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{{Antisemitism}}{{Discrimination sidebar|expand-ethnic=yes}}<!--Before making an edit to this article's definition of "antisemitism" to include prejudice against all Semitic people, please review the relevant discussions on the article's talk page and the related archives. If you still want to change the definition on this article, please discuss first on the talk page.-->
'''Antisemitism'''{{Efn|Also spelled '''anti-semitism''' or '''anti-Semitism'''; The [[International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance]] has stated that the spelling without hyphenation is preferred, because the spelling with hyphenation implies that "[[wikt:Semitism|Semitism]]" is a valid concept.<ref name=IHRA2 />}} or '''Jew-hatred'''<ref>{{Cite OED|term=Jew-hatred|id=2854443694|access-date=2 September 2024}}</ref> is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against, [[Jews]].<ref name="Oxford">{{cite web
* {{cite encyclopedia
* {{cite book
*{{cite journal
There are various ways in which antisemitism is manifested, ranging in the level of severity of [[Persecution of Jews|Jewish persecution]]. On the more subtle end, it consists of expressions of hatred or discrimination against individual Jews
In recent times, the idea that there is a variation of antisemitism known as "[[new antisemitism]]" has emerged on several occasions. According to this view, since
Due to the root word ''[[Wikt:Semite|Semite]]'', the term is prone to being invoked as a misnomer by those who incorrectly assert (in an [[etymological fallacy]]) that it refers to racist hatred directed at "[[Semitic people]]" in spite of the fact that this grouping is an obsolete [[Historical race concepts|historical race concept]]. Likewise, such usage is erroneous; the compound word {{lang|de|antisemitismus}} was first used in print in [[History of the Jews in Germany|Germany]] in 1879{{sfnp|Bein|1990|p=595}} as a "[[Scientific racism|scientific-sounding term]]" for {{lang|de|Judenhass}} ({{Literal translation|Jew-hatred}}),{{sfnp|Lipstadt|2019|pp=22–25}}{{sfnp|Chanes|2004|p=150}}{{sfnp|Rattansi|2007|pp=4–5}}{{sfnp|Johnston|1983|p=27}}{{sfnp|Laqueur|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IaloAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 21]}} and it has since been used to refer to anti-Jewish sentiment alone.{{sfnp|Lipstadt|2019|pp=22–25}}{{sfnp|Johnson|1987|p=133}}<ref name="JustJews">{{cite web
*{{cite journal
{{TOC limit|3}}
==Origin and usage==
===Etymology===
{{
[[File:Statuten der Antisemiten-Liga.jpg|thumb|1879 statute of the Antisemitic League]]
The word "Semitic" was coined by German orientalist [[August Ludwig von Schlözer]] in 1781 to designate the [[Semitic languages|Semitic group of languages]]—[[Aramaic]], [[Arabic]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and others—allegedly spoken by the descendants of Biblical figure [[Shem|Sem]], son of [[Noah]].<ref name="Vermeulen 2015 p. 252">{{cite book
The origin of "antisemitic" terminologies is found in the responses of orientalist [[Moritz Steinschneider]] to the views of orientalist [[Ernest Renan]]. Historian [[Alex Bein]] writes: "The compound anti-Semitism appears to have been used first by Steinschneider, who challenged Renan on account of his 'anti-Semitic prejudices' [i.e., his derogation of the "[[Semitic people|Semites]]" as a [[Race (human categorization)|race]]]."{{sfnp|Bein|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=cQOn0y8ENg4C&pg=PA594 594]}} Psychologist [[Avner Falk]] similarly writes: "The German word ''{{Lang|de|antisemitisch}}'' was first used in 1860 by the Austrian Jewish scholar Moritz Steinschneider (1816–1907) in the phrase ''antisemitische Vorurteile'' (antisemitic prejudices). Steinschneider used this phrase to characterise the French philosopher Ernest Renan's false ideas about how '[[Semitic Race|Semitic races]]' were inferior to '[[Aryan race]]s{{'"}}.{{sfnp|Falk|2008|p=21}}
[[Pseudoscience|Pseudoscientific]] theories [[Scientific racism|concerning race]], civilization, and "progress" had become quite widespread in Europe in the second half of the 19th century, especially as [[Prussia]]n nationalistic historian [[Heinrich von Treitschke]] did much to promote this form of racism. He coined the phrase "the Jews are our misfortune" which would later be widely used by [[Nazism|Nazis]].<ref>{{cite book
According to philologist [[Jonathan M. Hess]], the term was originally used by its authors to "stress the radical difference between their own 'antisemitism' and earlier forms of antagonism toward Jews and Judaism."<ref>{{cite journal
[[File:Bookcover-1880-Marr-German uber Juden.jpg|thumb|Cover page of Marr's ''The Way to Victory of Germanicism over Judaism'', 1880 edition]]
In 1879, German journalist [[Wilhelm Marr]] published a pamphlet, {{Lang|de|Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum. Vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet}} (''The Victory of the Jewish Spirit over the Germanic Spirit. Observed from a non-religious perspective'') in which he used the word ''Semitismus'' interchangeably with the word ''Judentum'' to denote both "Jewry" (the Jews as a collective) and "Jewishness" (the quality of being Jewish, or the Jewish spirit).<ref>{{cite book
This followed his 1862 book ''Die Judenspiegel'' (''A Mirror to the Jews'') in which he argued that "Judaism must cease to exist if humanity is to commence", demanding both that Judaism be dissolved as a "religious-denominational sect" but also subject to criticism "as a race, a civil and social entity".<ref name=":5">{{Cite web
This use of Semitismus was followed by a coining of "[[Wikt:Antisemitismus|Antisemitismus]]" which was used to indicate opposition to the Jews as a people<ref>{{Cite book
The pamphlet became very popular, and in the same year Marr founded the ''Antisemiten-Liga'' (League of Antisemites),<ref name=":4">{{cite book|title=Wilhelm Marr: The Patriarch of Antisemitism|last=Zimmermann|first=Moshe|author-link=Moshe Zimmermann|publisher=New York and Oxford: Oxford University|pages=71}}</ref> apparently named to follow the "Anti-Kanzler-Liga" (Anti-Chancellor League).<ref name="MZ1987">{{cite book
So far as can be ascertained, the word was first widely printed in 1881, when Marr published ''Zwanglose Antisemitische Hefte'', and [[Wilhelm Scherer]] used the term ''Antisemiten'' in the January issue of ''[[Neue Freie Presse]]''.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}}
The ''[[Jewish Encyclopedia]]'' reports, "In February 1881, a correspondent of the ''[[Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums]]'' speaks of 'Anti-Semitism' as a designation which recently came into use ("Allg. Zeit. d. Jud." 1881, p. 138). On 19 July 1882, the editor says, 'This quite recent Anti-Semitism is hardly three years old.{{'"}}<ref>{{Cite journal
The word "antisemitism" was borrowed into English from German in 1881. ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' editor [[James Murray (lexicographer)|James Murray]] wrote that it was not included in the first edition because "Anti-Semite and its family were then probably very new in English use, and not thought likely to be more than passing nonce-words... Would that anti-Semitism had had no more than a fleeting interest!"<ref name="toi">{{cite news
===Usage===
From the outset the term "anti-Semitism" bore special racial connotations and meant specifically prejudice against [[Jews]].<ref name="MWdef" />{{sfnp|Lipstadt|2019|pp=22–25}}<ref name="JustJews" /> The term has been described as confusing, for in modern usage 'Semitic' designates a language group, not a race. In this sense, the term is a misnomer, since there are many speakers of [[Semitic languages]] (e.g., [[Arabs]], [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Ethiopians]], and [[Arameans]]) who are not the objects of antisemitic prejudices, while there are many Jews who do not speak [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], a Semitic language. Though 'antisemitism' could be construed as [[prejudice]] against people who speak other Semitic languages, this is not how the term is commonly used.{{sfnp|Lewis|1999|p=117}}<ref>{{cite book
