- , , and J. P. Carvalho, “Cultural Transmission and Religion,” in R. Sauer, ed., Handbook of Economics and Religion, World Scientific, 2020.
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- , “The medium run effects of educational expansion: Evidence from a large school construction program in Indonesia,” Journal of Development Economics, 2004, 74 (1), 163–197.
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- , G. Koehler-Derrick, and B. Marx, “The Institutional Foundations of Religious Politics: Evidence from Indonesia,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, 2020, 135 (2), 845–911.
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- , N. Bau, J. Das, and A. Khwaja, “Private schooling, learning, and civic values in a low-income country, ” Technical Report, Working paper 2020.
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Akresh, R., D. Halim, and M. Kleemans, “Long-term and Intergenerational Effects of Education: Evidence from School Construction in Indonesia,” Working Paper 25265, National Bureau of Economic Research November 2018.
- Alesina, A., P. Giuliano, and B. Reich, “Nation-Building and Education,” Working Paper 18839, National Bureau of Economic Research February 2019.
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- All specifications also include survey year dummies, district of birth dummies and year of birth dummies interacted with the 1971 children population, the 1971 enrollment rate, and exposure to the water and sanitation program in the district of birth. In odd-numbered columns, the sample is composed of all individuals aged 2–6 (young) or 12–17 in 1974. In even-numbered columns, the sample is composed of all individuals aged less than 6 (young) or more than 12 in 1974. * p<0.1, ** p<0.05, *** p<0.01. Robust standard errors clustered by district of birth.
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- All specifications include district fixed effects and year fixed effects interacted with the number of children in the district in 1971, the 1971 enrollment rate, and exposure to the water and sanitation program. * p<0.1, ** p<0.05, *** p<0.01. Robust standard errors clustered by district of birth.
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- All specifications include district fixed effects and year fixed effects interacted with the number of children in the district in 1971, the 1971 enrollment rate, and exposure to the water and sanitation program. * p<0.1, ** p<0.05, *** p<0.01. Robust standard errors clustered by district of birth.
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Altonji, J. G., T. E. Elder, and C. R. Taber, “Selection on Observed and Unobserved Variables: Assessing the Effectiveness of Catholic Schools,” Journal of Political Economy, 2005, 113 (1), 151–184.
- Andrabi, T., J. Das, A. I. Khwaja, and T. Zajonc, “Religious School Enrollment in Pakistan: A Look at the Data,” Comparative Education Review, 2006, 50 (3), 446–477.
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Ansell, B. and J. Lindvall, “The political origins of primary education systems: Ideology, institutions, and interdenominational conflict in an era of nation-building,” American Political Science Review, 2013, 107 (3), 505–522.
- Ashraf, N., N. Bau, N. Nunn, and A. Voena, “Bride price and female education,” Journal of Political Economy, 2020, 128 (2).
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- Bandiera, O., M. Mohnen, I. Rasul, and M. Viarengo, “Nation-building through compulsory schooling during the age of mass migration,” The Economic Journal, 2019, 129 (617), 62–109.
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Bazzi, S., A. Gaduh, A.D. Rothenberg, and M. Wong, “Unity in diversity? how intergroup contact can foster nation building,” American Economic Review, 2019, 109 (11), 3978–4025.
- Becker, S. O., N. Nagler, and L. Woessmann, “Education and religious participation: city-level evidence from Germany’s secularization period 1890-1930,” Journal of Economic Growth, 2017, 22, 273–311.
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- Berman, E. and A. Stepanyan, “How many radical Islamists? Indirect evidence from five countries,” Unpublished manuscript, 2004.
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- Bisin, A. and T. Verdier, ““Beyond the Melting Pot”: Cultural Transmission, Marriage, and the Evolution of Ethnic and Religious Traits,” The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 08 2000, 115 (3), 955–988.
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- Boland, B.J., The Struggle of Islam in Modern Indonesia, Brill, 1982.
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Bulow, J. I., J. D. Geanakoplos, and P. D. Klemperer, “Multimarket Oligopoly: Strategic Substitutes and Complements,” Journal of Political Economy, 1985, 93 (3), 488–511.
