Nothing Special   »   [go: up one dir, main page]
Wikipedia

Occupation of Iraq (2003–2011): Difference between revisions

Browse history interactively
← Previous edit
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
 
(9 intermediate revisions by 8 users not shown)
Line 20:
 
==Legal status of the coalition presence==
An international armed conflict (IAC) between the United States and Iraq in the Iraq War began when the US-led Coalition [[2003 invasion of Iraq|invaded Iraq]] on March 19, March 2003. IAC continued after the invasion when the [[Coalition Provisional Authority]] (CPA) was established on April 21 April to temporarily administer the domestic affairs of Iraq. Therefore, hostilities during the invasion and occupation of Iraq fell under the [[law of war|laws of war]] applicable to IAC, including the 1949 [[Geneva Conventions]], to which the US and Iraq are parties to, and the 1907 [[Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907|Hague Convention]] ''IV - The Laws and Customs of War on Land'', which is commonly accepted as [[customary international humanitarian law]] binding on non-signatories engaged in an IAC.<ref name="JFHGF">{{cite web|url=https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/other/ihl_in_iraq_conflict.pdf#page=3|title=International Humanitarian Law in the Iraq Conflict|author=Knut Dörmann, Laurent Colassis|page=3-9|publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]]}}</ref> According to Article 42 under Section III of the [[Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907)|Hague Convention]] ''IV - The Laws and Customs of War on Land'', "[[Territory (administrative division)|[t]erritory]] is considered occupied when it is actually placed under the authority of the hostile army."<ref>Laws of War: [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/lawofwar/hague04.htm Laws and Customs of War on Land] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150525082008/http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/lawofwar/hague04.htm |date=25 May 2015}} (Hague IV); 18 October 1907. The Avalon Project, Yale Law School</ref>
 
There may be situations where the former occupier will maintain a military presence in the country, with the agreement of the legitimate government under a security arrangement (e.g., US military presence in Japan and Germany). The legality of such agreement and the legitimacy of the national authorities signing it are subject to international recognition, whereby members of the international community re-establish diplomatic and political relations with the national government.
 
[[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1546]] in 2004 looked forward to the end of the occupation and the assumption of full responsibility and authority by a fully [[Sovereignty|sovereign]] and independent [[Politics of Iraq|Interim Government of Iraq]].<ref>[http://www.usembassy.it/file2004_06/alia/a4060913.htm Iraq Resolution Endorses Plan for Transition, Elections] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130919134806/http://www.usembassy.it/file2004_06/alia/a4060913.htm|date=19 September 2013}}. UN Security Council Resolution 1546, 8 June</ref> Afterwards, the UN and individual nations established diplomatic relations with the Interim Government, which began planning for elections and the writing of a new constitution. As a result, the Iraq War after June 28, June 2004 became a non-international armed conflict (NIAC), since US-led Coalition troops were operating in the country with the consent of the new legitimate government of Iraq. Therefore, hostilities in post-occupation Iraq fell under the laws of war applicable to NIAC, including [[Geneva_Conventions#Common_Article_3_relating_to_non-international_armed_conflict_(NIAC)|Common Article 3]] of the 1949 Geneva Conventions.
 
In January 2005, [[John Negroponte]], US ambassador to Iraq, indicated the US government would comply with a [[United Nations]] resolution declaring that coalition forces would have to leave if requested by the Iraqi government. "If that's the wish of the government of Iraq, we will comply with those wishes. But no, we haven't been approached on this issue – although obviously we stand prepared to engage the future government on any issue concerning our presence here."<ref>MacAskill, Ewen, Richard Norton-Taylor, and Rory McCarthy, "[https://www.theguardian.com/Iraq/Story/0,2763,1396221,00.html US and UK look for early way out of Iraq]". ''[[The Guardian]]'', 22 January 2005</ref>
Line 30:
On 10 May 2007, 144 Iraqi Parliamentary lawmakers signed onto a legislative petition calling on the United States to set a timetable for withdrawal.<ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,271210,00.html Iraq Bill Demands US Troop Withdraw] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514040204/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0%2C2933%2C271210%2C00.html|date=14 May 2013}} Associated Press, [[Fox News]], 10 May 2007</ref> On 3 June 2007, the Iraqi Parliament voted 85 to 59 to require the Iraqi government to consult with Parliament before requesting additional extensions of the UN Security Council Mandate for Coalition operations in Iraq.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1180960615762&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull|title=Iraqi parliament wants say in extension of US-led forces|agency=Associated Press|work=[[The Jerusalem Post]]|date=5 June 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429195224/http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1180960615762&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull|archive-date=29 April 2011}}</ref> The UN mandate under [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1790]] expired on 31 December 2008.
 