The term may be spelled with or without a hyphen (antisemitism or anti-Semitism). Many scholars and institutions favor the unhyphenated form.<ref name=IHRA2>{{cite web
Others endorsing an unhyphenated term for the same reason include the [[International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance]],<ref name=IHRA2/> historian [[Deborah Lipstadt]],{{sfnp|Lipstadt|2019|pp=22–25}} Padraic O'Hare, professor of Religious and Theological Studies and Director of the Center for the Study of Jewish-Christian-Muslim Relations at [[Merrimack College]]; and historians [[Yehuda Bauer]] and [[James Carroll (author)|James Carroll]]. According to Carroll, who first cites O'Hare and Bauer on "the existence of something called 'Semitism{{'"}}, "the hyphenated word thus reflects the bipolarity that is at the heart of the problem of antisemitism".<ref>{{cite book
The [[Associated Press]] and its accompanying ''[[AP Stylebook]]'' adopted the unhyphenated spelling in 2021.<ref>{{Cite news
===Definition===
Though the general definition of antisemitism is hostility or prejudice against Jews, and, according to [[Olaf Blaschke]], has become an "umbrella term for negative stereotypes about Jews",<ref name="pogromsriots">{{cite book
Writing in 1987, Holocaust scholar and [[City University of New York]] professor [[Helen Fein]] defined it as "a persisting latent structure of hostile beliefs towards Jews as a collective manifested in individuals as attitudes, and in culture as myth, ideology, folklore and imagery, and in actions—social or legal discrimination, political mobilization against the Jews, and collective or state violence—which results in and/or is designed to distance, displace, or destroy Jews as Jews."<ref>{{Cite book
Elaborating on Fein's definition, Dietz Bering of the [[University of Cologne]] writes that, to antisemites, "Jews are not only partially but totally bad by nature, that is, their bad traits are incorrigible. Because of this bad nature: (1) Jews have to be seen not as individuals but as a collective. (2) Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies. (3) Jews bring disaster on their 'host societies' or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the anti-Semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character."{{sfnp|Falk|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zL_0WOiZj0oC&pg=PA5 5]}}
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[[File:Antisemiticroths.jpg|thumb|A caricature by C. Léandre (France, 1898) showing [[Rothschild family|Rothschild]] with the world in his hands]]
In 2003, Israeli politician [[Natan Sharansky]] developed what he called the "three D" test to distinguish antisemitism from criticism of Israel, giving [[Legitimacy of the State of Israel|delegitimization]], demonization, and double standards as a litmus test for the former.<ref name="state178448"/><ref name="Patterns">{{cite journal
[[Bernard Lewis]], writing in 2006, defined antisemitism as a special case of prejudice, hatred, or persecution directed against people who are in some way different from the rest. According to Lewis, antisemitism is marked by two distinct features: Jews are judged according to a standard different from that applied to others, and they are accused of "cosmic evil". Thus, "it is perfectly possible to hate and even to persecute Jews without necessarily being anti-Semitic" unless this hatred or persecution displays one of the two features specific to antisemitism.<ref name="autogenerated1">[[Bernard Lewis|Lewis, Bernard]]. [http://hnn.us/blogs/entries/21832.html "The New Anti-Semitism"], ''The American Scholar'', Volume 75 No. 1, Winter 2006, pp. 25–36, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110908010822/http://hnn.us/blogs/entries/21832.html|date=8 September 2011}}.</ref>
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In 2005, the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and [[Xenophobia]] (EUMC, now the [[Fundamental Rights Agency]]), an agency of the [[European Union]], developed a more detailed [[EUMC Working Definition of Antisemitism|working definition]], which stated: "Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities." It also adds that "such manifestations could also target the state of Israel, conceived as a Jewish collectivity," but that "criticism of Israel similar to that leveled against any other country cannot be regarded as antisemitic."<ref name="antisemitic"/> It provided contemporary examples of ways in which antisemitism may manifest itself, including promoting the harming of Jews in the name of an ideology or religion; promoting negative stereotypes of Jews; holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of an individual Jewish person or group; [[Holocaust denial|denying the Holocaust]] or accusing Jews or Israel of exaggerating it; and accusing Jews of [[dual loyalty]] or a greater allegiance to Israel than their own country. It also lists ways in which attacking Israel could be antisemitic, and states that denying the Jewish people their right to self-determination, e.g. by claiming that the existence of a state of Israel is a racist endeavor, can be a manifestation of antisemitism—as can applying double standards by requiring of Israel a behavior not expected or demanded of any other democratic nation, or holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of the State of Israel.<ref name="antisemitic">
{{cite web|url=http://fra.europa.eu/fraWebsite/material/pub/AS/AS-WorkingDefinition-draft.pdf|title=Working Definition of Antisemitism|publisher=[[Fundamental Rights Agency|European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights]]
</ref>
The EUMC working definition was adopted by the [[European Parliament]] Working Group on Antisemitism in 2010,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.antisem.eu/projects/eumc-working-definition-of-antisemitism/|title=EUMC Working Definition of Antisemitism|website=
[[File:1889 French election poster for antisemitic candidate Adolphe Willette.jpg|thumb|1889 Paris, France elections poster for self-described "candidat antisémite" [[Adolphe Willette]]: "The Jews are a different race, hostile to our own... Judaism, there is the enemy!" (see file for complete translation)]]
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===Eternalism–contextualism debate===
The study of antisemitism has become politically controversial because of differing interpretations of the Holocaust and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|pp=1123–1124}} There are two competing views of antisemitism, eternalism, and contextualism.{{sfnp|Consonni|2022|p=25}} The eternalist view sees antisemitism as separate from other forms of racism and prejudice and an exceptionalist, transhistorical force [[teleological]]ly culminating in the Holocaust.{{sfnp|Consonni|2022|p=25}}{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|pp=1123, 1130}} Hannah Arendt criticized this approach, writing that it provoked "the uncomfortable question: 'Why the Jews of all people?' ... with the question begging reply: Eternal hostility."{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|p=1130}} Zionist thinkers and antisemites draw different conclusions from what they perceive as the eternal hatred of Jews; according to antisemites, it proves the inferiority of Jews, while for Zionists it means that Jews need their own state as a refuge.{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|p=1135}}{{sfnp|Ury|2018|p=1151}} Most Zionists do not believe that antisemitism can be combatted with education or other means.{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|p=1135}}
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==Manifestations==
[[File:Medieval manuscript-Jews identified by rouelle are being burned at stake.jpg|thumb|Jews (identified by the mandatory [[Jewish badge]] and [[Jewish hat]]) being burned.]]
