The government of the Mughal Empire was a highly centralised bureaucracy, most of which was instituted during the rule of the third Mughal emperor, Akbar.[1][2] The central government was headed by the Mughal emperor; immediately beneath him were four ministries. The finance/revenue ministry was responsible for controlling revenues from the empire's territories, calculating tax revenues, and using this information to distribute assignments. The ministry of the military (army/intelligence) was headed by an official titled mir bakhshi, who was in charge of military organisation, messenger service, and the mansabdari system. The ministry in charge of law/religious patronage was the responsibility of the sadr as-sudr, who appointed judges and managed charities and stipends. Another ministry was dedicated to the imperial household and public works.[3][1]
  Flag and Seal of the Mughal Empire | |
| Overview | |
| Established | 1526 |
| Dissolved | 1857 |
| State | Mughal Empire |
| Leader | Mughal emperor |
| Ministries | Vakil / Grand vizier Ministry of finance Ministry of the military Ministry of law/religious patronage Ministry of the imperial household and public works |
| Headquarters | Agra Delhi Lahore Fatehpur Sikri |
Provinces
The empire was divided into suba (provinces), each of which were headed by a provincial governor called a subadar. The structure of the central government was mirrored at the provincial level; each suba had its own bakhshi, sadr as-sudr, and finance minister that reported directly to the central government rather than the subahdar. Subas were subdivided into administrative units known as sarkars, which were further divided into groups of villages known as parganas. Mughal government in the pargana consisted of a Muslim judge and local tax collector.[3][1]
Capitals
The Mughals had multiple imperial capitals, established over the course of their rule. These were the cities of Agra, Delhi, Lahore, and Fatehpur Sikri. Power often shifted back and forth between these capitals.[4] Sometimes this was necessitated by political and military demands, but shifts also occurred for ideological reasons (for example, Akbar's establishment of Fatehpur Sikri), or even simply because the cost of establishing a new capital was marginal.[5] Situations where there were two simultaneous capitals happened multiple times in Mughal history. Certain cities also served as short-term, provincial capitals, as was the case with Aurangzeb's shift to Aurangabad in the Deccan.[4]
The imperial camp, used for military expeditions and royal tours, also served as a kind of mobile, "de-facto" administrative capital. From the time of Akbar, Mughal camps were huge in scale, accompanied by numerous personages associated with the royal court, as well as soldiers and labourers. All administration and governance was carried out within them. The Mughal Emperors spent a significant portion of their ruling period within these camps.[6]
After Aurangzeb, the Mughal capital definitively became the walled city of Shahjahanabad (today Old Delhi).[7]
Law
The Mughal Empire's legal system was context-specific and evolved over the course of the empire's rule. Being a Muslim state, the empire employed fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and therefore the fundamental institutions of Islamic law such as those of the qadi (judge), mufti (jurisconsult), and muhtasib (censor and market supervisor) were well-established in the Mughal Empire. However, the dispensation of justice also depended on other factors, such as administrative rules, local customs, and political convenience. This was due to Persianate influences on Mughal ideology, and the fact that the Mughal Empire governed a non-Muslim majority.[8]
Legal ideology
The Mughal Empire followed the Sunni Hanafi system of jurisprudence. In its early years, the empire relied on Hanafi legal references inherited from its predecessor, the Delhi Sultanate. These included the al-Hidaya (the best guidance) and the Fatawa al-Tatarkhaniyya (religious decisions of the Emire Tatarkhan). During the Mughal Empire's peak, the Al-Fatawa al-'Alamgiriyya was commissioned by Emperor Aurangzeb. This compendium of Hanafi law sought to serve as a central reference for the Mughal state that dealt with the specifics of the South Asian context.[9]
The Mughal Empire also drew on Persianate notions of kingship. Particularly, this meant that the Mughal emperor was considered the supreme authority on legal affairs.[8]
Courts of law
