Content deleted Content added
→Terminology: Added power sources as a classifier. |
No edit summary Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit |
||
| (45 intermediate revisions by 27 users not shown) | |||
Line 9:
[[File:US Navy 110930-N-JQ696-401 An MQ-8B Fire Scout unmanned aerial vehicle (cropped).jpg|300px|thumb|Although most large military UAVs are [[fixed-wing aircraft]], [[rotorcraft]] designs (i.e., RUAVs) such as this [[Northrop Grumman MQ-8 Fire Scout|MQ-8B Fire Scout]] are also used.]]
An '''unmanned aerial vehicle''' ('''UAV'''), or '''unmanned aircraft system''' ('''UAS'''), commonly known as a '''drone''', is an [[aircraft]]
{{Toclimit|3}}
Line 150:
UAVs can be classified based on their power or energy source, which significantly impacts their flight duration, range, and environmental impact. The main categories include:
* '''Battery-powered (Electric):''' These UAVs use rechargeable batteries, offering quiet operation and lower maintenance but potentially limited flight times. The reduced noise levels make them suitable for urban environments and sensitive operations.<ref>{{Cite journal |
* '''Fuel-powered (Internal Combustion):''' Utilizing traditional fuels like gasoline or diesel, these UAVs often have longer flight times but may be noisier and require more maintenance. They are typically used for applications requiring extended endurance or heavy payload capacity.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Exploring Gas Powered Drones: Uses and Benefits |url=https://www.flyability.com/blog/gas-powered-drone |access-date=2024-08-08 |website=www.flyability.com |language=en}}</ref>▼
▲These UAVs use rechargeable batteries, offering quiet operation and lower maintenance but potentially limited flight times. The reduced noise levels make them suitable for urban environments and sensitive operations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Garrow |first=Laurie A. |last2=German |first2=Brian J. |last3=Leonard |first3=Caroline E. |date=2021-11-01 |title=Urban air mobility: A comprehensive review and comparative analysis with autonomous and electric ground transportation for informing future research |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0968090X21003788 |journal=Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies |volume=132 |pages=103377 |doi=10.1016/j.trc.2021.103377 |issn=0968-090X}}</ref>
* '''Hybrid:''' Combining electric and fuel power sources, hybrid UAVs aim to balance the benefits of both systems for improved performance and efficiency. This configuration
* '''Solar-powered:''' Equipped with solar panels, these UAVs can potentially achieve extended flight times by harnessing solar energy, especially at high altitudes. Solar-powered UAVs
* '''Nuclear-powered:''' While nuclear power has been explored for larger aircraft, its application in UAVs remains largely theoretical due to safety concerns and regulatory challenges. Research in this area is ongoing but faces significant hurdles before practical implementation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fabled Sky Research |date=2024 |title=Revolutionizing UAV Capabilities: Exploring the Potential of Nuclear Propulsion Systems |url=https://figshare.com/articles/preprint/_b_Revolutionizing_UAV_Capabilities_Exploring_the_Potential_of_Nuclear_Propulsion_Systems_b_/26198462/1 |journal=UAV Technologies |pages=219399 Bytes |doi=10.6084/M9.FIGSHARE.26198462.V1}}</ref>▼
▲Utilizing traditional fuels like gasoline or diesel, these UAVs often have longer flight times but may be noisier and require more maintenance. They are typically used for applications requiring extended endurance or heavy payload capacity.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Exploring Gas Powered Drones: Uses and Benefits |url=https://www.flyability.com/blog/gas-powered-drone |access-date=2024-08-08 |website=www.flyability.com |language=en}}</ref>
* '''Hydrogen Fuel Cell:''' An emerging technology, hydrogen fuel cells offer the potential for longer flight times with zero emissions, though the technology is still developing for widespread UAV use. The high energy density of hydrogen makes it a promising option for future UAV propulsion systems.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Powering Solutions for Your Drone in 2024: New Fuels |url=https://www.commercialuavnews.com/surveying/powering-solutions-for-your-drone-in-2024-new-fuels |access-date=2024-08-08 |website=www.commercialuavnews.com |language=en}}</ref>▼
