Papers by Shahriar Hossain
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Guidelines for E-Waste Management in Bangladesh, 2012
Like other countries in the Asian region, Bangladesh has adopted information and communications t... more Like other countries in the Asian region, Bangladesh has adopted information and communications technologies (ICTs) as tools for development. The government of Bangladesh currently has a declaration on building a “Digital Bangladesh” by 2021. In recent years the use of mobile phones,
PCs, laptops, printers, scanners, etc. have witnessed tremendous growth. Recent data show that Bangladesh now has 59.98 million mobile subscribers (as of June 2010), and 1.02 million fixed phone subscribers (as of May 2010). Bangladesh has generated 6233.04 metric tons of toxics e-waste in cell phones alone in the last 10 years. Every year approximately 181,896 metric tons of e-waste generated from TV. Every year Bangladesh generates roughly 2.7 million metric tons of e-waste of which ship breaking yards alone account for more than 2.5 million metric tons of toxic e-waste each year. This electronic waste is disposed of without understanding the harmful effects of dumping this waste into open landfills, farming land and open bodies of water which are causing serious environmental pollution and health hazards. In Bangladesh every year more than 15% of child workers die as a result of e-waste recycling and more than 83% are exposed by toxics substances and become sick and are forced to live with long term illness. According to a recent study and available information, approximately (50,000) fifty thousand children are involved in the informal e-waste collection and recycling process, amongst them about 40% are involved in shipbreaking yards.
The concern is growing over the large quantities of used and end-of-life electrical and electronic equipment (e-waste) being exported to developing countries for the purpose of re-use, repair, refurbishment, recycling and recovery at facilities that may not meet the Basel Convention standards of environmentally sound management (ESM). The key international conventions that are regulating waste management are the Basel Convention. The Convention recommends that signatories ensure that the generation of hazardous wastes, and other wastes within a country, are reduced to a minimum, taking into account social, technological and economic aspects. Secondly, a country can export hazardous waste if it does not have the technical capacity, necessary facilities or suitable disposal sites to handle the waste in question in an environmentally sound and efficient manner. Steps must be taken to minimize pollution and its consequences for health as far as possible. It should, however, be noted that most developing countries are yet to legislate laws and guidelines on e-waste and continue to act as dumping sites from developed countries. Bangladesh is a signatory to Basel convention prohibiting trans-boundary movement to hazardous waste. Bangladesh adopted its National Environment Policy in the year of 1992 highlighting regulating all activities that pollute and destroy the environment. There are the Environment Conservation Act, 1995, The Environmental Court Act, 2000, and The Environmental Conservation Rules, 1997 in Bangladesh. The Environment conservation act, 1995 authorizes the Director-General of DoE to undertake any activity necessary to conserve and enhance the quality of the environment and to control, prevent and mitigate the pollution. Medical Waste Management Rules, 2008 addresses the waste management issues in the medical sector including some provision for E-waste.
The purpose of these guidelines is to assist the government, private sector, learning institutions and stakeholders to handle and manage electrical and electronic waste effectively to enhance environmental conservation. The guidelines have been developed through a consultative process involving various stakeholders in the relevant sectors. The guidelines have been developed with the strategic objective of providing a complete framework for the management of e-waste generating every year in Bangladesh. Specific objectives of the guidelines are to provide a complete guideline for handling and management of e-waste in an environmentally sound manner. The guidelines are applicable to all those who handle e-waste including the generators, collectors, transporters, dismantlers, recyclers and relevant stakeholders of e-wastes. The guidelines are approached to raise environmental awareness; environmental protection; policy and regulatory frameworks; categories of e-waste and relevant stakeholders; e-waste treatment technologies; and environmentally sound disposal procedures. It is thus pertinent that the guidelines are not a cure for e-waste problems in Bangladesh but will provide a basis for the development of e-waste regulations and an e-waste management policy.
A proper guideline is necessary for the complement of a rule because without a guideline it is hard to properly implement a rule. This guideline will complement the e-waste management rules that will help to enforce the e-waste management in Bangladesh.
E-waste management is necessary because it has numerous impacts on the environment and human health. Occupational health hazards will be increased if proper management does not take place, subsequently, environmental degradation will be accelerated. Pollutants from e-waste create environmental burden as every year 2.7 million metric tons of e-waste generated in our country. Ultimate disposal of these wastes is air, water, and soil. Eventually, these wastes create health hazards. Therefore, it is inevitable to take necessary initiatives to e-waste management in Bangladesh through the formulation of an e-waste rule and its proper implementation.