==Occupation (21 April 21,2003 2003–June– 28, June 2004)==
An international armed conflict (IAC) between the US and Iraq in the Iraq War began when the US-led Coalition invaded Iraq on March 19, March 2003. IAC continued after the invasion when the CPA was established on April 21 April to temporarily administer the domestic affairs of Iraq. Therefore, hostilities during the invasion and occupation of Iraq fell under the laws of war applicable to IAC, including the 1949 Geneva Conventions, to which the US and Iraq are parties to, and the 1907 Hague Convention ''IV - The Laws and Customs of War on Land'', which is commonly accepted as customary international humanitarian law binding on non-signatories engaged in an IAC.<ref name="JFHGF"/>
 
===2003===
Line 41:
Schools, police, courts, government, and military were shut down, which meant that most Iraqis were unemployed.<ref>{{cite magazine|last1=Davidson|first1=Adam|title=Michael Cohen and the End Stage of the Trump Presidency|url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/michael-cohen-and-the-end-stage-of-the-trump-presidency|access-date=19 April 2018|magazine=The New Yorker|date=14 April 2018|archive-date=18 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180418202133/https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/michael-cohen-and-the-end-stage-of-the-trump-presidency|url-status=live}}</ref> Cities, especially Baghdad, suffered through reductions in electricity, clean water, and telephone service from pre-war levels, with shortages that continued through at least the next year.<ref>Baker, David R., "[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/04/17/BUGAI66IF61.DTL Bechtel nowhere near done] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090618081040/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=%2Fc%2Fa%2F2004%2F04%2F17%2FBUGAI66IF61.DTL |date=18 June 2009 }}; Reconstruction in Iraq going slowly – airports patched up, but water, power way behind". ''San Francisco Chronicle'', 17 April 2004.</ref>
 
On 1 May 2003, [[President of the United States]] [[George W. Bush]] declared the "end of major combat operations" in Iraq, while aboard the {{USS|Abraham Lincoln|CVN-72|6}} with a large "[[2003 Mission Accomplished Speech|Mission Accomplished]]" banner displayed behind him. The weeks following the removal of Ba'ath Party rule were portrayed by American media as generally a euphoric time among the Iraqi populace. ''[[New York Post]]'' correspondent [[Jonathan Foreman (journalist)|Jonathan Foreman]] wrote from [[Baghdad]] in May 2003 that "the intensity of the population's pro-American enthusiasm is astonishing".<ref>Foreman, Jonathan, "[http://weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/002/629xnqei.asp Bad Reporting in Baghdad] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017115225/http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/002/629xnqei.asp |date=17 October 2015}}". News Corporation, ''Weekly Standard'', 12 May 2003, Volume 008, Issue 34. (Originally in 12 May 2002 issue: You have no idea how well things are going.)</ref>
 
