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The racialized landscape of COVID-19:Reverberations for minority adolescents and families in the U.S.

Author information

Affiliations

  • 1. Population Research Center, University of Texas at Austin, 305 E 23rd Street, Austin, TX, 78712, USA.
      Authors
    • Coulter KM 1
    (1 author)
  • 2. Department of Human Development and Family Sciences, University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station A2702, Austin, TX, 78723, USA.
      Authors
    • Benner AD 2
    (1 author)

Current Opinion in Psychology, 05 Jun 2023, 52:101614
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101614 PMID: 37364467 PMCID: PMC10240907

Review

This article is in the Europe PMC Open access subset. Refer to the copyright information in the article for licensing details.
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Abstract 

COVID-19 has caused unprecedented disruptions to American society, yet the ramifications have exhibited a pronounced impact for racial/ethnic minority adolescents and their families. Alongside upheavals to social and learning environments, minoritized youth have navigated disproportionate health and socioeconomic challenges within their families in addition to amplified racial tensions. As a result, the pandemic has disparately impacted racial/ethnic minorities. In this review, we synthesize studies of the pandemic to describe the hardships faced by racial/ethnic minority families and adolescents, their reverberation on dimensions of well-being, and the assets which buttress their welfare in the midst of COVID-19. It is imperative that future pandemic response efforts aid the most vulnerable, particularly communities of color, to ensure equitable welfare and post-pandemic recovery.

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Curr Opin Psychol. 2023 Aug; 52: 101614.
PMCID: PMC10240907
PMID: 37364467

The racialized landscape of COVID-19:Reverberations for minority adolescents and families in the U.S.

Kiera M. Coulter1,* and Aprile D. Benner2
Author information Copyright and License information Disclaimer

Associated Data

Data Availability Statement

Abstract

COVID-19 has caused unprecedented disruptions to American society, yet the ramifications have exhibited a pronounced impact for racial/ethnic minority adolescents and their families. Alongside upheavals to social and learning environments, minoritized youth have navigated disproportionate health and socioeconomic challenges within their families in addition to amplified racial tensions. As a result, the pandemic has disparately impacted racial/ethnic minorities. In this review, we synthesize studies of the pandemic to describe the hardships faced by racial/ethnic minority families and adolescents, their reverberation on dimensions of well-being, and the assets which buttress their welfare in the midst of COVID-19. It is imperative that future pandemic response efforts aid the most vulnerable, particularly communities of color, to ensure equitable welfare and post-pandemic recovery.

Introduction

In March of 2020, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was declared a national emergency in the United States (U.S). As COVID-19 infections rose, societal restrictions were imposed to mitigate transmission, initiating wide-scale closure of businesses, workplaces, and schools. While the pandemic caused unprecedented disruptions to American society overall, the ramifications of COVID-19 have exhibited a pronounced impact for racial/ethnic minority adolescents. Alongside upheavals to social and learning environments, minoritized youth have navigated disproportionate health and socioeconomic challenges within their families in addition to amplified racial tensions. The disparate impacts of the pandemic highlight longstanding racial inequities in the U.S., yet racial/ethnic minority adolescents have also relied upon unique sources of resilience to weather the COVID-19 landscape. In this review, we synthesize studies of the pandemic to describe hardships faced by racial/ethnic minority families and adolescents in the U.S., their reverberation onto dimensions of well-being, and the assets which buttress their welfare in the midst of COVID-19.

COVID-19 disease and vaccination

Public health professionals have called attention to racial/ethnic disparities in COVID-19 disease burden. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of COVID-19 studies show that racial/ethnic minorities have experienced disproportionate rates of infection, hospitalization, and death [1,2]. While youth have been less affected by COVID-19 compared to adults, differentials in COVID-19 outcomes also extend to minoritized adolescents. Two thirds of hospitalized adolescents (12–17 years) with COVID-19 from March 2020 to April 2021 were Black or Latino [3]. Additionally, a retrospective cohort study demonstrated that Black and other non-White children/adolescents hospitalized with COVID-19 suffered greater disease severity relative to other racial/ethnic groups [4]. Racial/ethnic disparities in social determinants of health (e.g., living in overcrowded conditions, limited insurance coverage) and chronic disease underpin worse COVID-19 outcomes [5,6]. In other words, structural racism drives, in part, differences in COVID-19 morbidity and mortality via heightened risk of COVID-19 exposure, weathering processes (e.g., preexisting poor health), and reduced health care access and quality [7].