Antisemitism manifests itself in a variety of ways. [[René König]] mentions social antisemitism, economic antisemitism, religious antisemitism, and political antisemitism as examples. König points out that these different forms demonstrate that the "origins of anti-Semitic prejudices are rooted in different historical periods." König asserts that differences in the chronology of different antisemitic prejudices and the irregular distribution of such prejudices over different segments of the population create "serious difficulties in the definition of the different kinds of anti-Semitism."<ref>{{cite book|title=Materialien zur Kriminalsoziologie|first=René|last=König|publisher=VS Verlag|year=2004|page=231|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N9oL2cljv8QC&pg=PA231|isbn=978-3-8100-3306-2|access-date=23 August 2020|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230000128/https://books.google.com/books?id=N9oL2cljv8QC&pg=PA231|url-status=live}}</ref>
These difficulties may contribute to the existence of different taxonomies that have been developed to categorize the forms of antisemitism. The forms identified are substantially the same; it is primarily the number of forms and their definitions that differ. [[Bernard Lazare]], writing in the 1890s, identified three forms of antisemitism: [[Christianity and antisemitism|Christian antisemitism]], economic antisemitism, and ethnologic antisemitism.<ref>{{cite book *Political and economic antisemitism, giving as examples [[Cicero]]{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=16}} and [[Charles Lindbergh]];{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=260}}
*[[Religious antisemitism|Theological or religious antisemitism]], also called "traditional antisemitism"<ref>{{Cite news
*Nationalistic antisemitism, citing [[Voltaire]] and other [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] thinkers, who attacked Jews for supposedly having certain characteristics, such as greed and arrogance, and for observing customs such as [[kashrut]] and [[Shabbat]];{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=176}}
*[[Racial antisemitism]], with its extreme form resulting in [[the Holocaust]] by the [[Nazi]]s.{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=179}}
{{Quote box
|quote=[[Antisemitism in Europe|Europe has blamed the Jews]] for an encyclopedia of [[sin]]s.<br/>[[Catholic Church|The Church]] blamed the Jews for [[Jewish deicide|killing Jesus]]; [[Voltaire]] blamed the Jews for [[Jewish Christian|inventing Christianity]]. In the febrile minds of anti-Semites, Jews were [[Usury#Judaism|usurers]] and [[Well poisoning#Medieval accusations against Jews|well-poisoners]] and [[Persecution of Jews during the Black Death|spreaders of disease]]. Jews were the creators of both [[Jewish Bolshevism|communism]] and [[Economic antisemitism|capitalism]]; they were [[Jewish quarter (diaspora)|clannish]] but also [[Rootless cosmopolitan|cosmopolitan]]; cowardly and warmongering; self-righteous moralists and defilers of culture.<br/>Ideologues and demagogues of many permutations have understood the Jews to be a singularly malevolent force standing between the world and its perfection.
|author=[[Jeffrey Goldberg]], 2015.<ref>{{cite magazine
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[[Louis Harap]], writing in the 1980s, separated "economic antisemitism" and merges "political" and "nationalistic" antisemitism into "ideological antisemitism". Harap also adds a category of "social antisemitism".<ref>{{cite book
* Religious (Jew as Christ-killer),
* Economic (Jew as banker, usurer, money-obsessed),
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{{See also|Anti-Judaism|Antisemitism in Christianity|Antisemitism in Islam}}
[[File:Execution of Mariana de Carabajal.jpg|thumb|The execution of [[Francisca Nuñez de Carabajal|Mariana de Carabajal]] (converted Jew), accused of a relapse into Judaism, [[Mexico City]], 1601]]
[[Religious antisemitism]], also known as anti-Judaism, is antipathy towards Jews because of their perceived religious beliefs. In theory, antisemitism and attacks against individual Jews would stop if Jews stopped practicing Judaism or changed their public faith, especially by [[Religious conversion|conversion]] to the official or right religion. However, in some cases, discrimination continues after conversion, as in the case of ''[[Marranos]]'' (Christianized Jews in Spain and Portugal) in the late 15th century and 16th century, who were suspected of secretly practising Judaism or Jewish customs.{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p={{page needed|date=July 2022}}}}
Although the origins of antisemitism are rooted in the Judeo-Christian conflict, other forms of antisemitism have developed in modern times. Frederick Schweitzer asserts that "most scholars ignore the Christian foundation on which the modern antisemitic edifice rests and invoke political antisemitism, cultural antisemitism, racism or racial antisemitism, economic antisemitism, and the like."<ref>{{cite book
Some Christians such as the Catholic priest [[Ernest Jouin]], who published the first French translation of the ''Protocols'', combined religious and racial antisemitism, as in his statement that "From the triple viewpoint of race, of nationality, and of religion, the Jew has become the enemy of humanity."{{sfnp|Michael|2008|p=171}} The virulent antisemitism of [[Édouard Drumont]], one of the most widely read Catholic writers in France during the Dreyfus Affair, likewise combined religious and racial antisemitism.<ref>{{cite book
===Economic antisemitism===
<!-- [[File:The Kingdom of Shylock.jpg|thumb|right|Front cover of ''The Kingdom of Shylock'' (1917), a pamphlet by Australian politician [[Frank Anstey]] asserting Jewish control of banking and finance]]
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▲{{main|Economic antisemitism}}
[[File:"Nebuď služobníkom žida"—Slovak propaganda poster.jpg|thumb|alt=Man kissing feet of another man with hooked nose, dropping money on his head|A World War II-era [[Antisemitism in Slovakia|Slovak]] propaganda poster exhorts readers not to "be a servant to the Jew".]]