There were widespread reports of looting, though much of the looting was directed at former government buildings and other remnants of the former government, and reports of [[Archaeological looting in Iraq|losses of up to 170,000 items of Iraq's archaeological treasures]] worth billions of [[US dollars]], mostly from the [[National Museum of Iraq]],<ref>"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/2942449.stm Looters ransack Baghdad museum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050922145903/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/2942449.stm |date=22 September 2005 }} – Thousands of valuable historical items from Baghdad's main museum have been taken or destroyed by looters." BBC, 12 April 2003.</ref> were later revealed to be vastly exaggerated.<ref>Meier, Barry, "''Aftereffects: Relics; [https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F40B11F73B580C758CDDAC0894DB404482 Most Iraqi Treasures Are Said to Be Kept Safe]''". [[The New York Times]], Late Edition – Final, Section A, Page 20, Column 1, 6 May 2003.</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Bogdanos, Matthew, (Marine Col.) |url=http://www.defenselink.mil/transcripts/2003/tr20030910-0660.html |title=Briefing on the Investigation of Antiquity Loss from the Baghdad Museum|publisher=United States Department of Defense |date=10 September 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040210131513/http://www.defenselink.mil/transcripts/2003/tr20030910-0660.html |archive-date=2004-02-10}}</ref>
Line 73:
The United States and the [[Coalition Provisional Authority]], run by [[Jay Garner]] and three deputies, including [[Tim Cross]], opposed allowing democratic elections at this time, preferring instead to eventually hand over power to an unelected group of Iraqis.<ref>Steele, Jonathan, "''[http://www.commondreams.org/views04/0119-08.htm Why the US is Running Scared from Elections in Iraq] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116062212/http://www.commondreams.org/views04/0119-08.htm |date=16 January 2013 }}''". [[The Guardian]], 19 January 2004.</ref> More insurgents stepped up their activities. The two most turbulent centers were the area around Fallujah and the poor Shia sections of cities from Baghdad to Basra in the south.
 
===1 January 1,2004 2004–June– 28, June 2004===
{{Main|2004 in Iraq}}
[[File:CougarEODaftermath.JPG|thumb|Cougar hit by mine explosion, all crew survived, vehicle drove back to base on 3 wheels]]
Line 89:
 
====Transfer of sovereignty====
On June 28, June 2004, under the auspices of [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1546]], the CPA transferred limited sovereignty to a caretaker government, whose first act was to begin the [[trial of Saddam Hussein]]. The transfer marked the end of an IAC between the U.S. and Iraq. The new Iraqi government began the process of moving towards elections, though the insurgency, and the lack of cohesion within the government itself, led to repeated delays.
 
Militia leader [[Muqtada al-Sadr]] used his grass-roots organization and Mahdi Militia of over a thousand armed men to take control of the streets of Baghdad. The CPA soon realized it had lost control and closed down his popular newspaper. This resulted in mass anti-American demonstrations. The CPA then attempted to arrest al-Sadr on murder charges. He defied the American military by taking refuge in the Holy City of Najaf.
 
==Post-occupation (28 June 28,2004 2004–December– 15, December 2011)==
{{main|Iraqi insurgency (2003–2011)|2004 in Iraq}}
Hostilities between the US and Iraq ended on 28 June 28, 2004 when the CPA handed over Iraqi sovereignty to the Iraqi Interim government as mandated by UN Resolution 1546. Throughout the Iraq War, US-led Coalition troops were operating in the country with the consent of the new legitimate government of Iraq. Therefore, the war in Iraq after 28 June 28, 2004 became a non-international armed conflict (NIAC), which fell under the laws of war applicable to NIAC, including Common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions.
 
===28 June 28,2004 2004–December– 31, December 2004===
Through July and August, a series of skirmishes in and around Najaf culminated with the Imman Ali Mosque itself under siege, only to have a peace deal brokered by al-Sistani in late August.<ref>Dominick, Brian, "''[http://newstandardnews.net/content/?action=show_item&itemid=858 US Forces Bombard Holy Site After Al-Sadr Offers to Leave] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051025115709/http://newstandardnews.net/content/?action=show_item&itemid=858|date=25 October 2005}}''". [[The NewStandard]], 20 August 2004.</ref> Al-Sadr then declared a national cease fire, and opened negotiations with the American and government forces. His militia was incorporated into the Iraqi security forces and al-Sadr is now a special envoy. This incident was the turning point in the failed American efforts to install [[Ahmed Chalabi]] as leader of the interim government. The CPA then put [[Iyad Allawi]] in power; ultimately he was only marginally more popular than Chalabi.
 