Various kinds of courts existed in the Mughal empire. One such court was that of the qadi. The Mughal qadi was responsible for dispensing justice; this included settling disputes, judging people for crimes, and dealing with inheritances and orphans. The qadi also had additional importance with regards to documents, as the seal of the qadi was required to validate deeds and tax records. Qadis did not constitute a single position, but made up a hierarchy. For example, the most basic kind was the pargana (district) qadi. More prestigious positions were those of the qadi al-quddat (judge of judges) who accompanied the mobile imperial camp, and the qadi-yi lashkar (judge of the army).[8] Qadis were usually appointed by the emperor or the sadr-us-sudr (chief of charities).[8][10] The jurisdiction of the qadi was availed by Muslims and non-Muslims alike.[11]
The jagirdar (local tax collector) was another kind of official approached, especially for high-stakes cases. Subjects of the Mughal Empire also took their grievances to the courts of superior officials who held more authority and punitive power than the local qadi. Such officials included the kotwal (local police), the faujdar (an officer controlling multiple districts and troops of soldiers), and the most powerful, the subahdar (provincial governor). In some cases, the emperor themself dispensed justice directly.[8] Jahangir was known to have installed a "chain of justice" in the Agra fort that any aggrieved subject could shake to get the attention of the emperor and bypass the inefficacy of officials.[12]
Self-regulating tribunals operating at the community or village level were common, but sparse documentation of them exists. For example, it is unclear how panchayats (village councils) operated in the Mughal era.[8]
List of Mughal Emperors
| Portrait | Titular Name | Birth Name | Birth | Reign | Death | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bābur بابر |
Zahir-ud-din Muhammad ظہیر الدین محمد |
14 February 1483, Andijan | 20 April 1526 – 26 December 1530 | 26 December 1530 (aged 47) | Founded the Empire | |
| Humayun ہمایوں |
Nasir-ud-din Muhammad Humayun نصیر الدین محمد ہمایوں |
6 March 1508 | 26 December 1530 – 17 May 1540
9 years 4 months 21 days 22 February 1555 – 27 January 1556 |
27 January 1556 (aged 47) | Humayun was overthrown in 1540 by Sher Shah Suri of the Suri dynasty but returned to the throne in 1555 after the death of Islam Shah Suri (Sher Shah Suri's son and successor). | |
| Akbar-i-Azam اکبر اعظم |
Jalal-ud-din Muhammad جلال الدین محمد اکبر |
14 October 1542 | 27 January 1556 – 27 October 1605
49 years 9 months 0 days |
27 October 1605 (aged 63) | His mother was Persian Hamida Banu Begum.[13] | |
| Jahangir جہانگیر |
Nur-ud-din Muhammad Salim نور الدین محمد سلیم |
20 September 1569 | 15 October 1605 – 8 October 1627
21 years 11 months 23 days |
28 October 1627 (aged 58) | His mother was Rajput princess Mariam-uz-Zamani.[14] | |
| Shah-Jahan شاہ جہان |
Shahab-ud-din Muhammad Khurram شہاب الدین محمد خرم |
5 January 1592 | 8 November 1627 – 2 August 1658
30 years 8 months 25 days |
22 January 1666 (aged 74) | His mother was Rajput princess Jagat Gosaini.[15] Built Taj Mahal. | |
| Alamgir I عالمگیر |
Muhy-ud-din Muhammad Aurangzeb محی الدین محمداورنگزیب |
3 November 1618 | 31 July 1658 – 3 March 1707
48 years 7 months 0 days |
3 March 1707 (aged 88) | His mother was Persian Mumtaz Mahal. He was married to Safavid dynasty Princess Dilras Banu Begum. He established Islamic law throughout India. After his death, His younger Son Azam Shah became the King (for 3 months) .[16] | |
| Bahadur Shah بہادر شاہ |
Qutb-ud-Din Muhammad Mu'azzam Shah Alam قطب الدین محمد معزام |
14 October 1643 | 19 June 1707 – 27 February 1712
(3 years, 253 days) |
27 February 1712 (aged 68) | He made settlements with the Marathas, tranquillised the Rajputs, and became friendly with the Sikhs in the Punjab. | |
| Jahandar Shah جہاندار شاہ |
Mu'izz-ud-Din Jahandar Shah Bahadur معز الدین جہاندار شاہ بہادر |
9 May 1661 | 27 February 1712 – 11 February 1713
(0 years, 350 days) |
12 February 1713 (aged 51) | Highly influenced by his Grand Vizier Zulfikar Khan. | |
| Farrukhsiyar فرخ سیر |
Farrukhsiyar فرخ سیر |
20 August 1685 | 11 January 1713 – 28 February 1719
(6 years, 48 days) |
29 April 1719 (aged 33) | Granted a firman to the East India Company in 1717 granting them duty-free trading rights for Bengal, strengthening their posts on the east coast. The firman or decree helped British East India company to import goods into Bengal without paying customs duty to the government. | |
| Rafi ud-Darajat رفیع الدرجات |
Rafi ud-Darajat رفیع الدرجات |
30 November 1699 | 28 February – 6 June 1719
(0 years, 98 days) |
9 June 1719 (aged 19) | Rise of Syed Brothers as power brokers. | |
| Shah Jahan II شاہ جہان دوم |
Rafi ud-Daulah شاہ جہاں دوم |
June 1696 | 6 June 1719 – 19 September 1719
(0 years, 105 days) |
19 September 1719 (aged 23) | ---- | |
| Muhammad Shah محمد شاہ |
Roshan Akhtar Bahadur روشن اختر بہادر |
17 August 1702 | 27 September 1719 – 26 April 1748
(28 years, 212 days) |