The underlying premise of economic antisemitism is that Jews perform harmful economic activities or that economic activities become harmful when they are performed by Jews.<ref name=MeyerBrenner220>{{cite book
Linking Jews and money underpins the most damaging and lasting [[antisemitic canard]]s.<ref>{{cite web
[[Derek Penslar]] writes that there are two components to the financial canards:<ref>Penslar page 5 {{Incomplete short citation|date=July 2022}}</ref>
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{{Main|Racial antisemitism}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-267-0111-36, Russland, russische Kriegsgefangene (Juden).jpg|thumb|A Jewish Soviet soldier taken prisoner by the German Army, August 1941. At least 50,000 Jewish soldiers were shot after selection.<ref>{{cite book
Racial antisemitism is prejudice against [[Jew]]s as a racial/ethnic group, rather than [[Judaism]] as a religion.<ref>[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1603&letter=A&search=Anti-semitism "Anti-Semitism"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921041255/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1603&letter=A&search=anti-semitism |date=21 September 2011 }}, [[Jewish Encyclopedia]].</ref>
Racial antisemitism is the idea that the Jews are a distinct and inferior race compared to their host nations. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, it gained mainstream acceptance as part of the [[eugenics]] movement, which categorized non-Europeans as inferior. It more specifically claimed that Northern Europeans, or "Aryans", were superior. Racial antisemites saw the Jews as part of a Semitic race and emphasized their non-European origins and culture. They saw Jews as beyond redemption even if they converted to the majority religion.<ref>{{cite web
Racial antisemitism replaced the hatred of Judaism with the hatred of Jews as a group. In the context of the [[Industrial Revolution]], following the [[Jewish Emancipation]], Jews rapidly urbanized and experienced a period of greater social mobility. With the decreasing role of religion in public life tempering religious antisemitism, a combination of growing [[nationalism]], the rise of eugenics, and resentment at the socio-economic success of the Jews led to the newer, and more virulent, racist antisemitism.<ref>{{cite web|url=
In the early 19th century, a number of laws enabling the emancipation of the Jews were enacted in Western European countries.<ref>Paul Webster (2001) ''Petain's Crime''. London, Pan Books: pp. 13, 15.{{full citation needed|date=July 2022}}</ref><ref>Dan Cohn-Sherbok (2006) ''The Paradox of Anti-Semitism''. Continuum: pp. 44–46.{{full citation needed|date=July 2022}}</ref> The old laws restricting them to [[ghetto]]s, as well as the many laws that limited their property rights, rights of worship and occupation, were rescinded. Despite this, traditional discrimination and hostility to Jews on religious grounds persisted and was supplemented by [[racial antisemitism]], encouraged by the work of racial theorists such as [[Joseph Arthur de Gobineau]] and particularly his ''Essay on the Inequality of the Human Race'' of 1853–1855. [[Nationalist]] agendas based on [[ethnicity]], known as [[ethnonationalism]], usually excluded the Jews from the national community as an alien race.<ref>Steven Beller (2007) ''Antisemitism: A Very Short Introduction'': p. 64.{{full citation needed|date=July 2022}}</ref> Allied to this were theories of [[Social Darwinism]], which stressed a putative conflict between higher and lower races of human beings. Such theories, usually posited by northern Europeans, advocated the superiority of white [[Aryan]]s to [[Semitic people|Semitic]] Jews.<ref>Steven Beller (2007) ''Antisemitism: A Very Short Introduction'': pp. 57–59.{{full citation needed|date=July 2022}}</ref>
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[[William I. Brustein|William Brustein]] defines political antisemitism as hostility toward Jews based on the belief that Jews seek national or world power. Yisrael Gutman characterizes political antisemitism as tending to "lay responsibility on the Jews for defeats and political economic crises" while seeking to "exploit opposition and resistance to Jewish influence as elements in political party platforms."<ref>{{cite book
According to Viktor Karády, political antisemitism became widespread after the legal emancipation of the Jews and sought to reverse some of the consequences of that emancipation.<ref>{{cite book
===Cultural antisemitism===
Louis Harap defines cultural antisemitism as "that species of anti-Semitism that charges the Jews with corrupting a given culture and attempting to supplant or succeeding in supplanting the preferred culture with a uniform, crude, "Jewish" culture."<ref>{{cite book
An important feature of cultural antisemitism is that it considers the negative attributes of Judaism to be redeemable by education or by religious conversion.<ref name=Kandel3031>{{cite book
===Conspiracy theories===
{{See also|List of conspiracy theories#Antisemitic conspiracy theories}}
<!-- refs need sorting out -->
[[Holocaust denial]] and [[Jewish conspiracy]] theories are also considered forms of antisemitism.<ref name="antisemitic"/><ref name="hoax">Mathis, Andrew E. [http://www.phdn.org/archives/holocaust-history.org/denial/abc-clio/ Holocaust Denial, a Definition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213171733/https://phdn.org/archives/holocaust-history.org/denial/abc-clio/ |date=13 February 2021 }}, [[The Holocaust History Project]], 2 July 2004. Retrieved 15 August 2016.</ref><ref>Michael Shermer & Alex Grobman. ''Denying History: who Says the Holocaust Never Happened and why Do They Say It?'', University of California Press, 2000, {{ISBN|0-520-23469-3}}, p. 106.</ref><ref>[http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw2000-1/usa.htm Antisemitism and Racism Country Reports: United States] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628184616/http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw2000-1/usa.htm |date=28 June 2011 }}, [[Stephen Roth Institute]], 2000. Retrieved 17 May 2007.</ref>{{sfnp|Lipstadt|1994|p=27}}<ref name="adl.org">[http://www.adl.org/holocaust/theory.asp Introduction: Denial as Anti-Semitism] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604020743/http://www.adl.org/holocaust/theory.asp |date=4 June 2011 }}, "Holocaust Denial: An Online Guide to Exposing and Combating Anti-Semitic Propaganda", [[Anti-Defamation League]], 2001. Retrieved 12 June 2007.</ref><ref>Lawrence N. Powell, ''Troubled Memory: Anne Levy, the Holocaust, and David Duke's Louisiana'', University of North Carolina Press, 2000, {{ISBN|0-8078-5374-7}}, p. 445.</ref> [[Zoological conspiracy theories]] have been propagated by Arab media and Arabic language websites, alleging a "Zionist plot" behind the use of animals to attack civilians or to conduct espionage.<ref>{{cite news|last=Tait|first=Robert|date=10 December 2012|title='Vulture spying for Israel' caught in Sudan|newspaper=The Telegraph
===New antisemitism===
{{Main|New antisemitism}}
[[Image:Protests Edinburgh 10 1 2009 5.JPG|right|thumb|A sign held at a protest in [[Edinburgh]], Scotland
Starting in the 1990s, some scholars have advanced the concept of [[new antisemitism]], coming simultaneously from the [[Left-wing politics|left]], the [[Right-wing politics|right]], and [[Islamism|radical Islam]], which tends to focus on opposition to the creation of a Jewish homeland in the [[State of Israel]],<ref name="New-AS-List">* [[Phyllis Chesler]]. ''The New Antisemitism: The Current Crisis and What We Must Do About It'', Jossey-Bass, 2003, pp. 158–159, 181
* [[Warren Kinsella]]. [http://warrenkinsella.com/oldsite/old/words_extremism_nas.htm The New antisemitism] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120729171012/http://warrenkinsella.com/oldsite/old/words_extremism_nas.htm |date=29 July 2012 }}
* [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,6903,1278580,00.html "Jews predict record level of hate attacks: Militant Islamic media accused of stirring up new wave of antisemitism"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080115132604/http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,6903,1278580,00.html |date=15 January 2008 }}, ''[[The Guardian]]'', 8 August 2004.