The best management practice of e-waste in developing countries in the world includes Collection and Segregation, Product Reuse and Disposal, while, in developed countries, it covers remarketing, reuse and recycling of e-waste. This guideline focuses on the best management practice through the amalgamation of both developed and developing countries' management practices. This is because Bangladesh is one of the hubs of e-waste generation countries. Bangladesh generates (2.7 MMT) approximately one-tenth of the total (20-30 MMT) waste generation in the world. Therefore, best practice management will be helpful to the proper management of e-waste in Bangladesh.
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The term ‘environmental refugee’ link with ‘force environmental migration’ and to ended to the ‘c... more The term ‘environmental refugee’ link with ‘force environmental migration’ and to ended to the ‘climate refugee’. So it considered people have to live their home, locality, even the country by the natural disaster and the environmental degradation.
Environmental migrant refers to people who are forced to migrate from or flee their home region due to sudden or long-term changes to their local environment which compromise their well being or secure livelihood, such changes are held to include increased droughts, desertification, sea level rise, and disruption of seasonal weather patterns such as monsoons.[1] Environmental migrants may flee to or migrate to another country or they may migrate internally within their own country.[2] However, the term 'environmental migrant' is used somewhat interchangeably with a range of similar terms, such as 'environmental refugee', 'climate refugee', 'climate migrant', although the distinction between these terms is contested. Despite problems in formulating a uniform and clear-cut definition of 'environmental migration', such a concept has increased as an issue of concern in the 2000s as policy-makers, environmental and social scientists attempt to conceptualise the potential societal ramifications of climate change and general environmental degradation.
The term "environmental refugee" was first proposed by Lester Brown in 1976,[3] since then there has been a proliferation in the use of the term at which "environmental migrant" and a cluster of similar categories, including "forced environmental migrant", "environmentally motivated migrant", "climate refugee", "climate change refugee", "environmentally displaced person (EDP)", "disaster refugee", "environmental displace", "eco-refugee", "ecologically displaced person" and "environmental-refugee-to-be (ERTB)".[4] have been utilized. The differences between these terms are less important than what they have in common: they all suggest that there is a determinable relationship between environmental drivers and human migration, which is analytically useful, policy-relevant and possibly grounds for the expansion of refugee law.
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The Bangladesh is particularly vulnerable to the sea level rise (SLR) on account of its low-lying... more The Bangladesh is particularly vulnerable to the sea level rise (SLR) on account of its low-lying deltaic topography. The total area of the coastal belt is about 39,300 sqkm (27 percent of the country's total area), and more than 29 million people (22 percent of the national population) live in this vulnerable area. Climate change may influence erosion, accretion, floods, water logging, cyclones and tidal surges in the coastal region.
Sea levels rise because warmer water takes up more room than colder water, a process known as thermal expansion. Melting glaciers compound the problem by dumping even more fresh water into the oceans. Rising seas threaten to inundate low-lying areas and islands, threaten coastal populations, damage property and destroy ecosystems such as mangroves that protect coasts against storms and wetlands. Sea levels have risen between four and eight inches in the past 100 years. Current projections suggest that sea levels could continue to rise between 4 inches and 36 inches within the next 100 years. A 36-inch increase in sea levels would swamp all low-lying areas and islands around the globe including southern Bangladesh and also every city on the east coast of the United States, from Miami to Boston.
Sea level rise associated with other effects of climate change could displace tens of millions of people in low-lying areas -- especially in developing countries. Inhabitants of some small island countries that rest barely above the existing sea level are already planning to abandon their islands, some of the world's first climate change refugees.
Unfortunately, however, it is precisely this topography that makes Bangladesh particularly vulnerable to the effects of global climate change. If these environmental effects converge with the country's high population and widespread poverty, they will create a perfect storm of disaster.
Even if greenhouse gas emissions were to stop today, scientists believe that warming already underway will cause seas to rise two inches over the next century. If nothing is done to curb emissions, sea levels could climb more than three feet. If this happens, 15% of Bangladesh could be under water. The mangrove forests of the low-lying Sundarbans, a world heritage site, as well as its Bengal tiger and hundreds of bird species may disappear.