26 April 1748 (aged 45) | Got rid of the Syed Brothers. Fought a long war with the Marathas, losing Deccan and Malwa in the process. Suffered the invasion of Nader Shah of Persia in 1739. He was the last emperor to possess effective control over the empire. | |
| Ahmad Shah Bahadur احمد شاہ بہادر |
Ahmad Shah Bahadur احمد شاہ بہادر |
23 December 1725 | 26 April 1748 – 2 June 1754
(6 years, 37 days) |
1 January 1775 (aged 49) | Mughal forces defeated by the Marathas at the Battle of Sikandarabad. | |
| Alamgir II عالمگیر دوم |
Aziz-ud-din عزیز اُلدین |
6 June 1699 | 2 June 1754 – 29 November 1759
(5 years, 180 days) |
29 November 1759 (aged 60) | Domination of Vizier Imad-ul-Mulk. | |
| Shah Jahan III شاہ جہان سوم |
Muhi-ul-millat محی اُلملت |
1711 | 10 December 1759 – 10 October 1760
(282 days) |
1772 (aged 60–61) | Consolidation of power by the Nawab of Bengal-Bihar-Odisha. | |
| Shah Alam II شاہ عالم دوم |
Ali Gauhar علی گوہر |
25 June 1728 | 10 October 1760 – 19 November 1806 (46 years, 330 days) | 19 November 1806 (aged 78) | Defeat in the Battle of Buxar. | |
| Muhammad Shah Bahadur Jahan IV شاہ جہان محمد شاه بهادر |
Bidar Bakht بیدار بخت |
1749 | 31 July 1788 – by 2 October 1788 (63 days) | 1790 (aged 40–41) | Enthroned as a puppet Emperor by the Rohilla Ghulam Kadir, following the temporary overthrow of Shah Alam II.[17] | |
| Akbar Shah II اکبر شاہ دوم |
Mirza Akbar میرزا اکبر |
22 April 1760 | 19 November 1806 – 28 September 1837 (30 years, 321 days) | 28 September 1837 (aged 77) | Titular figurehead under British protection. | |
| Bahadur Shah II بہادر شاہ دوم |
Abu Zafar Sirajuddin Muhammad Bahadur Shah Zafar ابو ظفر سراج اُلدین محمد بہادر شاہ ظفر |
24 October 1775 | 28 September 1837 – 23 September 1857 (19 years, 360 days) | 7 November 1862 (aged 87) | Last Mughal Emperor. Deposed by the British and was exiled to Burma after the Indian Rebellion of 1857. |
See also
Further reading
References
- ^ a b c Robinson, Francis (2009), "Mughal Empire", The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-530513-5, retrieved 28 March 2022
- ^ Burton-Page, J.; Islam, Riazul; Athar Ali, M.; Moosvi, Shireen; Moreland, W. H.; Bosworth, C. E.; Schimmel, Annemarie; Koch, Ebba; Hall, Margaret (24 April 2012), "Mug̲h̲als", Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Brill, doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_com_0778, retrieved 31 March 2022
- ^ a b Conermann, Stephan (4 August 2015), "Mughal Empire", Encyclopedia of Early Modern History Online, Brill, doi:10.1163/2352-0272_emho_com_024206, retrieved 28 March 2022
- ^ a b Sinopoli, Carla M. (1994). "Monumentality and Mobility in Mughal Capitals". Asian Perspectives. 33 (2): 294–295. ISSN 0066-8435. JSTOR 42928323.
- ^ Sinopoli, Carla M. (1994). "Monumentality and Mobility in Mughal Capitals". Asian Perspectives. 33 (2): 304–305. ISSN 0066-8435. JSTOR 42928323.
- ^ Sinopoli, Carla M. (1994). "Monumentality and Mobility in Mughal Capitals". Asian Perspectives. 33 (2): 296 & 298. ISSN 0066-8435. JSTOR 42928323.
- ^ Edmund., Bosworth, Clifford (2008). Historic cities of the Islamic world. Brill. p. 127. ISBN 978-90-04-15388-2. OCLC 231801473.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c d e f Chatterjee, Nandini (1 December 2019), "Courts of law, Mughal", Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE, Brill, doi:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_com_25171, retrieved 13 December 2021
- ^ Khalfaoui, Mouez. "Mughal Empire and Law". Oxford Islamic Studies Online.
- ^ Conermann, Stephan (4 August 2015), "Mughal Empire", Encyclopedia of Early Modern History Online, Brill, doi:10.1163/2352-0272_emho_com_024206, retrieved 25 March 2022
- ^ Chatterjee, Nandini (2014). "Reflections on Religious Difference and Permissive Inclusion in Mughal Law". Journal of Law and Religion. 29 (3): 396–415. doi:10.1017/jlr.2014.20. hdl:10871/15975. ISSN 0748-0814. S2CID 143513602.
- ^ Eaton, Richard M. (2019). India in the Persianate Age : 1000-1765. University of California Press. p. 272. ISBN 978-0-520-97423-4. OCLC 1243310832.
- ^ Begum, Gulbadan (1902). The History of Humayun (Humayun-Nama). Royal Asiatic Society. pp. 237–9.
- ^ Marc Jason Gilbert (2017). South Asia in World History. Oxford University Press. p. 79. ISBN 9780199760343.
- ^ Emperor of Hindustan Jahangir (2010). The Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri; Or, Memoirs of Jahangir Translated by Alexander Rogers Edited by Henry Beveridge. General Books LLC. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-152-49040-6.
- ^ Mohammada, Malika (1 January 2007). The Foundations of the Composite Culture in India. Aakar Books. p. 300. ISBN 978-8-189-83318-3.
- ^ The Honorary Secretaries, Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal: 1871, (1871) p.97