Line 270:
===2009===
{{Main|2009 in Iraq}}
[[Vice President of the United States]] [[Joe Biden]] made his second visit to Baghdad in as many months in September 2009, and met with Prime Minister [[Nouri al-Maliki]] even as insurgents fired mortars and rockets at the [[Green Zone]] to protest his presence. Although said to be in "listening mode", Biden addressed issues of security, political reconciliation, and foreign investment in Iraq's oil-rich but weakened economy with various leaders in the capital and Iraq's [[Kurdistan Regional Government|Kurdish region]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/09/16/AR2009091602998.html?hpid=moreheadlines |title=Biden Pushes Iraqi Leaders on Vote Law, Oil-Bid Perks |author=Scott Wilson |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=17 September 2009 |access-date=17 September 2009 |archive-date=8 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108195437/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/09/16/AR2009091602998.html?hpid=moreheadlines |url-status=live }}</ref> "We will also move ahead on other aspects of our security agreement by removing all US combat brigades from Iraq by the end of August 2010 and all remaining US troops by the end of 2011," Biden said.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://blogs.abcnews.com/politicalpunch/2009/09/in-baghdad-biden-affirms-us-commitment-to-troop-withdrawal-deadlines.html|title=In Baghdad, Biden Affirms US Commitment to Troop Withdrawal Deadlines|author=Karen Travers|publisher=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]]|date=16 September 2009|access-date=17 September 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090925044525/http://blogs.abcnews.com/politicalpunch/2009/09/in-baghdad-biden-affirms-us-commitment-to-troop-withdrawal-deadlines.html|archive-date=25 September 2009}}</ref>
 
===2010===
Line 278:
On 18 August 2010 the final US combat troops were reported to have crossed the border into [[Kuwait]], when a last convoy of the Army's 4th Stryker Brigade Combat Team departed Iraq. A spokesman for the US State Department, P. J. Crowley, was quoted by news media as saying the departure was "a historic moment," but noted that the US presence in Iraq would continue. The pullout of combat forces was nearly two weeks ahead of the announced deadline of 31 August.
 
In a released statement, US President Obama said of the withdrawn soldiers, "I hope you'll join me in thanking them, and all of our troops and military families, for their service." He noted that the event was a "milestone in the Iraq war."<ref>{{cite web|url=httphttps://www.msnbc.msnnbcnews.com/id/38744453/ns/world_news-mideastn_africawbna38744453|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100820024624/http://msnbc.msn.com/id/38744453/ns/world_news-mideastn_africa|url-status=deadlive|archive-date=20 August 2010|title=Last full US combat brigade leaves Iraq|access-date=18 August 2010}}</ref>
 
The closure of [[Operation Iraqi Freedom]] was announced on 31 August. "It is time to turn the page," Obama said in a national address. The operations in Iraq were renamed "[[Iraq War|New Dawn]]".
Line 407:
After the 2003 invasion, an insurgency developed against Coalition forces during as part of the [[Iraq War]]. The [[Iraqi insurgency (2003–2006)|first phase of the insurgency]] began shortly after the invasion and lasted until the establishment of a provisional Iraqi government, and from around 2004 until May 2007 primarily targeted American-led Coalition forces. In the early months following the "end of major combat operations", insurgents conducted sniper attacks, suicide bombings at road checkpoints, and ambushes, resulting in about 112 Coalition fatalities per month.<ref>Abdullah, T.A.J., 2006, ''Dictatorship, Imperialism & Chaos: Iraq since 1989'', London, Zed Books</ref>
 