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Teaching Documents by Shahriar Hossain
Environmental Governance is the means by which society determines and acts on goals and prioritie... more Environmental Governance is the means by which society determines and acts on goals and priorities related to the management of natural resources. This includes the rules, both formal and informal, that govern human behavior in decision-making processes as well as the decisions themselves. Appropriate legal frameworks on the global, regional, national and local level are a prerequisite for good environmental governance. Environmental governance also is a concept of political ecology or environmental policy related to defining the elements needed to achieve sustainability. All human activities — political, social and economic — should be understood and managed as subsets of the environment and ecosystems.[1] Governance includes not only government, but also business and civil society, and emphasizes whole system management. To capture this diverse range of dynamic forces, environmental governance often necessitates founding alternative systems of governing, for example watershed based management.[2]
Natural resources and the environment should be seen as a global public good, belonging to the specific category of goods that are divided up when they are shared.[3] The global nature of these goods stems from the presence of each of the constituent elements that form an integrated system. This means that everyone can benefit from the atmosphere, climate and biodiversity, to name a few, whilst the entire planet suffers the dramatic consequences of global warming, reduced ozone layer and the disappearance of species. This planetary dimension requires a collective management approach.
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Papers by Shahriar Hossain
PCs, laptops, printers, scanners, etc. have witnessed tremendous growth. Recent data show that Bangladesh now has 59.98 million mobile subscribers (as of June 2010), and 1.02 million fixed phone subscribers (as of May 2010). Bangladesh has generated 6233.04 metric tons of toxics e-waste in cell phones alone in the last 10 years. Every year approximately 181,896 metric tons of e-waste generated from TV. Every year Bangladesh generates roughly 2.7 million metric tons of e-waste of which ship breaking yards alone account for more than 2.5 million metric tons of toxic e-waste each year. This electronic waste is disposed of without understanding the harmful effects of dumping this waste into open landfills, farming land and open bodies of water which are causing serious environmental pollution and health hazards. In Bangladesh every year more than 15% of child workers die as a result of e-waste recycling and more than 83% are exposed by toxics substances and become sick and are forced to live with long term illness. According to a recent study and available information, approximately (50,000) fifty thousand children are involved in the informal e-waste collection and recycling process, amongst them about 40% are involved in shipbreaking yards.
The concern is growing over the large quantities of used and end-of-life electrical and electronic equipment (e-waste) being exported to developing countries for the purpose of re-use, repair, refurbishment, recycling and recovery at facilities that may not meet the Basel Convention standards of environmentally sound management (ESM). The key international conventions that are regulating waste management are the Basel Convention. The Convention recommends that signatories ensure that the generation of hazardous wastes, and other wastes within a country, are reduced to a minimum, taking into account social, technological and economic aspects. Secondly, a country can export hazardous waste if it does not have the technical capacity, necessary facilities or suitable disposal sites to handle the waste in question in an environmentally sound and efficient manner. Steps must be taken to minimize pollution and its consequences for health as far as possible. It should, however, be noted that most developing countries are yet to legislate laws and guidelines on e-waste and continue to act as dumping sites from developed countries. Bangladesh is a signatory to Basel convention prohibiting trans-boundary movement to hazardous waste. Bangladesh adopted its National Environment Policy in the year of 1992 highlighting regulating all activities that pollute and destroy the environment. There are the Environment Conservation Act, 1995, The Environmental Court Act, 2000, and The Environmental Conservation Rules, 1997 in Bangladesh. The Environment conservation act, 1995 authorizes the Director-General of DoE to undertake any activity necessary to conserve and enhance the quality of the environment and to control, prevent and mitigate the pollution. Medical Waste Management Rules, 2008 addresses the waste management issues in the medical sector including some provision for E-waste.
The purpose of these guidelines is to assist the government, private sector, learning institutions and stakeholders to handle and manage electrical and electronic waste effectively to enhance environmental conservation. The guidelines have been developed through a consultative process involving various stakeholders in the relevant sectors. The guidelines have been developed with the strategic objective of providing a complete framework for the management of e-waste generating every year in Bangladesh. Specific objectives of the guidelines are to provide a complete guideline for handling and management of e-waste in an environmentally sound manner. The guidelines are applicable to all those who handle e-waste including the generators, collectors, transporters, dismantlers, recyclers and relevant stakeholders of e-wastes. The guidelines are approached to raise environmental awareness; environmental protection; policy and regulatory frameworks; categories of e-waste and relevant stakeholders; e-waste treatment technologies; and environmentally sound disposal procedures. It is thus pertinent that the guidelines are not a cure for e-waste problems in Bangladesh but will provide a basis for the development of e-waste regulations and an e-waste management policy.