* [[Todd Endelman|Todd M. Endelman]] [https://books.google.com/books?id=Lmym8zUBCKcC&pg=PA65 "Antisemitism in Western Europe Today"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117161939/https://books.google.com/books?id=Lmym8zUBCKcC&pg=PA65 |date=17 November 2022 }} in ''Contemporary Antisemitism: Canada and the World''. University of Toronto Press, 2005, pp. 65–79.
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Jewish scholar [[Gustavo Perednik]] posited in 2004 that anti-Zionism in itself represents a form of discrimination against Jews, in that it singles out Jewish national aspirations as an illegitimate and racist endeavor, and "proposes actions that would result in the death of millions of Jews".<ref name=":0" /> It is asserted that the new antisemitism deploys traditional antisemitic motifs, including older motifs such as the [[blood libel]].<ref name="New-AS-List"/>
Critics of the concept view it as trivializing the meaning of antisemitism, and as exploiting antisemitism in order to silence debate and to deflect attention from legitimate criticism of the State of Israel, and, by associating anti-Zionism with antisemitism, misusing it to taint anyone opposed to Israeli actions and policies.<ref>[[Brian Klug|Klug, Brian]]. [http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20040202&s=klug "The Myth of the New Anti-Semitism"] {{Webarchive|url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090701082702/http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20040202&s=klug |date=1 July 2009 }}. ''[[The Nation (U.S. periodical)|The Nation]]'', posted 15 January 2004 (2 February 2004 issue)
==History==
{{Main|History of antisemitism}}
{{For timeline}}
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar |History}}▼
[[File:Banu Qurayza.png|thumb|The massacre of the [[Banu Qurayza]], a Jewish tribe in [[Medina]], 627]]▼
Many authors see the roots of modern antisemitism in both pagan antiquity and early Christianity. Jerome Chanes identifies six stages in the historical development of antisemitism:{{sfnp|Chanes|2004}}
#Pre-Christian anti-Judaism in ancient Greece and Rome which was primarily ethnic in nature
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===Ancient world===
The first clear examples of anti-Jewish sentiment can be traced to the 3rd century BCE to [[Alexandria]],{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=11}} the home to the largest Jewish diaspora community in the world at the time and where the [[Septuagint]], a Greek translation of the [[Hebrew Bible]], was produced. [[Manetho]], an Egyptian priest and historian of that era, wrote scathingly of the Jews. His themes are repeated in the works of [[Chaeremon of Alexandria|Chaeremon]], [[Lysimachus]], [[Poseidonius]], [[Apollonius Molon]], and in [[Apion]] and [[Tacitus]].{{sfnp|Flannery|2004|p=12}} [[Agatharchides of Cnidus]] ridiculed the practices of the Jews and the "absurdity of [[Torah|their Law]]", making a mocking reference to how [[Ptolemy Lagus]] was able to invade [[Jerusalem]] in 320 BCE because its inhabitants were observing the ''[[Shabbat]]''.{{sfnp|Flannery|2004|p={{page needed|date=July 2022}}}} One of the earliest anti-Jewish [[edict]]s, promulgated by [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] in about 170–167 BCE, sparked a revolt of the [[Maccabees]] in [[Judea]].<ref name="gruen">{{cite encyclopedia
In view of Manetho's anti-Jewish writings, antisemitism may have originated in Egypt and been spread by "the [[Greeks|Greek]] retelling of [[Ancient Egypt]]ian prejudices".<ref name="Schäfer">Schäfer, Peter. ''Judeophobia'', [[Harvard University Press]], 1997, p. 208.[[Peter Schaefer (author)|Peter Schäfer]]</ref> The ancient Jewish philosopher [[Philo of Alexandria]] describes an attack on Jews in Alexandria in 38 CE in which thousands of Jews died.<ref name=Barclay>Barclay, John M G, 1999. ''Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: From Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE–117 CE)'', University of California. John M. G. Barclay of the [[Durham University|University of Durham]]</ref><ref>Philo of Alexandria, [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/yonge/book36.html ''Flaccus''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070804174650/http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/yonge/book36.html |date=4 August 2007 }}</ref> The violence in Alexandria may have been caused by the Jews being portrayed as [[misanthropy|misanthropes]].<ref name=vanderhorst>Van Der Horst, Pieter Willem, 2003. ''Philo's Flaccus: The First Pogrom'', Philo of Alexandria Commentary Series, Brill. [[Pieter Willem van der Horst]]</ref> Tcherikover argues that the reason for hatred of Jews in the Hellenistic period was their separateness in the Greek cities, the ''[[polis|poleis]]''.<ref name=tcherikover>Tcherikover, Victor, ''Hellenistic Civilization and the Jews'', New York: Atheneum, 1975</ref> Bohak has argued, however, that early animosity against the Jews cannot be regarded as being anti-Judaic or antisemitic unless it arose from attitudes that were held against the Jews alone, and that many Greeks showed animosity toward any group they regarded as barbarians.<ref name=Bohak>Bohak, Gideon. "The Ibis and the Jewish Question: Ancient 'Antisemitism' in Historical Context" in Menachem Mor et al., ''Jews and Gentiles in the Holy Land in the Days of the Second Temple, the Mishna and the Talmud'', Yad Ben-Zvi Press, 2003, pp. 27–43 {{ISBN|9652172057}}.</ref>
Statements exhibiting prejudice against Jews and their religion can be found in the works of many [[pagan]] [[ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[ancient Rome|Roman]] writers.<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=3265911|author=Daniels J.L.|title=Anti-Semitism in the Hellenistic-Roman Period|journal=Journal of Biblical Literature|volume=98
There are examples of [[Hellenistic]] rulers desecrating the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]] and banning Jewish religious practices, such as [[circumcision]], Shabbat observance, the study of Jewish religious books, etc. Examples may also be found in anti-Jewish riots in Alexandria in the 3rd century BCE.