COVID-19 vaccination is critical to curbing the pandemic, however, the vaccination rates of minoritized communities have lagged behind those of Whites [8]. Their slowed COVID-19 vaccine uptake can be attributed in part to greater COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy, which is driven by pervasive medical mistrust rooted in historical and contemporaneous experiences of discrimination in healthcare [9,10]. Medical mistrust among minoritized adolescents is heightened by loneliness, greater pandemic-related financial insecurity (e.g., income loss), and qualifying for free and reduced lunch [11]. In sum, achieving equitable vaccine coverage requires addressing medical mistrust emanating from discriminatory healthcare practices.

Variation in the consequences of the pandemic for facets of daily life

Alongside the health consequences of COVID-19, racial/ethnic minority adolescents and families confronted compounding material hardships, greater exposure to school closures, and racialized stressors.

Material hardships

The socioeconomic fallout of COVID-19 imposed severe material hardships on racial/ethnic minority families, introducing potent risk factors to minoritized adolescents' well-being. Data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics Current Population survey revealed that, at the outset of 2020, Black workers lost or left non-frontline jobs disproportionately relative to Whites, while Latinx and Asian American workers experienced excess rates of unemployment in frontline positions [12]. Working remotely contributed to employment continuity during the pandemic, however, racial/ethnic minority parents were less likely to be able to switch to remote work compared to White parents, reflective of their overrepresentation in low-wage, frontline jobs [13]. A mixed-methods study with Latinx young adults also highlighted their families' exclusion from economic relief (i.e., stimulus checks) via the Family First Coronavirus Response Act due to immigration status, exacerbating financial deprivation for undocumented and mixed-status families [14]. Heightened financial challenges compromised minoritized families' abilities to meet their basic needs. A national survey conducted from May to August 2020 found that Black and Latinx respondents more frequently confronted eviction, mortgage/rent delinquency, and troubles paying utility bills compared to Whites [15]. Moreover, racial/ethnic minority families were more prone to being newly food insecure post-pandemic onset [16]. The U.S. Census Bureau's Household Pulse survey also suggests that pandemic-related hardships may persist for racial/ethnic minority families, as the likelihood of Black and Hispanic families struggling with food insufficiency and income loss remained high even after statewide reopening policies were implemented [17].

School closures

While struggling to meet basic living expenses, school closures were an additive pandemic-related stressor upending family routines, peer networks, and school-based activities. School closures were implemented widely to curb COVID-19 transmission, yet, estimates show that school closures were more common within K-12 public schools with higher proportions of racial/ethnic minority students [18], resulting in greater exposure to online/distance and hybrid learning. In October 2020, more than half of Black, Latinx, and Asian students were engaged in online/distance learning relative to only 35% of White students [18]. Simultaneously, the shift to online schooling occurred amid the digital divide, wherein racial/ethnic minorities are more susceptible to lacking internet access or reliable internet connections [19], and studies also suggest that Black and Latinx households had less access to functioning internet and internet-capable devices needed for remote learning [19,20]. In sum, these stressors pose risks to exacerbating existing educational disparities among adolescents by race/ethnicity during the pandemic.

Racialized stressors

COVID-19 has also coincided with heightened racial/ethnic discrimination. Widespread Sinophobia emanated from the societal vilification of Asians for COVID-19 [21]. Simultaneously, public killings of Black individuals by police sparked global protests in support of the Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement [22]. Latino communities were targets of anti-immigrant rhetoric and policies during the pandemic, such as the exclusion of non-citizens from economic relief benefits [23]. Against this backdrop of amplified racism, studies document increases in minoritized adolescents’ appraisals of discrimination over the pandemic. Focus groups with Latino youth and parents reveal their perceptions of being treated “like foreigners” during the pandemic period [23]. Asian adolescents and adults have encountered greater frequency and/or severity of personally experienced anti-Asian harassment and hate crimes [21,24]. Nationally-representative data from January–June 2021 demonstrated that perceived racism was highest among Asian and Black adolescents relative to other racial/ethnic groups [25]. The racialized landscape was also imbued within social media, and minoritized adolescents were exposed to online racial discrimination with more time spent on social media platforms [26].