▲Combining electric and fuel power sources, hybrid UAVs aim to balance the benefits of both systems for improved performance and efficiency. This configuration allows for versatility in mission profiles and adaptability to different operational requirements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zhang |first=Caizhi |last2=Qiu |first2=Yuqi |last3=Chen |first3=Jiawei |last4=Li |first4=Yuehua |last5=Liu |first5=Zhitao |last6=Liu |first6=Yang |last7=Zhang |first7=Jiujun |last8=Hwa |first8=Chan Siew |date=2022-08-01 |title=A comprehensive review of electrochemical hybrid power supply systems and intelligent energy managements for unmanned aerial vehicles in public services |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666546822000283 |journal=Energy and AI |volume=9 |pages=100175 |doi=10.1016/j.egyai.2022.100175 |issn=2666-5468}}</ref>
▲Equipped with solar panels, these UAVs can potentially achieve extended flight times by harnessing solar energy, especially at high altitudes. Solar-powered UAVs are particularly suited for long-endurance missions and environmental monitoring applications.<ref>{{Cite web |last=jenks2026 |date=2024-01-30 |title=Solar-Powered Drones and UAVs |url=https://green.org/2024/01/30/solar-powered-drones-and-uavs/ |access-date=2024-08-08 |website=Green.org |language=en-US}}</ref>
▲While nuclear power has been explored for larger aircraft, its application in UAVs remains largely theoretical due to safety concerns and regulatory challenges. Research in this area is ongoing but faces significant hurdles before practical implementation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fabled Sky Research |date=2024 |title=Revolutionizing UAV Capabilities: Exploring the Potential of Nuclear Propulsion Systems |url=https://figshare.com/articles/preprint/_b_Revolutionizing_UAV_Capabilities_Exploring_the_Potential_of_Nuclear_Propulsion_Systems_b_/26198462/1 |journal=UAV Technologies |pages=219399 Bytes |doi=10.6084/M9.FIGSHARE.26198462.V1}}</ref>
▲An emerging technology, hydrogen fuel cells offer the potential for longer flight times with zero emissions, though the technology is still developing for widespread UAV use. The high energy density of hydrogen makes it a promising option for future UAV propulsion systems.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Powering Solutions for Your Drone in 2024: New Fuels |url=https://www.commercialuavnews.com/surveying/powering-solutions-for-your-drone-in-2024-new-fuels |access-date=2024-08-08 |website=www.commercialuavnews.com |language=en}}</ref>
==History==
Line 178 ⟶ 167:
The earliest recorded use of an unmanned aerial vehicle for warfighting occurred in July 1849,<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=YSSPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT43 The Future of Drone Use: Opportunities and Threats from Ethical and Legal Perspectives] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227213802/https://books.google.com/books?id=YSSPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT43 |date=27 February 2023 }}, Asser Press{{snd}} Springer, chapter by Alan McKenna, page 355</ref> with a [[balloon carrier]] (the precursor to the [[aircraft carrier]])<ref name="Kaplan">{{cite book|last=Kaplan|first=Philip|title=Naval Aviation in the Second World War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pDARBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT19|year=2013|publisher=Pen and Sword|isbn=978-1-4738-2997-8|page=19|access-date=19 August 2019|archive-date=27 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227213802/https://books.google.com/books?id=pDARBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT19|url-status=live}}</ref> in the first offensive use of [[air power]] in [[naval aviation]].<ref name="Hallion">{{cite book|last= Hallion|first= Richard P.|title= Taking Flight: Inventing the Aerial Age, from Antiquity through the First World War|url= https://archive.org/details/takingflightinve0000hall|url-access= registration|year= 2003|publisher= Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-028959-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/takingflightinve0000hall/page/66 66]}}</ref><ref name="LaymanFirst">[https://archive.org/details/navalaviationinf00laym <!-- quote=vulcano balloon venice. --> Naval Aviation in the First World War: Its Impact and Influence], R. D. Layman, page 56</ref><ref name="RennerFirst">{{cite book|last=Renner|first=Stephen L.