A proper guideline is necessary for the complement of a rule because without a guideline it is hard to properly implement a rule. This guideline will complement the e-waste management rules that will help to enforce the e-waste management in Bangladesh.
E-waste management is necessary because it has numerous impacts on the environment and human health. Occupational health hazards will be increased if proper management does not take place, subsequently, environmental degradation will be accelerated. Pollutants from e-waste create environmental burden as every year 2.7 million metric tons of e-waste generated in our country. Ultimate disposal of these wastes is air, water, and soil. Eventually, these wastes create health hazards. Therefore, it is inevitable to take necessary initiatives to e-waste management in Bangladesh through the formulation of an e-waste rule and its proper implementation.
The best management practice of e-waste in developing countries in the world includes Collection and Segregation, Product Reuse and Disposal, while, in developed countries, it covers remarketing, reuse and recycling of e-waste. This guideline focuses on the best management practice through the amalgamation of both developed and developing countries' management practices. This is because Bangladesh is one of the hubs of e-waste generation countries. Bangladesh generates (2.7 MMT) approximately one-tenth of the total (20-30 MMT) waste generation in the world. Therefore, best practice management will be helpful to the proper management of e-waste in Bangladesh.
Environmental migrant refers to people who are forced to migrate from or flee their home region due to sudden or long-term changes to their local environment which compromise their well being or secure livelihood, such changes are held to include increased droughts, desertification, sea level rise, and disruption of seasonal weather patterns such as monsoons.[1] Environmental migrants may flee to or migrate to another country or they may migrate internally within their own country.[2] However, the term 'environmental migrant' is used somewhat interchangeably with a range of similar terms, such as 'environmental refugee', 'climate refugee', 'climate migrant', although the distinction between these terms is contested. Despite problems in formulating a uniform and clear-cut definition of 'environmental migration', such a concept has increased as an issue of concern in the 2000s as policy-makers, environmental and social scientists attempt to conceptualise the potential societal ramifications of climate change and general environmental degradation.
The term "environmental refugee" was first proposed by Lester Brown in 1976,[3] since then there has been a proliferation in the use of the term at which "environmental migrant" and a cluster of similar categories, including "forced environmental migrant", "environmentally motivated migrant", "climate refugee", "climate change refugee", "environmentally displaced person (EDP)", "disaster refugee", "environmental displace", "eco-refugee", "ecologically displaced person" and "environmental-refugee-to-be (ERTB)".[4] have been utilized. The differences between these terms are less important than what they have in common: they all suggest that there is a determinable relationship between environmental drivers and human migration, which is analytically useful, policy-relevant and possibly grounds for the expansion of refugee law.
Sea levels rise because warmer water takes up more room than colder water, a process known as thermal expansion. Melting glaciers compound the problem by dumping even more fresh water into the oceans. Rising seas threaten to inundate low-lying areas and islands, threaten coastal populations, damage property and destroy ecosystems such as mangroves that protect coasts against storms and wetlands. Sea levels have risen between four and eight inches in the past 100 years. Current projections suggest that sea levels could continue to rise between 4 inches and 36 inches within the next 100 years. A 36-inch increase in sea levels would swamp all low-lying areas and islands around the globe including southern Bangladesh and also every city on the east coast of the United States, from Miami to Boston.
Sea level rise associated with other effects of climate change could displace tens of millions of people in low-lying areas -- especially in developing countries. Inhabitants of some small island countries that rest barely above the existing sea level are already planning to abandon their islands, some of the world's first climate change refugees.
Unfortunately, however, it is precisely this topography that makes Bangladesh particularly vulnerable to the effects of global climate change. If these environmental effects converge with the country's high population and widespread poverty, they will create a perfect storm of disaster.