- Carvalho, J.-P. and M. Koyama, “Resisting Education,” Working Paper, 2016.
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Cohen-Zada, D., “Preserving religious identity through education: Economic analysis and evidence from the US,” Journal of Urban Economics, 2006, 60 (3), 372–398.
- Columns 3–5 are indicators for whether the candidate’s campaign platform mentions concepts that appeal to Indonesian nation building and Pancasila (column 3), to Islam and religious themes (column 4), and nation building exclusive of Islam and religious themes. The specifications in panel (b) are restricted to the original birth cohorts: aged 2–6 (young) or 12–17 in 1974. The specification is otherwise identical to that in Table 2; see the notes therein for details. * p<0.1, ** p<0.05, *** p<0.01. Robust standard errors clustered by district.
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- Darmaningtyas, Pendidikan yang memiskinkan, Galang Press, 2004.
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Dee, T. S., “Are there civic returns to education?,” Journal of public economics, 2004, 88 (9-10), 1697–1720.
Duflo, E., “Schooling and labor market consequences of school construction in Indonesia: Evidence from an unusual policy experiment,” American Economic Review, 2001, 91 (4), 795–813.
- Electoral Outcomes: Vote Shares and Legislative Candidates Vote Shares. First, we draw upon district-level vote shares by party from the national legislative elections in 1971, 1977, 1982, 1987, 1992, 1999, 2004, and 2009. These data were graciously shared with us by individuals that worked with Dwight King. In 1971, one observes the following Islamic parties: NU, PSII, Perti, and the Muslim Party of Indonesia (Partai Muslimin Indonesia or Parmusi). From 1977 to 1992, the only Islamic party was the United Development Party (Partai Persatuan Pembangunan or PPP), which was forged out of a forced merger of the four Islamic parties contesting the 1971 election. We study the vote shares for the PPP and the Suharto regime party, Golkar.
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- Figure 2: INPRES Exposure and Islamic Schooling – Effects by Cohort Dep. Var.: Elementary Madrasa (a) Short-Run -.003 -.002 -.001 0 .001 .002 INPRES x birth year: β 90% confidence interval 1958 1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 year of birth (b) Long-Run -.004 -.002 0 .002 INPRES x birth year: β 90% confidence interval 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 year of birth Dep. Var.: Secondary Madrasa (c) Short-Run -.002 0 .002 .004 .006 INPRES x birth year: β 90% confidence interval 1958 1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 year of birth (d) Long-Run -.005 0 .005 .01 .015 .02 INPRES x birth year: β 90% confidence interval 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 year of birth Notes: This figure reports age-specific estimates of β in equation (1) based on annual Susenas data from 2012 to 2018.
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- Figure 3: INPRES Exposure, Total Schooling and Islamic Education – Effects by Cohort Dep. Var.: Total Years of Schooling (a) Short-Run -.05 0 .05 .1 .15 .2 .25 INPRES x birth year: β 90% confidence interval 1958 1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 year of birth (b) Long-Run -.2 0 .2 .4 .6 INPRES x birth year: β 90% confidence interval 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 year of birth Dep. Var.: Any Level Madrasa (c) Short-Run -.002 0 .002 .004 INPRES x birth year: β 90% confidence interval 1958 1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 year of birth (d) Long-Run -.005 0 .005 .01 .015 .02 INPRES x birth year: β 90% confidence interval 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 year of birth Notes: This figure reports results from the same specification as in Figure 2, looking here at total years of schooling in panels (a) and (b) and any Islamic schooling in panels (c) and (d). See the notes to Figure 2 for further details.