|title=Broken Wings: The Hungarian Air Force, 1918–45|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HDoJDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|year=2016|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-02339-1|page=2|access-date=26 October 2019|archive-date=27 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227213803/https://books.google.com/books?id=HDoJDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|url-status=live}}</ref> Austrian forces besieging Venice attempted to launch some 200 [[incendiary balloon]]s at the besieged city. The balloons were launched mainly from land; however, some were also launched from the Austrian ship {{SMS|Vulcano}}. At least one bomb fell in the city; however, due to the wind changing after launch, most of the balloons missed their target, and some drifted back over Austrian lines and the launching ship ''Vulcano''.<ref name="Murphy">{{cite book|last= Murphy|first= Justin D.|title= Military Aircraft, Origins to 1918: An Illustrated History of Their Impact|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7pS1QpH8FRgC&pg=PA9|year= 2005|publisher= ABC-CLIO|isbn= 978-1-85109-488-2|pages= 9–10|access-date= 19 August 2019|archive-date= 27 February 2023|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230227213804/https://books.google.com/books?id=7pS1QpH8FRgC&pg=PA9|url-status= live}}</ref><ref name="Haydon">{{cite book|last=Haydon|first=F. Stansbury|title= Military Ballooning During the Early Civil War|url= https://archive.org/details/militaryballooni00hayd |url-access= registration|year=2000|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-0-8018-6442-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/militaryballooni00hayd/page/18 18]–20}}</ref><ref name="Mikesh">{{Cite journal |last=Mikesh |first=Robert C. |title=Japan's World War II balloon bomb attacks on North America |year= 1973 |journal=Smithsonian Annals of Flight |issue= 9 |pages=1–85 |location=Washington, DC |url=https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/18679/SAoF-0009-Lo_res.pdf |access-date=12 July 2018|archive-date=6 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206005953/https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/18679/SAoF-0009-Lo_res.pdf|url-status=live|hdl=10088/18679|doi=10.5479/si.AnnalsFlight.9|issn=0081-0207}}</ref>
Significant development of drones started in the 1900s, and originally focused on providing practice targets for training [[military personnel]]. The earliest attempt at a powered UAV was [[Archibald Low|A. M. Low]]'s "Aerial Target" in 1916.<ref name="autogenerated1">Taylor, John W. R.. ''Jane's Pocket Book of Remotely Piloted Vehicles''.</ref> Low confirmed that Geoffrey de Havilland's monoplane was the one that flew under control on 21 March 1917 using his radio system.<ref>Professor A. M. Low FLIGHT, 3 October 1952 page 436 "The First Guided Missile"</ref> Following this successful demonstration in the spring of 1917 Low was transferred to develop aircraft controlled fast motor launches [[Coastal Motor Boat|D.C.B.s]] with the Royal Navy in 1918 intended to attack shipping and port installations and he also assisted [[Frank Arthur Brock|Wing Commander Brock]] in preparations for the [[Zeebrugge Raid]]. Other [[British unmanned aerial vehicles of World War I|British unmanned developments]] followed, leading to the fleet of over 400 [[de Havilland Tiger Moth|de Havilland 82 Queen Bee]] aerial targets that went into service in 1935.
Line 204 ⟶ 193:
===Modern UAVs===
[[File:STM_Kargu.png|thumb|The Turkish [[STM Kargu]] was the first [[lethal autonomous weapon]] to attack enemy combatants in warfare.]]
With the maturing and miniaturization of applicable technologies in the 1980s and 1990s, interest in UAVs grew within the higher echelons of the U.S. military. The U.S. funded the [[Counterterrorism_Mission_Center|Counterterrorism Center]] (CTC) within the CIA, which sought to fight terrorism with the aid of modernized drone technology.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fuller |first=Christopher J. |date=2015 |title=The Eagle Comes Home to Roost: The Historical Origins of the CIA's Lethal Drone Program |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/02684527.2014.895569 |journal=Intelligence and National Security |volume=30 |issue=6 |pages=769–792|doi=10.1080/02684527.2014.895569 |s2cid=154927243 }}</ref> In the 1990s, the U.S. DoD gave a contract to [[AAI Corporation]] along with Israeli company Malat. The U.S. Navy bought the [[AAI RQ-2 Pioneer|AAI Pioneer UAV]] that AAI and Malat developed jointly. Many of these UAVs saw service in the [[1991 Gulf War]]. UAVs demonstrated the possibility of cheaper, more capable fighting-machines, deployable without risk to aircrews. Initial generations primarily involved [[surveillance aircraft]], but [[unmanned combat air vehicle|some carried armaments]], such as the [[General Atomics MQ-1 Predator]], that launched [[AGM-114 Hellfire]] [[air-to-ground missile]]s.