Taken together, the consequences of COVID-19 for the daily contexts of young people's lives have been more severe for racial/ethnic minority adolescents and their families. As a result, the pandemic has exhibited austere impacts on racial/ethnic minorities' well-being across developmental domains.

Variation in the impacts of the pandemic for well-being

The COVID-19 pandemic has shaped family functioning, youth's mental health as well as their academic performance and physical health or health behaviors. Simultaneously, research highlights several assets and coping strategies that have mitigated COVID-19 hardships for minoritized youth.

Family functioning

Research examining family functioning illuminates both the deleterious effects of pandemic stressors but also factors promoting resilience. Liu and colleagues demonstrated that racial/ethnic minority families confronted greater levels of material hardship and unpredictability, causing disruptions in regular family routines and, in turn, worse well-being among caregivers and youth [27]. Simultaneously, qualitative and mixed-methods studies of Black, Latinx, and Native American adolescents document their perceptions of strengthened family relationships post-pandemic. More time at home due to school closures and employment changes allowed for strengthened familial connections [28, 29, 30]. In addition, a study of Latinx youth suggested that school closures improved sibling relationships (i.e., sibling positivity), specifically within more economically-advantaged families and more enculturated youth [31]. Thus, increased time at home and strengthened familial bonds were “silver linings” of the pandemic for some young people [32].

Mental health

Pandemic-related stressors exerted harmful effects on racial/ethnic minorities’ mental health. For example, a study of Latinx adolescents showed that COVID-19 hospitalization and job/income loss within the household increased their childcare responsibilities, resulting in poorer mental health [33]. Moreover, higher rates of COVID-19 mortality among minoritized populations increased their risk of trauma from losing a family member. Data from adolescent users of a national crisis text line during COVID-19 showed that Black and Indigenous youth were more likely to seek support with bereavement, possibly reflecting disparities in COVID-19 deaths within those groups [34]. Similarly, findings from a national study suggested variation by race/ethnicity in suicide trends early in the pandemic, with American Indian/Alaska Native and Black youth experiencing disproportionate suicide deaths [35].

The heightened landscape of racial discrimination also compromised racial/ethnic minorities’ emotional health. A study of minoritized adolescents demonstrated increases in depressive symptoms pre to post-COVID-19, which were more pronounced for youth who personally experienced racism during the pandemic [36]. Within the study sample, Asian and Black adolescents endorsed the highest levels of perceived racism and/or worrying about confronting racism over the pandemic [36]. Additional studies with Asian adolescent samples demonstrated associations between discrimination exposure during the pandemic and poor mental health (e.g., depression, post-traumatic stress symptoms) [37,38].

However, some work has highlighted areas of strength and resilience. The maintenance of heritage culture and parental racial-ethnic socialization contributed to improved socioemotional well-being in a study of Chinese-American adolescents, highlighting the importance of these assets within the racialized landscape of COVID-19 [39]. Another longitudinal study showed improvements in mental health status pre to post-COVID-19 within a majority-Latinx adolescent sample, particularly for youth with mental health issues prior to the pandemic [32]. The authors attributed this improvement to the protective benefits of stay-at-home measures and increased time with family, which may be especially salient for Latinx adolescents from familistic cultural backgrounds [32].

Academic functioning

The spillover effects of COVID-19 hardships have resulted in disparate academic functioning by race/ethnicity as well. A study assessing grade changes pre- and post-pandemic observed greater proportions of Black and Hispanic adolescents in the “declined grades” group compared to the “same/improved grades” group, while the opposite trend was noted for Whites [40]. Among students whose grades declined, many were engaged in remote learning [40], suggesting a link between online schooling and worse academic performance. Qualitative work with Black and Latinx adolescents has documented how remote learning compromised their academic success, specifically due to technology/internet issues, lack of in-person connection with teachers, and distractions at home [28,29]. For instance, Roche and colleagues’ (2022) study of Latinx adolescents found that increased childcare responsibilities, resulting from household COVID-19 hospitalization and job/income loss, led to poorer academic performance [33]. Focus groups with school-based mental health professionals also captured their observations that students of color struggled more to remain engaged in school compared to White students, which they attributed to household financial challenges, technology issues, mental health struggles, and increased caretaker roles [41].