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===Persecutions during the Middle Ages===
{{
▲[[File:Banu Qurayza.png|thumb|The massacre of the [[Banu Qurayza]], a Jewish tribe in [[Medina]], 627]]
▲{{Jews and Judaism sidebar |History}}
In the late 6th century CE, the newly Catholicised Visigothic kingdom in Hispania issued a series of anti-Jewish edicts which forbade Jews from marrying Christians, practicing circumcision, and observing Jewish holy days.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lowney|first1=Chris|title=A Vanished World: Muslims, Christians, and Jews in Medieval Spain|date=1999|publisher=Brill|isbn=9789004112063|pages=124–125}}</ref> Continuing throughout the 7th century, both Visigothic kings and the Church were active in creating social aggression and towards Jews with "civic and ecclesiastic punishments",<ref>{{cite book|editor=Alberto Ferreiro|last1=Gonzalez Salinero|first1=Raul|title=The Visigoths: Studies in Culture and Society|date=1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195311914|pages=29–31}}</ref> ranging between forced conversion, slavery, exile and death.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gorsky|first1=Jeffrey|title=Exiles in Sepharad: The Jewish Millennium in Spain|date=2015|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|isbn=9780827612419|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=964eCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT26|access-date=28 August 2016}}</ref>
From the 9th century, the [[Islamic Golden Age|medieval Islamic world]] classified Jews and Christians as ''[[dhimmis]]'' and allowed Jews to practice their religion more freely than they could do in [[Middle Ages|medieval Christian Europe]]. Under [[Al-Andalus|Islamic rule]], there was a [[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain]] that lasted until at least the 11th century.<ref>{{Cite book|first=María Rosa|last=Menocal|author-link=María Rosa Menocal|title=The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain|date=April 2003|publisher=Back Bay Books|isbn=978-0-316-16871-7
The [[Almohad Caliphate|Almohads]], who had taken control of the [[Almoravid dynasty|Almoravids]]' [[Maghreb|Maghribi]] and Andalusian territories by 1147,<ref name=islamicworldeb>Islamic world. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2 September 2007, from [https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-26925 Encyclopædia Britannica Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213154933/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-26925 |date=13 December 2007 }}.</ref> were far more fundamentalist in outlook compared to their predecessors, and they treated the ''dhimmis'' harshly. Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews and Christians emigrated.{{sfnp|Frank|Leaman|2003|pp=
[[File:Expulsion judios-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|right|[[Expulsions and exoduses of Jews|Expulsions of Jews]] in Europe from 1100 to 1600]]
In [[Middle Ages|medieval]] Europe, Jews were persecuted with [[blood libel]]s, expulsions, [[forced conversion]]s and [[massacre]]s. These persecutions were often justified on religious grounds and reached a first peak during the [[Crusades]]. In 1096, hundreds or thousands of [[Rhineland massacres|Jews were killed]] during the [[First Crusade]].<ref>[[Robert Chazan]], ''In the Year 1096: The First Crusade and the Jews'' (1996) [https://www.questia.com/library/5684490/in-the-year-1096-the-first-crusade-and-the-jews online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726053850/https://www.questia.com/library/5684490/in-the-year-1096-the-first-crusade-and-the-jews |date=26 July 2020 }}</ref> This was the first major outbreak of anti-Jewish violence in Christian Europe outside Spain and was cited by Zionists in the 19th century as indicating the need for a state of Israel.<ref>{{cite book|author=Corliss K. Slack|title=Historical Dictionary of the Crusades|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uX8e2zU_TG0C&pg=PA108|year=2013|publisher=Scarecrow Press|pages=108–9|isbn=9780810878310|access-date=13 August 2015|archive-date=30 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001632/https://books.google.com/books?id=uX8e2zU_TG0C&pg=PA108#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>
In 1147, there were several massacres of Jews during the [[Second Crusade]]. The [[Shepherds' Crusade (1251)|Shepherds' Crusades of 1251]] and [[Shepherds' Crusade (1320)|1320]] both involved attacks, as did the [[Rintfleisch massacres]] in 1298. Expulsions followed, such as the 1290 banishment of Jews from [[England]], the expulsion of 100,000 Jews from France in 1394,<ref>History of the reign of Charles VI, titled ''[[Chronique de Religieux de Saint-Denys]]'', encompasses the king's full reign in six volumes. Originally written in Latin, the work was translated to French in six volumes by L. Bellaguet between 1839 and 1852.</ref> and the 1421 expulsion of thousands of Jews from Austria. Many of the expelled Jews fled to Poland.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.holocaustcenterpgh.net/2-3.html
In medieval and Renaissance Europe, a major contributor to the deepening of antisemitic sentiment and legal action among the Christian populations was the popular preaching of the zealous reform religious orders, the Franciscans (especially [[Bernardino of Feltre]]) and Dominicans (especially [[Vincent Ferrer]]), who combed Europe and promoted antisemitism through their often fiery, emotional appeals.<ref>Franco Mormando, ''The Preacher's Demons: Bernardino of Siena and the Social Underworld of Early Renaissance Italy'', Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1999, Ch. 2.</ref>
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===Reformation===
{{Main|Martin Luther and antisemitism}}
[[Martin Luther]], an [[ecclesiastical]] reformer whose teachings inspired the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]], wrote antagonistically about Jews in his pamphlet ''[[On the Jews and Their Lies (Martin Luther)|On the Jews and their Lies]]'', written in 1543. He portrays the Jews in extremely harsh terms, excoriates them and provides detailed recommendations for a [[pogrom]] against them, calling for their permanent oppression and expulsion. At one point he writes: "...we are at fault in not slaying them...", a passage that, according to historian [[Paul Johnson (writer)|Paul Johnson]], "may be termed the first work of modern antisemitism, and a giant step forward on the road to [[the Holocaust]]."<ref name=Johnson>[[Paul Johnson (writer)|Johnson, Paul]] (1987) ''A History of the Jews''. New York: HarperCollins. p.242. {{ISBN|5-551-76858-9}}</ref>
===17th century===
[[File:Vertreibung der Juden 1614.jpg|thumb|Etching of the [[Frankfurter Judengasse#The Fettmilch Uprising|expulsion of the Jews from Frankfurt]] in 1614]]
During the mid-to-late 17th century the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] was devastated by several conflicts, in which the Commonwealth lost over a third of its population (over 3 million people), and Jewish losses were counted in the hundreds of thousands. The first of these conflicts was the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]], when [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky]]'s supporters massacred tens of thousands of [[History of Jews in Poland|Jews]] in the eastern and southern areas he controlled (today's [[Ukraine]]). The precise number of dead may never be known, but the decrease of the Jewish population during that period is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, which also includes emigration, deaths from diseases, and [[Slavery (Ottoman Empire)|captivity in the Ottoman Empire]], called ''jasyr''.<ref>"Bogdan Chmelnitzki leads Cossack uprising against Polish rule; 100,000 Jews are killed and hundreds of Jewish communities are destroyed." [http://www.cbsnews.com/htdocs/religion/judaism/timeline.html Judaism Timeline 1618–1770] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020024503/http://www.cbsnews.com/htdocs/religion/judaism/timeline.html |date=20 October 2012 }}, [[CBS News]]. Retrieved 13 May 2007.</ref><ref>"... as many as 100,000 Jews were murdered throughout the Ukraine by Bogdan Chmielnicki's soldiers on the rampage." [[Martin Gilbert]]. ''Holocaust Journey: Traveling in Search of the Past'', Columbia University Press, 1999, {{ISBN|0-231-10965-2}}, p. 219.</ref>
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===Enlightenment===
In 1744, Archduchess of Austria [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]] ordered Jews out of [[Bohemia]] but soon reversed her position, on the condition that Jews pay for their readmission every ten years. This [[extortion]] was known among the Jews as ''[[malke-geld]]'' ("queen's money" in Yiddish).<ref name="Singer et al. 1906, Under Maria Teresa">{{cite book|author-last=Büchler|author-first=Alexander|chapter=Hungary|editor1-last=Singer|editor1-first=Isidore
▲In 1744, Archduchess of Austria [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]] ordered Jews out of [[Bohemia]] but soon reversed her position, on the condition that Jews pay for their readmission every ten years. This [[extortion]] was known among the Jews as ''[[malke-geld]]'' ("queen's money" in Yiddish).<ref name="Singer et al. 1906, Under Maria Teresa">{{cite book|author-last=Büchler|author-first=Alexander|chapter=Hungary|editor1-last=Singer|editor1-first=Isidore |title=The Jewish Encyclopedia |date=1904|publisher=Funk and Wagnalls Co.|location=New York and London |volume=6|pages=[https://archive.org/details/TheJewishEncyclopediaVIGodIstria/page/n511 494–503] }}</ref> In 1752, she introduced the law limiting each Jewish family to one son.