Line 215 ⟶ 204:
In 2020, a [[STM Kargu|Kargu 2]] drone hunted down and attacked a human target in [[Libya]], according to a report from the [[UN Security Council]]'s Panel of Experts on Libya, published in March 2021. This may have been the first time an [[:Lethal autonomous weapon|autonomous killer-robot]] armed with lethal weaponry attacked human beings.<ref>{{Cite web|last= Hambling|first= David|title= Drones may have attacked humans fully autonomously for the first time|url= https://www.newscientist.com/article/2278852-drones-may-have-attacked-humans-fully-autonomously-for-the-first-time/|access-date= 2021-05-30|website= New Scientist|language= en-US|archive-date= 30 July 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210730173534/https://www.newscientist.com/article/2278852-drones-may-have-attacked-humans-fully-autonomously-for-the-first-time/|url-status= live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date= 2021-05-29 |title= Killer drone 'hunted down a human target' without being told to |url= https://www.foxnews.com/world/killer-drone-hunted-down-a-human-target-without-being-told-to |access-date= 2021-05-30 |website=[[New York Post]] |language= en-US |archive-date= 30 July 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210730173522/https://www.foxnews.com/world/killer-drone-hunted-down-a-human-target-without-being-told-to |url-status= live}}</ref>
Superior drone technology, specifically the Turkish [[Bayraktar TB2]], played a role in Azerbaijan's successes in the [[2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war]] against Armenia.<ref>{{cite news |last1 = Forestier-Walker |first1 = Robin |title = Nagorno-Karabakh: New weapons for an old conflict spell danger |url = https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2020/10/13/nagorno-karabakh-new-weapons-for-an-old-conflict-spell-danger |publisher = Al Jazeera |publication-date = 13 October 2020 |access-date = 18 December 2021
|quote = [...] battlefield videos and the known military capabilities of the two warring sides suggest Azerbaijan has the technological advantage, especially with its combat drones purchased from Israel and Turkey. |archive-date = 13 October 2020
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201013185319/https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2020/10/13/nagorno-karabakh-new-weapons-for-an-old-conflict-spell-danger |url-status = live }}</ref>
Line 249 ⟶ 238:
Besides the traditional piston engine, the [[Wankel rotary engine]] is used by some drones. This type offers high power output for lower weight, with quieter and more vibration-free running. Claims have also been made for improved reliability and greater range.{{citation needed|date=May 2021|reason=not cited elsewhere}}
Small drones mostly use [[Lithium polymer battery|lithium-polymer batteries]] (Li-Po), while some larger vehicles have adopted the [[hydrogen fuel cell]]. The energy density of modern Li-Po batteries is far less than gasoline or hydrogen. However electric motors are cheaper, lighter and quieter. Complex multi-engine, multi-propeller installations are under development with the goal of improving aerodynamic and propulsive efficiency. For such complex power installations, [[Battery eliminator circuit|
=== Ornithopters – wing propulsion ===
Line 319 ⟶ 308:
UAVs use a [[radio]] for control and [[Data link|exchange of video and other data]]. Early UAVs had only [[narrowband]] uplink. Downlinks came later. These bi-directional narrowband radio links carried command and control (C&C) and [[telemetry]] data about the status of aircraft systems to the remote operator.
In most modern UAV applications, video transmission is required. So instead of having separate links for C&C, telemetry and video traffic, a [[broadband]] link is used to carry all types of data. These broadband links can leverage [[quality of service]] techniques and carry [[TCP/IP]] traffic that can be routed over the
The radio signal from the operator side can be issued from either:
Line 379 ⟶ 368:
Solar-electric UAVs, a concept originally championed by the AstroFlight Sunrise in 1974, have achieved flight times of several weeks.