Physical health and health behaviors

Health experts were also concerned with adolescents’ physical health and risk behavior engagement during COVID-19 due to several risks. Research has attended to changes in weight, substance use, and sleep, further illustrating the harmful effects of COVID-19 for racial/ethnic minority adolescents. For example, a retrospective cohort study found that excessive weight gain during the pandemic was more prominent for Hispanic and Black youth relative to Whites [42]. Weight gain over the pandemic was also related to less public park access and lower socioeconomic status, which youth of color disproportionately confront [42].

Regarding substance use, one longitudinal study of minoritized college students demonstrated divergent changes in substance use trajectories [43]. While abstinence rates increased during COVID-19, so did rates of higher-frequency alcohol use, which were tied to poor mental health, history of trauma, disrupted supportive relationships, and being a sexual minority [43]. Moreover, in another study of racial/ethnic minority young adults, greater rumination explained associations between domains of ethnic identity, more discrimination exposure, heightened race-related vigilance and increases in substance use during the pandemic [44].

Studies also suggested changes to healthy sleep patterns among racial/ethnic minority adolescents. A mixed-methods study of Native American adolescents showed significant increases in sleep-wake disturbances and delayed bedtimes/waketimes during the pandemic, which participants linked to disrupted schedules and increased time spent online [30]. Another study of diverse young adults showed that Black young adults reported the shortest sleep duration and lowest levels of sleep quality relative to other racial/ethnic groups, which may be explained by the higher likelihood of being an essential worker and victimization due to suspected COVID-19 infection [45]. Together, these studies highlight how existing inequities (i.e., public park access), normative risk factors (e.g., unstructured schedules), and stressors unique to racial/ethnic minorities during COVID-19 (e.g., racial discrimination) shape worse health for minoritized adolescents over the pandemic.

Coping mechanisms

In response to the myriad of pandemic-related stressors, racial/ethnic minority adolescents engaged in various coping strategies, some culturally-rooted or activist-oriented. Some Black adolescents drew upon spiritually-based coping to manage anxieties around COVID-19 infection or schoolwork [28]. In addition to the benefits of family support for Latinx adolescents [29], Latinx youth displaying high-levels of problem-focused coping experienced better mental health across the pandemic [46]. Native American adolescents utilized ancestral knowledge to make sense of the pandemic as a normative event [30]. Civic engagement is another coping strategy for racial/ethnic minority youth in response to oppressive systems of inequity [47]. Studies of diverse emerging adults and adolescents showcase their critical consciousness around how racial inequalities shaped COVID-19 and racial tensions during the pandemic, which motivated more acts of direct service and participation in social justice movements [48,49].

Conclusion

The impact of COVID-19 will likely endure in the U.S. and abroad; however, the reviewed studies illuminate the intensified burdens of the pandemic on racial/ethnic minority adolescents and families. Systemic racism laid the groundwork for disparate health, socioeconomic and social consequences of COVID-19 resulting in differential levels of hardships and poorer well-being for minoritized youth and families. Additionally, the effects of the pandemic differed among racial/ethnic groups and by migrant status due to targeted discrimination (e.g, Sinophobia) and policy decisions (e.g., exclusion of non-citizens from stimulus checks). While key resiliency factors mitigated different challenges, it is imperative that future pandemic response efforts aid the most vulnerable to ensure equitable welfare and post-pandemic recovery.

Funding statement

This work was supported by NIH grants T32HD007081 and P2CHD042849 to the Population Research Center as well as funding from NICHD (K01HD087479) to the second author. Opinions reflect those of the authors and not necessarily those of the granting agency.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Notes

This review comes from a themed issue on Generation COVID: Coming of Age Amid the Pandemic (2024)

Edited by Gabriel Velez and Camelia Hostinar

Data availability

No data was used for the research described in the article.

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