In 1782, [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]] abolished most of these persecution practices in his ''[[Toleranzpatent]]'',<ref>O'Brien, H.C. Ideas of Religious Toleration at the time of Joseph II. ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'', p. 29</ref><ref>Ingrao, W. Charles, ''The Habsburg Monarchy 1618-1815'', Cambridge University Press, 1994, p. 199</ref> on the condition that [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] were eliminated from public records and that judicial autonomy was annulled.<ref>O'Brien, H.C. Ideas of Religious Toleration at the time of Joseph II. ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'', p. 30</ref> [[Moses Mendelssohn]] wrote that "Such a tolerance... is even more dangerous play in tolerance than open persecution."
====Voltaire====
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===Louis de Bonald and the Catholic Counter-Revolution===
The [[counter-revolutionary]] Catholic royalist [[Louis de Bonald]] stands out among the earliest figures to explicitly call for the reversal of Jewish emancipation in the wake of the [[French Revolution]].<ref name="Battini1">{{Cite book|title=Socialism of Fools: Capitalism and Modern Anti-Semitism|last=Battini|first=Michele|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2016|pages=2–7 and 30–37}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
Under the French Second Empire, the popular counter-revolutionary Catholic journalist [[Louis Veuillot]] propagated Bonald's arguments against the Jewish "financial aristocracy" along with vicious attacks against the Talmud and the Jews as a "deicidal people" driven by hatred to "enslave" Christians.<ref>{{cite book
===Imperial Russia===
[[File:Ekaterinoslav1905.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The victims of a 1905 [[pogrom]] in [[Dnipro|Yekaterinoslav]], Russian Empire (modern-day Ukraine)]]
Thousands of Jews were slaughtered by Cossack [[Haidamaka|Haidamaks]] in the 1768 [[massacre of Uman]] in the [[Crown of the Kingdom of Poland|Kingdom of Poland]]. In 1772, the empress of Russia [[Catherine the Great|Catherine II]] forced the Jews into the [[Pale of Settlement]] – which was located primarily in present-day Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus – and to stay in their [[shtetls]] and forbade them from returning to the towns that they occupied before the [[partition of Poland]]. From 1804, Jews were banned from their villages and began to stream into the towns.<ref>Paul Johnson, ''A History of the Jews'', Harper Perennial, 1986, p 358</ref> A decree by emperor [[Nicholas I of Russia]] in 1827 conscripted Jews under 18 years of age into the [[cantonist]] schools for a 25-year military service in order to promote baptism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Military_Service_in_Russia|title=Military Service in Russia|author-link1=Yohanan Petrovsky-Shtern|last=Petrovsky-Shtern|first=Yohanan|date=8 June 2017|website=YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe|access-date=20 October 2017|archive-date=7 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207052626/https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Military_Service_in_Russia|url-status=live}}</ref>
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Historian [[Martin Gilbert]] writes that it was in the 19th century that the position of Jews worsened in [[Muslim]] countries. [[Benny Morris]] writes that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-throwing at Jews by Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th-century traveler: "I have seen a little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching [them] to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his Jewish [[gaberdine]]. To all this the Jew is obliged to submit; it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mahommedan."<ref name="Morris10">[[Benny Morris|Morris, Benny]]. ''[[iarchive:righteousvictims0000morr|Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881–2001]]''. Vintage Books, 2001, pp. 10–11.</ref>
In the middle of the 19th century, [[J. J. Benjamin]] wrote about the life of [[Persian Jews]], describing conditions and beliefs that went back to the 16th century: "…they are obliged to live in a separate part of town… Under the pretext of their being unclean, they are treated with the greatest severity and should they enter a street, inhabited by Mussulmans, they are pelted by the boys and mobs with stones and dirt…."<ref>{{cite book
In Jerusalem at least, conditions for some Jews improved. [[Moses Montefiore]], on his seventh visit in 1875, noted that fine new buildings had sprung up and, "surely we're approaching the time to witness God's hallowed promise unto Zion." Muslim and Christian Arabs participated in [[Purim]] and [[Passover]]; Arabs called the [[Sephardi]]s 'Jews, sons of Arabs'; the [[Ulema]] and the Rabbis offered joint prayers for rain in time of drought.<ref>[[Simon Sebag Montefiore]], ''Jerusalem'', Phoenix, 2011, pp.
At the time of the Dreyfus trial in France, "Muslim comments usually favoured the persecuted Jew against his Christian persecutors".<ref>[[Bernard Lewis]], ''What Went Wrong?'', Phoenix, 2002, p 172</ref>
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[[Adolf Stoecker]] (1835–1909), the [[Lutheran]] court chaplain to [[Kaiser Wilhelm I]], founded in 1878 an antisemitic, [[Liberalism|anti-liberal]] political party called the [[Christian Social Party (Germany)|Christian Social Party]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Harold M. Green|year=2003|title=Adolf Stoecker:Portrait of a Demagogue|journal=Politics and Policy|volume=31|doi=10.1111/j.1747-1346.2003.tb00889.x|issue=1|pages=106–129}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=D. A. Jeremy Telman|year=1995|title=Adolf Stoecker: Anti-Semite with a Christian Mission|jstor=20101235|journal=Jewish History|volume=9|issue=2|pages=93–112|doi=10.1007/BF01668991|s2cid=162391831}}</ref> This party always remained small, and its support dwindled after Stoecker's death, with most of its members eventually joining larger conservative groups such as the [[German National People's Party]].