Solar-powered atmospheric satellites ("atmosats") designed for operating at altitudes exceeding 20 km (12 miles, or 60,000 feet) for as long as five years could potentially perform duties more economically and with more versatility than [[low Earth orbit]] satellites. Likely applications include [[weather drone]]s for [[Weather reconnaissance|weather monitoring]], [[Emergency management#Recovery|disaster recovery]], [[Earth imaging]] and communications.
Electric UAVs powered by microwave power transmission or laser power beaming are other potential endurance solutions.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/news/FactSheets/FS-087-DFRC.html|title=NASA Armstrong Fact Sheet: Beamed Laser Power for UAVs|last=Gibbs|first=Yvonne|date=31 March 2015|work=NASA|access-date=22 June 2018|language=en|archive-date=5 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190405021645/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/news/FactSheets/FS-087-DFRC.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
Line 425 ⟶ 414:
There are numerous civilian, commercial, military, and aerospace applications for UAVs.<ref name=":0" /> These include:
;General: [[Recreation]], [[
;Commercial: [[Surveillance aircraft|Aerial surveillance]], [[filmmaking]],<ref name="Mademlis2019"/> [[journalism]], [[Scientific method|scientific research]], [[surveying]], [[Freight transport|cargo transport]], [[mining]], [[manufacturing]], [[
=== Warfare ===
Line 443 ⟶ 432:
=== Civil ===
{{see also|Delivery drone}}▼
[[File:Zipline Drone Launch.jpg|thumb|[[Zipline (drone delivery company)|Zipline's]] aircraft being launched from a base in Rwanda to deliver blood products]]
The civilian (commercial and general) drone market is dominated by Chinese companies. Chinese manufacturer [[DJI (company)|DJI]] alone had 74% of the civil market share in 2018, with no other company accounting for more than 5%.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/09/01/in-race-to-dominate-drone-space-west-is-no-match-for-chinas-dji.html|title=China drone maker DJI: Alone atop the unmanned skies|last=Bateman|first=Joshua|date=1 September 2017|work=News Ledge|access-date=19 February 2018|archive-date=19 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180219151200/https://www.cnbc.com/2017/09/01/in-race-to-dominate-drone-space-west-is-no-match-for-chinas-dji.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The companies continue to hold over 70% of global market share by 2023, despite under increasing scrutinies and sanctions from the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2023/02/08/worlds-largest-drone-maker-dji-is-unfazed-by-challenges-like-us-blacklist.html |title=World's largest drone maker is unfazed — even if it's blacklisted by the U.S. |website=CNBC |date=7 February 2023 |first=Nessa |last= Anwar }}</ref> The US Interior Department grounded its fleet of DJI drones in 2020, while the Justice Department prohibited the use of federal funds for the purchase of DJI and other foreign-made UAVs.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Friedman|first1=Lisa|last2=McCabe|first2=David|date=29 January 2020|title=Interior Dept. Grounds Its Drones Over Chinese Spying Fears|language=en-US|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/29/technology/interior-chinese-drones.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129191125/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/29/technology/interior-chinese-drones.html |archive-date=2020-01-29 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=17 November 2020|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Miller|first=Maggie|date=8 October 2020|title=DOJ bans use of grant funds for certain foreign-made drones|url=https://thehill.com/policy/cybersecurity/520269-justice-department-issues-policy-banning-use-of-grant-funds-for-certain|access-date=17 November 2020|website=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]]|language=en|archive-date=28 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128001142/https://thehill.com/policy/cybersecurity/520269-justice-department-issues-policy-banning-use-of-grant-funds-for-certain|url-status=live}}</ref>
Line 458 ⟶ 444:
==== Entertainment ====
{{See also|Drone art|Drone racing}}
Drones are also used in nighttime [[Drone display|displays]] for artistic and advertising purposes with the main benefits are that they are safer, quieter and better for the environment than fireworks. They can replace or be an adjunct for fireworks displays to reduce the financial burden of festivals. In addition they can complement fireworks due to the ability for drones to carry them, creating new forms of artwork in the process.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Drone Light Shows Powered by Intel|url=https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/technology-innovation/aerial-technology-light-show.html|access-date=2021-06-28|website=Intel|language=en|archive-date=23 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623231138/https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/technology-innovation/aerial-technology-light-show.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-07-01 |title=Fireworks Have a New Competitor: Drones |work=The New York Times |language=en |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/01/business/dealbook/fourth-of-july-fireworks-drones.html |access-date=2023-08-10 |last1=Hirsch |first1=Lauren }}</ref><ref>{{Cite
Drones can also be used for racing, either with or without VR functionality.