Even if greenhouse gas emissions were to stop today, scientists believe that warming already underway will cause seas to rise two inches over the next century. If nothing is done to curb emissions, sea levels could climb more than three feet. If this happens, 15% of Bangladesh could be under water. The mangrove forests of the low-lying Sundarbans, a world heritage site, as well as its Bengal tiger and hundreds of bird species may disappear.
Teaching Documents by Shahriar Hossain
Natural resources and the environment should be seen as a global public good, belonging to the specific category of goods that are divided up when they are shared.[3] The global nature of these goods stems from the presence of each of the constituent elements that form an integrated system. This means that everyone can benefit from the atmosphere, climate and biodiversity, to name a few, whilst the entire planet suffers the dramatic consequences of global warming, reduced ozone layer and the disappearance of species. This planetary dimension requires a collective management approach.
PCs, laptops, printers, scanners, etc. have witnessed tremendous growth. Recent data show that Bangladesh now has 59.98 million mobile subscribers (as of June 2010), and 1.02 million fixed phone subscribers (as of May 2010). Bangladesh has generated 6233.04 metric tons of toxics e-waste in cell phones alone in the last 10 years. Every year approximately 181,896 metric tons of e-waste generated from TV. Every year Bangladesh generates roughly 2.7 million metric tons of e-waste of which ship breaking yards alone account for more than 2.5 million metric tons of toxic e-waste each year. This electronic waste is disposed of without understanding the harmful effects of dumping this waste into open landfills, farming land and open bodies of water which are causing serious environmental pollution and health hazards. In Bangladesh every year more than 15% of child workers die as a result of e-waste recycling and more than 83% are exposed by toxics substances and become sick and are forced to live with long term illness. According to a recent study and available information, approximately (50,000) fifty thousand children are involved in the informal e-waste collection and recycling process, amongst them about 40% are involved in shipbreaking yards.
The concern is growing over the large quantities of used and end-of-life electrical and electronic equipment (e-waste) being exported to developing countries for the purpose of re-use, repair, refurbishment, recycling and recovery at facilities that may not meet the Basel Convention standards of environmentally sound management (ESM). The key international conventions that are regulating waste management are the Basel Convention. The Convention recommends that signatories ensure that the generation of hazardous wastes, and other wastes within a country, are reduced to a minimum, taking into account social, technological and economic aspects. Secondly, a country can export hazardous waste if it does not have the technical capacity, necessary facilities or suitable disposal sites to handle the waste in question in an environmentally sound and efficient manner. Steps must be taken to minimize pollution and its consequences for health as far as possible. It should, however, be noted that most developing countries are yet to legislate laws and guidelines on e-waste and continue to act as dumping sites from developed countries. Bangladesh is a signatory to Basel convention prohibiting trans-boundary movement to hazardous waste. Bangladesh adopted its National Environment Policy in the year of 1992 highlighting regulating all activities that pollute and destroy the environment. There are the Environment Conservation Act, 1995, The Environmental Court Act, 2000, and The Environmental Conservation Rules, 1997 in Bangladesh. The Environment conservation act, 1995 authorizes the Director-General of DoE to undertake any activity necessary to conserve and enhance the quality of the environment and to control, prevent and mitigate the pollution. Medical Waste Management Rules, 2008 addresses the waste management issues in the medical sector including some provision for E-waste.
The purpose of these guidelines is to assist the government, private sector, learning institutions and stakeholders to handle and manage electrical and electronic waste effectively to enhance environmental conservation. The guidelines have been developed through a consultative process involving various stakeholders in the relevant sectors. The guidelines have been developed with the strategic objective of providing a complete framework for the management of e-waste generating every year in Bangladesh. Specific objectives of the guidelines are to provide a complete guideline for handling and management of e-waste in an environmentally sound manner. The guidelines are applicable to all those who handle e-waste including the generators, collectors, transporters, dismantlers, recyclers and relevant stakeholders of e-wastes. The guidelines are approached to raise environmental awareness; environmental protection; policy and regulatory frameworks; categories of e-waste and relevant stakeholders; e-waste treatment technologies; and environmentally sound disposal procedures. It is thus pertinent that the guidelines are not a cure for e-waste problems in Bangladesh but will provide a basis for the development of e-waste regulations and an e-waste management policy.
A proper guideline is necessary for the complement of a rule because without a guideline it is hard to properly implement a rule. This guideline will complement the e-waste management rules that will help to enforce the e-waste management in Bangladesh.