In February 2006, a [[Iraqi civil war (2006–2008)|sectarian civil war]] broke out in Iraq, leading to insurgents to direct many of their attacks against the [[Iraqi Police|police]] and [[Iraqi Ground Forces|armed forces]] of the [[Al Maliki I Government|Iraqi government]]. The attacks continued during the [[Investment in post-invasion Iraq|transitional reconstruction of Iraq]], as the Iraqi government attempted to establish its authority throughout the country.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2017-07-20|title=After Mosul, Islamic State digs in for guerrilla warfare|page="Intelligence and security officials are bracing for the kind of devastating insurgency al Qaeda waged following the 2003 US-led invasion, pushing Iraq into a sectarian civil war which peaked in 2006–2007"|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-iraq-insurgency-idUSKBN1A50ML|access-date=2022-01-01}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=CNN.com - Sen. Reid: Iraq devolves into 'civil war' - Jul 20, 2006|url=https://www.cnn.com/2006/POLITICS/07/20/iraq.democrats/|access-date=2022-01-01|website=www.cnn.com}}</ref>
 
Though the civil war (and the accompanying sectarian violence) ended in mid-2008, the insurgency continued after the [[Withdrawal of United States troops from Iraq (2007–2011)|withdrawal of US forces from Iraq]] in 20012011, and in 2012 a renewed wave of sectarian and anti-government insurgency swept Iraq, causing thousands of casualties. Increasing violence led to [[War in Iraq (2013–2017)|another outbreak of war]] in Iraq in 2013, lasting until 2017.<ref name="end of war">{{cite news|last=Mostafa|first=Nehal|date=9 December 2017|title=Iraq announces end of war against IS, liberation of borders with Syria: Abadi|url=https://www.iraqinews.com/iraq-war/iraq-announces-end-war-liberation-borders-syria-abadi/|work=Iraqi News|access-date=9 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171209235658/https://www.iraqinews.com/iraq-war/iraq-announces-end-war-liberation-borders-syria-abadi/|archive-date=9 December 2017|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
 
===Guerrilla war===
Line 479:
 
==US military patrolling==
During the "post-war" Iraq occupation, occupying forces have turned their attention to enforcing order through [[patrolling]]. These patrols faced insurgents who conduct ambushes using assault rifles, rocket propelled grenades, and carefully placed and timed explosives. The patrols require armored vehicles capable of stopping at least small arms fire of 7.62&nbsp;mm machine gun rounds along with mandatory external weapons platforms and tracking equipment. Experience is also key in detecting any potentially threatening, out of place car, box or person while following the [[rules of engagement]] that dictate a passive-but-ready posture. Patrolling soldiers spend nearly eight hours a day in sector and accrue nearly 30 patrols per month.{{fact|date=July 2024}}
 
==US permanent facilities==
Line 489:
 
==Cultural dimensions==
As cultural scientist Roland Benedikter poses in his book on ''Sustainable Democratization of Iraq''<ref>Roland Benedikter, ''Nachhaltige Demokratisierung des Irak?'' (Sustainable Democratization of Iraq? Socio-cultural perspectives), Passagen Verlag Vienna 2005 634pp</ref> and in a series of essays,<ref>{{cite web|author=Roland Benedikter|title=Overcoming ethnic division in Iraq. A practical model from Europe. In: In The National Interest, The Nixon Foundation|url=http://inthenationalinterest.com/Articles/Vol3Issue6/Vol3Issue6Benedikter.html |publisher=Inthenationalinterest.com|access-date=22 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616163400/http://inthenationalinterest.com/Articles/Vol3Issue6/Vol3Issue6Benedikter.html|archive-date=16 June 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> one main cause of the ongoing problems of pacification seems to consist in the fact that the socio-cultural dimensions of sustainability, including questions of ethnicity, religion and minority issues, have not been included appropriately in the overall democratization strategies so far.{{fact|date=July 2024}}
 
==See also==
Line 573:
{{Iraq War}}
{{Polish wars and conflicts}}
{{Asia in topic|Terrorism in|IL=Timeline of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict}}
{{Armed Iraqi Groups in the Iraq War and the Iraq Civil War}}
{{Iraq topics}}
Line 581:
[[Category:Al-Qaeda]]
[[Category:George W. Bush administration controversies]]
[[Category:History of Iraq (1958–present)| 2003–2011]]
[[Category:Iraq–United States relations]]
[[Category:Iraq War]]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupation_of_Iraq_(2003–2011)"