Line 464 ⟶ 450:
==== Aerial photography ====
{{see also|Drone journalism}}
Drones are ideally suited to capturing aerial shots in photography and cinematography, and are widely used for this purpose.<ref name="Mademlis2019">{{cite journal |last1=Mademlis |first1=Ioannis |last2=Nikolaidis |first2=Nikos |last3=Tefas |first3=Anastasios |last4=Pitas |first4=Ioannis |last5=Wagner |first5=Tilman |last6=Messina |first6=Alberto |title=Autonomous UAV Cinematography: A Tutorial and a Formalized Shot-Type Taxonomy |url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/fullHtml/10.1145/3347713 |journal=ACM Computing Surveys |date=2019 |volume=52 |issue=5 |publisher=Association for Computing Machinery |doi=10.1145/3347713 |s2cid=202676119 |access-date=3 November 2022 |archive-date=3 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221103190017/https://dl.acm.org/doi/fullHtml/10.1145/3347713 |url-status=live }}</ref> Small drones avoid the need for precise coordination between pilot and cameraman, with the same person taking on both roles.
==== Environmental monitoring ====
Line 484 ⟶ 470:
| s2cid = 265016887
}}</ref> and study of ecosystem degradation due to invasive species or disturbances;
*Precision agriculture<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Chunhua |last2=Kovacs |first2=John M. |date=December 2012 |title=The application of small unmanned aerial systems for precision agriculture: a review |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11119-012-9274-5 |journal=Precision Agriculture |language=en |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=693–712 |doi=10.1007/s11119-012-9274-5 |bibcode=2012PrAgr..13..693Z |s2cid=254938502 |issn=1385-2256 |access-date=12 January 2023 |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227214348/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11119-012-9274-5 |url-status=live }}</ref> which exploits all available technologies including UAV in order to produce more with less (e.g., optimisation of fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation);
*River monitoring several methods have been developed to perform flow monitoring using image velocimetry methods which allow to properly describe the 2D flow velocity fields.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Perks |first1=Matthew T. |last2=Russell |first2=Andrew J. |last3=Large |first3=Andrew R. G. |date=2016-10-05 |title=Technical Note: Advances in flash flood monitoring using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) |url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/20/4005/2016/ |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences |language=en |volume=20 |issue=10 |pages=4005–4015 |doi=10.5194/hess-20-4005-2016 |bibcode=2016HESS...20.4005P |issn=1607-7938 |access-date=12 January 2023 |archive-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112235910/https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/20/4005/2016/ |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref>
*Structural integrity of any type of structure whether it be a dam, railway or other dangerous, inaccessible or massive locations for building monitoring.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Jianguo |last2=He |first2=Linshu |last3=Luo |first3=Haitao |date=2023-03-19 |title=Real-Time Positioning Method for UAVs in Complex Structural Health Monitoring Scenarios |journal=Drones |language=en |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=212 |doi=10.3390/drones7030212 |issn=2504-446X |doi-access=free }}</ref>
These activities can be completed with different measurements, such as [[photogrammetry]], thermography, multispectral images, 3D field scanning, and [[normalized difference vegetation index]] maps.
