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The term ''doctor'' derives from Latin, meaning "teacher" or "instructor". The doctorate (Latin: ''doctoratus'') appeared in [[Middle Ages|medieval Europe]] as a license to teach Latin (''licentia docendi'') at a [[medieval university|university]].<ref name="Lexikon des Mittelalters: Doctor, doctoratus">{{citation |last=Verger |first=J. |contribution=Doctor, doctoratus |title=Lexikon des Mittelalters |volume=3 |pages=1155–1156 |publisher=J.B. Metzler |place=Stuttgart |year=1999|title-link=Lexikon des Mittelalters }}</ref> Its roots can be traced to the [[early church]] in which the term ''doctor'' referred to the [[Apostles in the New Testament|Apostles]], [[church fathers]], and other [[Christianity|Christian]] authorities who taught and [[Exegesis|interpreted the Bible]].<ref name="Lexikon des Mittelalters: Doctor, doctoratus" />
The right to grant a ''licentia docendi'' (i.e. the doctorate) was originally reserved to the [[Catholic Church]], which required the applicant to pass a test, take an [[oath of allegiance]], and pay a fee. The [[Third Council of the Lateran]] of 1179 guaranteed access—at that time essentially free of charge—to all able applicants. Applicants were tested for aptitude.<ref name="Lexikon des Mittelalters: Licentia">{{citation |last=Verger |first=J. |contribution=Licentia |title=Lexikon des Mittelalters |volume=5 |pages=1957–1958 |publisher=J.B. Metzler |place=Stuttgart |year=1999|title-link=Lexikon des Mittelalters }}</ref> This right remained a bone of contention between the church authorities and the universities, slowly distancing themselves from the Church. In 1213 the right was granted by the [[pope]] to the [[University of Paris]], where it became a universal license to teach (''licentia ubique docendi'').<ref name="Lexikon des Mittelalters: Licentia" /> However, while the ''licentia'' continued to hold a higher prestige than the [[bachelor's degree]] (''baccalaureus''), the latter was ultimately reduced to an intermediate step to the master's degree (''magister'') and doctorate, both of which now became the
[[George Makdisi]] theorizes that the ''[[ijazah]]'' issued in early Islamic [[madrasah]]s was the origin of the doctorate later issued in medieval European [[universities]].<ref name="Makdisi">{{citation|doi=10.2307/604423|last=Makdisi|first=George|title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West|jstor=604423|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=109|issue=2|date=April–June 1989|pages=175–182 [175–77]}}</ref><ref name="stewart">{{cite book|last=Devin J. Stewart|first=Josef W. Meri|journal=[[Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia]]|title=Degrees, or Ijazah|date=2005|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=9781135455965|pages=201–203|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c1ZsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA201}}</ref> [[Alfred Guillaume]] and [[Syed Farid al-Attas]] agree that there is a resemblance between the ''ijazah'' and the ''licentia docendi''.<ref name="Alatas">{{cite journal |last1=Al-Attas |first1=Syed Farid |author1-link=Syed Farid al-Attas |title=From Jāmi' ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue |journal=[[Current Sociology]] |date=1 January 2006 |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=112–132 |doi=10.1177/0011392106058837 |s2cid=144509355 |issn=0011-3921 |quote=In the 1930s, the renowned Orientalist Alfred Guillaume noted strong resemblances between Muslim and Western Christian institutions of higher learning. An example he cited is the ijazah, which he recognized as being akin to the medieval licentia docendi, the precursor of the modern university degree.|url=https://zenodo.org/record/29439 }}</ref> However, [[Toby Huff]] and others reject Makdisi's theory.<ref>{{cite book|last=Huff|first=Toby E.|title=The rise of early modern science : Islam, China, and the West|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0521529945|edition=2. ed., repr.|location=Cambridge [u.a.]|page=155|quote=It remains the case that no equivalent of the bachelor's degree, the licentia docendi, or higher degrees ever emerged in the medieval or early modern Islamic ''madrasas''.|author-link=Toby Huff}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Verger|first=J.|title=Lexikon des Mittelalters|volume=3|year=1999|at=cols 1155–1156|contribution=Doctor, doctoratus|place=Stuttgart|publisher=J.B. Metzler|title-link=Lexikon des Mittelalters}}</ref><ref>Rüegg, Walter: "Foreword. The University as a European Institution", in: ''[[A History of the University in Europe|A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages]]'', Cambridge University Press, 1992, {{ISBN|0-521-36105-2}}, pp. XIX: "No other European institution has spread over the entire world in the way in which the traditional form of the European university has done. The degrees awarded by European universities – the bachelor's degree, the licentiate, the master's degree, and the doctorate – have been adopted in the most diverse societies throughout the world."</ref><ref>Norman Daniel: Review of "The Rise of Colleges. Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West by George Makdisi", Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 104, No. 3 (Jul. – Sep., 1984), pp. 586–588 (587)</ref> [[Devin J. Stewart]] notes a difference in the granting authority (individual professor for the ''ijzazah'' and a corporate entity in the case of the university doctorate).<ref name="stewart3">{{cite encyclopedia|author=Devin J. Stewart|editor=Josef W. Meri|encyclopedia=[[Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia]]|title=Degrees, or Ijazah|date=2005|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=9781135455965|pages=201–203|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c1ZsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA201|quote=The license to teach law and issue legal opinions [...] is the type of ijazah that resembles the medieval European university degree most closely [...] The main difference between the two is that the granting authority is an individual professor, in the Islamic case, rather than a corporate institution in the case of the university. Despite this point, Makdisi has likened the ijazat al-ifta' wa'l-tadris to the medieval Latin licentia docendi and suggests that it served as a model for that degree.|author-link=Devin J. Stewart}}</ref>
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