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- Figure 5: INPRES Intensity and Electoral Support for Islam vs. the State (a) State (Golkar, Suharto’s Party) 1973: beginning of SD INPRES First exposed cohorts vote in 1987 Democratic era -.08 -.06 -.04 -.02 0 .02 .04 .06 .08 INPRES x election year: β 90% confidence interval 1971 1977 1982 1987 1992 1999 2004 2009 (b) Islam (United Development Party, PPP) -.08 -.06 -.04 -.02 0 .02 .04 .06 .08 INPRES x election year: β 90% confidence interval 1971 1977 1982 1987 1992 1999 2004 2009 (c) Islam vs. State (PPP minus Golkar) -.08 -.06 -.04 -.02 0 .02 .04 .06 .08 INPRES x election year: β 90% confidence interval 1971 1977 1982 1987 1992 1999 2004 2009 Notes: This figure reports legislative-election-year-specific estimates of β in equation (2) on a balanced district–year panel.
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- Figure A.5: Islamic School Attendance vs. Completion in Repeated Cohorts 0 .05 .1 .15 Highest Schooling Islamic, share of cohort 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Enrolled in 2012 Completed in 2018 Notes: This figure uses repeated observations of identical cohorts in the 2012 and 2018 Susenas rounds. We focus on cohorts born between 1994 and 1999 which were young enough to have been enrolled in school in 2012 but old enough to have completed high school by 2018. Black bars show Islamic attendance rates measured in 2012 while grey bars indicate Islamic completion rates in 2018.
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Fouka, Vasiliki, “Backlash: The Unintended Effects of Language Prohibition in U.S. Schools after World War I,” Review of Economic Studies, 2020, 87 (1), 204–239.
- Gulesci, S. and E. Meyersson, “‘For the Love of the Republic’: Education, Secularism, and Empowerment, ” Working Paper, 2016.
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Hungerman, D. M., “The effect of education on religion: Evidence from compulsory schooling laws,” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 2014, 104, 52–63.
- In even-numbered columns, the sample is composed of all individuals aged less than 6 (young) or more than 12 in 1974. * p<0.1, ** p<0.05, *** p<0.01. Robust standard errors clustered by district of birth.
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- INPRES intensity is defined as the number of SD INPRES schools constructed from 1973-78 per 1,000 children in 1971.
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- It is not possible to identify Pancasila and civic subjects for primary schools (see the discussion in the text) and hence the omission of column 2 in panel (b). All specifications include district fixed effects, grade level fixed effects, year-of-entry fixed effects, and a post-1972 dummy interacted with the 1971 children population, the 1971 enrollment rate, and exposure to the water and sanitation program. * p<0.1, ** p<0.05, *** p<0.01. Robust standard errors clustered by district.
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- Jahar, A. S., “Reinterpreting Islamic Norms: The Conflict Between Legal Paradigms and Socio-Economic Challenges; a Case Study of Waqf and Zakât in Contemporary Indonesia.” PhD dissertation, Verlag nicht ermittelbar 2005.
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- Jo, H., “Jilbab terlarang di era orde baru,” Historia online, 2020.
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- Kelabora, L., “Religious Instruction Policy in Indonesia,” Asian Survey, 1976, 16 (3), 230–248.
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- kemenag.go.id/pbsb/ (accessed November 15, 2018). These records also indicate the district and year of establishment for each pesantren (see Bazzi et al., 2020, for additional details).
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Larreguy, H. and J. Marshall, “The Effect of Education on Civic and Political Engagement in Nonconsolidated Democracies: Evidence from Nigeria,” The Review of Economics and Statistics, 2017, 99 (3), 387–401.
- Legislative Candidates. We use data on the universe of legislative candidates in the 2019 election. Thanks to Nicholas Kuipers for scraping and sharing these data from the Indonesian Electoral Commission: http://www.kpu.go.id/. These include candidates for national, provincial, and district legislatures. We use information on candidate age, district, and party ticket. We also categorize their campaign motivation and platform statements as appealing to Islamic themes as reflected in the following words: umma, dawah, Muslim, Islam, sharia, and jihad. We separately classify appeals to nation building as reflected in the following words: Pancasila, Indonesia, NKRI, bangsa (nation), bhinneka (diversity), and satuan (unitary). The latter three terms are staples in the nation-building corpus of Indonesian leaders and literature. NKRI is an acronym for the Indonesian homeland in a popular nationalistic slogan.