==== Geological hazards ====
UAVs have become a widely used tool for studying [[Geohazard|geohazards]] such as [[Landslide|landslides]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sun |first1=Jianwei |last2=Yuan |first2=Guoqin |last3=Song |first3=Laiyun |last4=Zhang |first4=Hongwen |date=January 2024 |title=Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) in Landslide Investigation and Monitoring: A Review |journal=Drones |language=en |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=30 |doi=10.3390/drones8010030 |doi-access=free |issn=2504-446X}}</ref> Various sensors, including radar, optical, and thermal, can be mounted on UAVs to monitor different properties. UAVs enable the capture of images of various [[landslide]] features, such as transverse, radial, and longitudinal cracks, ridges, scarps, and surfaces of rupture, even in inaccessible areas of the sliding mass.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dai |first1=Keren |last2=Li |first2=Zhiyu |last3=Xu |first3=Qiang |last4=Tomas |first4=Roberto |last5=Li |first5=Tao |last6=Jiang |first6=Liming |last7=Zhang |first7=Jianyong |last8=Yin |first8=Tao |last9=Wang |first9=Hao |date=2023-07-01 |title=Identification and evaluation of the high mountain upper slope potential landslide based on multi-source remote sensing: the Aniangzhai landslide case study |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10346-023-02044-4 |journal=Landslides |language=en |volume=20 |issue=7 |pages=1405–1417 |doi=10.1007/s10346-023-02044-4 |bibcode=2023Lands..20.1405D |issn=1612-5118}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Yuchuan |last2=Wang |first2=Xiaobo |last3=Jin |first3=Wei |last4=Cao |first4=Jiayun |last5=Cheng |first5=Baogen |last6=MaosenXiong |last7=Zhou |first7=Shunwen |last8=ChaoZhang |date=2019-10-01 |title=Characteristics analysis of the reservoir landslides base on unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) scanning technology at the Maoergai Hydropower Station, Southwest China |journal=IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science |volume=349 |issue=1 |pages=012009 |doi=10.1088/1755-1315/349/1/012009 |bibcode=2019E&ES..349a2009Y |issn=1755-1307|doi-access=free }}</ref> Moreover, processing the optical images captured by UAVs also allows for the creation of [[Point cloud|point clouds]] and 3D models, from which these properties can be derived.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tomás |first1=Roberto |last2=Pinheiro |first2=Marisa |last3=Pinto |first3=Pedro |last4=Pereira |first4=Eduardo |last5=Miranda |first5=Tiago |date=2023-05-31 |title=Preliminary analysis of the mechanisms, characteristics, and causes of a recent catastrophic structurally controlled rock planar slide in Esposende (northern Portugal) |journal=Landslides |volume=20 |issue=8 |pages=1657–1665 |doi=10.1007/s10346-023-02082-y |bibcode=2023Lands..20.1657T |issn=1612-510X|doi-access=free }}</ref> Comparing [[Point cloud|point clouds]] obtained at different times allows for the detection of changes caused by landslide deformation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Jiawen |last2=Jiang |first2=Nan |last3=Li |first3=Congjiang |last4=Li |first4=Haibo |date=2024-02-09 |title=A landslide monitoring method using data from unmanned aerial vehicle and terrestrial laser scanning with insufficient and inaccurate ground control points |journal=Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering |volume=16 |issue=10 |pages=4125–4140 |doi=10.1016/j.jrmge.2023.12.004 |issn=1674-7755|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Peterman |first=V. |date=2015-08-26 |title=Landslide Activity Monitoring with the Help of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle |url=https://isprs-archives.copernicus.org/articles/XL-1-W4/215/2015/ |journal=The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences |language=English |volume=XL-1-W4 |pages=215–218 |doi=10.5194/isprsarchives-XL-1-W4-215-2015 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2015ISPAr.XL1..215P |issn=1682-1750}}</ref>
==== Agriculture, forestry and environmental studies====
{{main|Agricultural drone}}
[[File:Drone crop fertilizer.jpg|thumb|[[Agricultural drone]] on trailer setup]]
