes, A. and Griliches, Z. (1980). Patents and r&d at the firm level: A first report. Economics letters, 5(4):377–381.
Pezzoni, M., Veugelers, R., and Visentin, F. (2022). How fast is this novel technology going to be a hit? antecedents predicting follow-on inventions. Research Policy, 51(3):104454.
- Pithan, D. (2021). Corporate research laboratories and the history of innovation. Routledge.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
- Reich, L. S. (1985). The making of American industrial research: science and business at GE and Bell, 1876-1926. Studies in economic history and policy. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge [Cambridgeshire] ; New York.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
Righi, C. and Simcoe, T. (2019). Patent examiner specialization. Research Policy, 48(1):137–148.
- Rocke, A. (2021). 41The Rise of Academic Laboratory Science: Chemistry and the ‘German Model’ in the Nineteenth Century. In History of Universities: Volume XXXIV/1: A Global History of Research Education: Disciplines, Institutions, and Nations, 18401950. Oxford University Press.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
Ross, M. B., Glennon, B. M., Murciano-Goro↵, R., Berkes, E. G., Weinberg, B. A., and Lane, J. I. (2022). Women are credited less in science than men. Nature, 608(7921):135– 145.
- Ruggles, S., Flood, S., Foster, S., Goeken, R., Pacas, J., Schouweiler, M., and Sobek, M. (2021). IPUMS USA: Version 11.0 [Dataset]. Minneapolis. IPUMS Minnsesota: MN.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
- Schumpeter, J. (2017). Theorie der wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung. Duncker und Humblot.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
- Silva, J. S. and Tenreyro, S. (2006). The log of gravity. The Review of Economics and statistics, 88(4):641–658.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
- Sood, G. and Laohaprapanon, S. (2018). Predicting race and ethnicity from the sequence of characters in a name.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
Strumsky, D. and Lobo, J. (2015). Identifying the sources of technological novelty in the process of invention. Research Policy, 44(8):1445–1461.
- To turn the flow matrix, F, into a matrix of flow intensities, we calculate skill relatedness (Ne↵ke and Henning, 2013). Skill relatedness quantifies whether an observed flow between two occupations surpasses a random benchmark. Here, we follow van Dam et al.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
- Travis, A. S., Hornix, W. J., Bud, R., and Homburg, E. (1992). The emergence of research laboratories in the dyestu↵s industry, 1870–1900. The British journal for the history of science, 25(1):91–111.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
van Dam, A., Gomez-Lievano, A., Ne↵ke, F., and Frenken, K. (2023). An informationtheoretic approach to the analysis of location and colocation patterns. Journal of Regional Science, 63(1):173–213.
Verhoeven, D., Bakker, J., and Veugelers, R. (2016). Measuring technological novelty with patent-based indicators. Research policy, 45(3):707–723.
- We convert this measure of relatedness into a measure of distance by subtracting matrix PMI from the maximum value across all its elements. Following recommendations of Muneepeerakul et al. (2013) and Li and Ne↵ke (2023), we drop elements of PMI that are not significantly (p = 0.01) larger than 0, taking such occupations to be unrelated.29 In distance matrix, D, these unrelated entries are set to a value of ten times the maximum distance.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
- Weitzman, M. L. (1998). Recombinant growth. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 113(2):331–360.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
Winter, S. G. (1984). Schumpeterian competition in alternative technological regimes. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 5(3-4):287–320.
Wu, L., Wang, D., and Evans, J. A. (2019). Large teams develop and small teams disrupt science and technology. Nature, 566(7744):378–382.
- Wuchty, S., Jones, B. F., and Uzzi, B. (2007). The Increasing Dominance of Teams in Production of Knowledge. Science, 316(5827):1036–1039.
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
- Youn, H., Strumsky, D., Bettencourt, L. M., and Lobo, J. (2015). Invention as a combinatorial process: evidence from us patents. Journal of the Royal Society interface, 12(106):20150272. A Data sources Our analyses combine three di↵erent types of data. The main data set contains information on patents issued by the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO).
Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now