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- Linguistic Proxies for Identity We proxy for national identity using an indicator of whether an individual speaks the national language, Bahasa Indonesia, as his/her main language at home (instead of his/her native ethnic language). This is distinct from Indonesian speaking ability, which we also observe. These data—along with religion, age, and district of birth—are recorded in the complete-count 2010 Population Census, which we obtained from the Harvard Library. We view Arabic language proficiency as one indicator of Islamic identity. The Susenas data described above record literacy in Latin, Arabic, and other alphabets.
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- Marini, M. and G. Rodano, “Lead, Follow or Cooperate? Sequential versus Collusive Payoffs in Symmetric Duopoly Games,” ISRN Economics, 08 2013, 2013.
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Martinez-Bravo, M., “The local political economy effects of school construction in Indonesia,” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 2017, 9 (2), 256–89.
- Mazumder, B., M. Rosales-Rueda, and M. Triyana, “Intergenerational Human Capital Spillovers: Indonesia ’s School Construction and Its Effects on the Next Generation,” in “AEA Papers and Proceedings, ” Vol. 109 2019, pp. 243–49.
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- Meyer, J. W., D. Tyack, J. Nagel, and A. Gordon, “Public Education as Nation-Building in America: Enrollments and Bureaucratization in the American States, 1870-1930,” American Journal of Sociology, 1979, 85 (3), 591–613.
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Neal, D., “The Effects of Catholic Secondary Schooling on Educational Achievement,” Journal of Labor Economics, 1997, 15 (1, Part 1), 98–123.
- Paglayan, A. S., “Civil War, State Consolidation, and the Spread of Mass Education.” PhD dissertation, Working Paper 2017.
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- Panel (b) includes only individuals with the given years of schooling corresponding to each level such that columns 1–2 look at Islamic elementary completion among individuals with 6 years of schooling, columns 3–4 look at Islamic junior secondary completion for those with 9 years, and columns 5–6 look at Islamic senior secondary completion for those with 12 years. All specifications include survey year dummies, district of birth dummies and year of birth dummies interacted with the 1971 children population, the 1971 enrollment rate, and exposure to the water and sanitation program in the district of birth. In odd-numbered columns, the sample is composed of all individuals aged 2–6 (young) or 12–17 in 1974.
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- Pepinsky, T. B., R. W. Liddle, and S. Mujani, Piety and Public Opinion: Understanding Indonesian Islam, New York: Oxford University Press, 2018.
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- Religiosity and Religious Political Preferences We use rich individual-level survey data from Pepinsky, Liddle and Mujani (2018), which is based on a 2008 survey conducted by the authors in which 10 individuals were sampled from each contemporary district. These data include individual age, religion, years and type of education, a host of questions on Islamic piety, practice, and political preferences. Seven Islamic practices are explored in Table 7. The survey also record dimensions of support for Islamic law (sharia) and religious politics more generally. We also use a measure of stated support for Pancasila.
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Rohner, D. and A. Saia, “Education and Conflict: Evidence from a Policy Experiment in Indonesia,” Working Paper, 2019.
Roth, C. and S. Sumarto, “Does education increase interethnic and interreligious tolerance? Evidence from a natural experiment,” 2015.
- Sakalli, S. O., “Secularization and religious backlash: Evidence from Turkey,” Technical Report, Working Paper 2019.
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- Shofia, N. M., “Why Veil? Religious Headscarves and the Public Role of Women,” Working Paper, 2020.
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Squicciarini, M. P., “Devotion and Development: Religiosity, Education, and Economic Progress in Nineteenth-Century France,” American Economic Review, 2020, 110 (11), 3454–91.
- We measure test scores using data collected by the MEC on the national exam scores in 2014 for science and math. We scraped these data in March 2015 from the MEC portal: http://referensi. data.kemdikbud.go.id. We link these data to the Dapodik and MORA registries using school IDs available across datasets.
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- World Bank, “Indonesia Basic Education Study,” Report No. 7841-IND, 1989.
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- Zuhdi, M., “Political and Social Influences on Religious School: A Historical Perspective on Indonesian Islamic School Curricula.” PhD dissertation, McGill University Department of Integrated Studies in Education 2006.
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