As global demand for food production grows exponentially, resources are depleted, farmland is reduced, and agricultural labor is increasingly in short supply, there is an urgent need for more convenient and smarter agricultural solutions than traditional methods, and the agricultural drone and robotics industry is expected to make progress.<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://finance.yahoo.com/news/global-agriculture-drones-robots-market-101300454.html|title= Global Agriculture Drones and Robots Market Analysis & Forecast, 2018-2028 - ResearchAndMarkets.com|website= finance.yahoo.com|language= en-US|access-date= 23 May 2019|archive-date= 7 July 2019|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190707150807/https://finance.yahoo.com/news/global-agriculture-drones-robots-market-101300454.html|url-status= live}}</ref> Agricultural drones have been used to help build sustainable agriculture all over the world leading to a new generation of agriculture.<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://www.droneaddicts.net/africa-farming-problems-aided-with-drone-technology/|title= Africa Farming Problems Aided With Drone Technology|date= 12 March 2018|website= Drone Addicts|language= en-US|access-date= 23 May 2019|archive-date= 29 June 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180629235733/https://www.droneaddicts.net/africa-farming-problems-aided-with-drone-technology/|url-status= dead}}</ref> In this context, there is a proliferation of innovations in both tools and methodologies which allow precise description of vegetation state and also may help to precisely distribute nutrients, pesticides or seeds over a field.<ref name="ELSEVIER - HEALTH SCIENCE"/>
Line 517 ⟶ 507:
==== Humanitarian Aid ====
▲{{see also|Delivery drone}}
Drones are increasingly finding their application in humanitarian aid and disaster relief, where they are used for a wide range of applications such as delivering food, medicine and essential items to remote areas or image mapping before and following disasters <ref>{{
Line 522 ⟶ 513:
== Safety and security ==
{{see also|List of UAV-related incidents|Unmanned combat aerial vehicle}}
[[File:USDA Drone poster.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|US Department of Agriculture poster warning about the risks of flying UAVs near wildfires]]
Line 537 ⟶ 528:
By 2017, drones were being used to drop contraband into prisons.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2017/11/15/564272346/prisons-work-to-keep-out-drug-smuggling-drones|title=Prisons Work To Keep Out Drug-Smuggling Drones|website=NPR.org|access-date=19 January 2018|archive-date=19 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180119175506/https://www.npr.org/2017/11/15/564272346/prisons-work-to-keep-out-drug-smuggling-drones|url-status=live}}</ref>
The interest in UAVs
==== Aggression ====
Many UAVs
Such ===Countermeasures===
Line 554 ⟶ 547:
Regulatory bodies around the world are developing [[unmanned aircraft system traffic management]] solutions to better integrate UAVs into airspace.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is unmanned traffic management? |url=https://www.airbus.com/newsroom/stories/what-is-unmanned-traffic-management-utm.html |website=Airbus |access-date=28 January 2021 |archive-date=8 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210208195828/https://www.airbus.com/newsroom/stories/what-is-unmanned-traffic-management-utm.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
The use of unmanned aerial vehicles is becoming increasingly regulated by the [[civil aviation authority|civil aviation authorities]] of individual countries. Regulatory regimes can differ significantly according to drone size and use. The [[International Civil Aviation Organization|International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)]] began exploring the use of drone technology as far back as 2005, which resulted in a 2011 report.<ref>{{cite book | last1 =Cary | first1 =Leslie | last2 =Coyne | first2 =James | title =2011–2012 UAS Yearbook – UAS: The Global Perspective | publisher =Blyenburgh & Co | pages =112–115 | contribution =ICAO Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS), Circular 328 | url =http://uvs-info.com/phocadownload/05_3a_2011/P112-P115_C&AI_ICAO-Advisory-Circular.pdf | access-date =26 February 2022 | archive-date =4 March 2016 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20160304025432/http://uvs-info.com/phocadownload/05_3a_2011/P112-P115_C%26AI_ICAO-Advisory-Circular.pdf }}</ref> France was among the first countries to set a national framework based on this report and larger aviation bodies such as the [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] and the [[European Aviation Safety Agency|EASA]] quickly followed suit.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Boedecker|first=Hendrik|title=The 2021 Drone Regulation – What is new? What is planned?|url=https://droneii.com/the-2021-drone-regulation-what-is-new-what-is-planned|access-date=17 May 2021|website=Drone Industry Insights|archive-date=17 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517121444/https://droneii.com/the-2021-drone-regulation-what-is-new-what-is-planned|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2021, the FAA published a rule requiring all commercially used UAVs and all UAVs regardless of intent weighing
==== EU Drone Certification - Class Identification Label ====
| |||