E-waste management is necessary because it has numerous impacts on the environment and human health. Occupational health hazards will be increased if proper management does not take place, subsequently, environmental degradation will be accelerated. Pollutants from e-waste create environmental burden as every year 2.7 million metric tons of e-waste generated in our country. Ultimate disposal of these wastes is air, water, and soil. Eventually, these wastes create health hazards. Therefore, it is inevitable to take necessary initiatives to e-waste management in Bangladesh through the formulation of an e-waste rule and its proper implementation.
The best management practice of e-waste in developing countries in the world includes Collection and Segregation, Product Reuse and Disposal, while, in developed countries, it covers remarketing, reuse and recycling of e-waste. This guideline focuses on the best management practice through the amalgamation of both developed and developing countries' management practices. This is because Bangladesh is one of the hubs of e-waste generation countries. Bangladesh generates (2.7 MMT) approximately one-tenth of the total (20-30 MMT) waste generation in the world. Therefore, best practice management will be helpful to the proper management of e-waste in Bangladesh.
Environmental migrant refers to people who are forced to migrate from or flee their home region due to sudden or long-term changes to their local environment which compromise their well being or secure livelihood, such changes are held to include increased droughts, desertification, sea level rise, and disruption of seasonal weather patterns such as monsoons.[1] Environmental migrants may flee to or migrate to another country or they may migrate internally within their own country.[2] However, the term 'environmental migrant' is used somewhat interchangeably with a range of similar terms, such as 'environmental refugee', 'climate refugee', 'climate migrant', although the distinction between these terms is contested. Despite problems in formulating a uniform and clear-cut definition of 'environmental migration', such a concept has increased as an issue of concern in the 2000s as policy-makers, environmental and social scientists attempt to conceptualise the potential societal ramifications of climate change and general environmental degradation.
The term "environmental refugee" was first proposed by Lester Brown in 1976,[3] since then there has been a proliferation in the use of the term at which "environmental migrant" and a cluster of similar categories, including "forced environmental migrant", "environmentally motivated migrant", "climate refugee", "climate change refugee", "environmentally displaced person (EDP)", "disaster refugee", "environmental displace", "eco-refugee", "ecologically displaced person" and "environmental-refugee-to-be (ERTB)".[4] have been utilized. The differences between these terms are less important than what they have in common: they all suggest that there is a determinable relationship between environmental drivers and human migration, which is analytically useful, policy-relevant and possibly grounds for the expansion of refugee law.
Sea levels rise because warmer water takes up more room than colder water, a process known as thermal expansion. Melting glaciers compound the problem by dumping even more fresh water into the oceans. Rising seas threaten to inundate low-lying areas and islands, threaten coastal populations, damage property and destroy ecosystems such as mangroves that protect coasts against storms and wetlands. Sea levels have risen between four and eight inches in the past 100 years. Current projections suggest that sea levels could continue to rise between 4 inches and 36 inches within the next 100 years. A 36-inch increase in sea levels would swamp all low-lying areas and islands around the globe including southern Bangladesh and also every city on the east coast of the United States, from Miami to Boston.
Sea level rise associated with other effects of climate change could displace tens of millions of people in low-lying areas -- especially in developing countries. Inhabitants of some small island countries that rest barely above the existing sea level are already planning to abandon their islands, some of the world's first climate change refugees.
Unfortunately, however, it is precisely this topography that makes Bangladesh particularly vulnerable to the effects of global climate change. If these environmental effects converge with the country's high population and widespread poverty, they will create a perfect storm of disaster.
Even if greenhouse gas emissions were to stop today, scientists believe that warming already underway will cause seas to rise two inches over the next century. If nothing is done to curb emissions, sea levels could climb more than three feet. If this happens, 15% of Bangladesh could be under water. The mangrove forests of the low-lying Sundarbans, a world heritage site, as well as its Bengal tiger and hundreds of bird species may disappear.
Natural resources and the environment should be seen as a global public good, belonging to the specific category of goods that are divided up when they are shared.[3] The global nature of these goods stems from the presence of each of the constituent elements that form an integrated system. This means that everyone can benefit from the atmosphere, climate and biodiversity, to name a few, whilst the entire planet suffers the dramatic consequences of global warming, reduced ozone layer and the disappearance of species. This planetary dimension requires a collective management approach.