Some scholars view [[Karl Marx]]'s essay "[[On The Jewish Question]]" as antisemitic, and argue that he often used antisemitic epithets in his published and private writings.{{sfnp|Flannery|2004|p=168}}<ref name="Jacobs2005">{{cite book
Others argue that Marx consistently supported Prussian Jewish communities' struggles to achieve equal political rights. These scholars argue that "On the Jewish Question" is a critique of Bruno Bauer's arguments that Jews must convert to Christianity before being emancipated, and is more generally a critique of liberal rights discourses and capitalism.<ref>David McLellan (1970) ''Marx before Marxism'': pp. 141–142.{{full citation needed|date=July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Y. Peled|title=From theology to sociology: Bruno Bauer and Karl Marx on the question of Jewish emancipation|journal=History of Political Thought|volume=13|issue=3|year=1992|pages=463–485|url=https://telaviv.academia.edu/YoavPeled/Papers/228344/From_Theology_to_Sociology_Bruno_Bauer_and_Karl_Marx_on_the_Question_of_Jewish_Emancipation|access-date=2 November 2017|archive-date=20 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220161924/https://www.academia.edu/280575/From_Theology_to_Sociology_Bruno_Bauer_and_Karl_Marx_on_the_Question_of_Jewish_Emancipation|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Brown|first=Wendy|author-link=Wendy Brown (political scientist)|year=1995|contribution=Rights and Identity in Late Modernity: Revisiting the 'Jewish Question'|editor-last=Sarat|editor-first=Austin|editor2-last=Kearns|editor2-first=Thomas|title=Identities, Politics, and Rights|publisher=University of Michigan Press|pages=85–130}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first=Robert|last=Fine|title=Karl Marx and the Radical Critique of Anti-Semitism|journal=Engage|issue=2|date=May 2006|url=http://www.engageonline.org.uk/journal/index.php?journal_id=10&article_id=33|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224193202/http://www.engageonline.org.uk/journal/index.php?journal_id=10|archive-date=24 February 2012}}</ref> Iain Hamphsher-Monk wrote that "This work [On The Jewish Question] has been cited as evidence for Marx's supposed anti-semitism, but only the most superficial reading of it could sustain such an interpretation."<ref>Iain Hampsher-Monk, ''A History of Modern Political Thought'' (1992), Blackwell Publishing, p. 496</ref>
David McLellan and [[Francis Wheen]] argue that readers should interpret ''On the Jewish Question'' in the deeper context of Marx's debates with [[Bruno Bauer]], author of ''[[The Jewish Question]]'', about [[Jewish emancipation]] in Germany. Wheen says that "Those critics, who see this as a foretaste of 'Mein Kampf', overlook one, essential point: in spite of the clumsy phraseology and crude stereotyping, the essay was actually written as a defense of the Jews. It was a retort to Bruno Bauer, who had argued that Jews should not be granted full civic rights and freedoms unless they were baptised as Christians".<ref>Wheen, F., Karl Marx, p. 56.{{full citation needed|date=July 2022}}</ref> According to McLellan, Marx used the word ''Judentum'' colloquially, as meaning ''commerce'', arguing that Germans must be emancipated from the [[capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)|capitalist mode of production]] not Judaism or Jews in particular. McLellan concludes that readers should interpret the essay's second half as "an extended pun at Bauer's expense".{{sfnp|McLellan|1980|p=142}}
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===20th century===
{{See also|Jewish Bolshevism|Racial policy of Nazi Germany|Soviet anti-Semitism}}
[[File:
Between 1900 and 1924, approximately 1.75 million Jews migrated to America, the bulk from Eastern Europe escaping [[Pogroms in the Russian Empire|the pogroms]]. This increase, combined with the [[upward social mobility]] of some Jews, contributed to a resurgence of antisemitism. In the first half of the 20th century, in the US, Jews were discriminated against in employment, access to residential and resort areas, membership in clubs and organizations, and in tightened quotas on Jewish enrolment and teaching positions in colleges and universities. The lynching of [[Leo Frank]] by a mob of prominent citizens in [[Marietta, Georgia]], in 1915 turned the spotlight on antisemitism in the United States.{{sfnp|Chanes|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ju7U83nRDt8C&pg=PA72 72]}} The case was also used to build support for the renewal of the [[Ku Klux Klan]] which had been inactive since 1870.{{sfnp|Levy|2005|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Tdn6FFZklkcC&pg=PA243 vol. 1, p. 72]}}
At the beginning of the 20th century, the [[Menahem Mendel Beilis|Beilis Trial]] in Russia represented modern incidents of [[blood libel|blood-libel]]s in Europe. During the [[Russian Civil War]], close to 50,000 Jews were [[Pogroms of the Russian Civil War|killed in pogroms]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Russian_Civil_War|title=Russian Civil War|last=Abramson|first=Henry|website=YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe|access-date=6 February 2019|archive-date=15 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210115175836/https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Russian_Civil_War|url-status=live}}</ref>
Antisemitism in America reached its peak during the [[interwar period]]. The pioneer automobile manufacturer [[Henry Ford]] propagated antisemitic ideas in his newspaper ''[[The Dearborn Independent]]'' (published by Ford from 1919 to 1927). The radio speeches of [[Father Coughlin]] in the late 1930s attacked [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s [[New Deal]] and promoted the notion of a Jewish financial conspiracy. Some prominent politicians shared such views: [[Louis T. McFadden]], Chairman of the [[United States House Committee on Banking and Currency]], blamed Jews for Roosevelt's decision to abandon the [[gold standard]], and claimed that "in the United States today, the Gentiles have the slips of paper while the Jews have the lawful money".<ref>{{cite book
<!-- [[File:Selection Birkenau ramp.jpg|thumb|"Selection" on the ''Judenrampe'', [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz]], May/June 1944. To be sent to the right meant slave labor; to the left, the [[gas chamber]]s. This image shows the arrival of [[Hungarian people|Hungarian]] Jews from [[Carpathian Ruthenia|Carpatho-Ruthenia]], many of them from the [[Berehove|Berehov]] ghetto. It was taken by Ernst Hofmann or Bernhard Walter of the [[SS]]. Courtesy of [[Yad Vashem]].<ref name=AuschwitzAlbum>[http://www1.yadvashem.org/exhibitions/album_auschwitz/home_auschwitz_album.html "The Auschwitz Album"], [[Yad Vashem]].</ref> {{FFDC|1=Selection Birkenau ramp.jpg|log=2009 April 6|date=May 2012}}]] -->
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In Germany, shortly after [[Adolf Hitler]] and the [[Nazi Party]] [[Machtergreifung|came to power]] in 1933, the government instituted repressive legislation which denied Jews basic civil rights.{{sfnp|Majer|2014|p=60}}<ref>see also [[Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service]] (7 April 1933)</ref>
In September 1935, the [[Nuremberg Laws]] prohibited sexual relations and marriages between "Aryans" and Jews as ''[[Rassenschande]]'' ("race disgrace") and stripped all German Jews, even quarter- and [[half-Jew]]s, of their citizenship (their official title became "subjects of the state").{{sfnp|Majer|2014|pp=113, 116, 118}} It instituted a pogrom on the night of 9–10 November 1938, dubbed ''[[Kristallnacht]]'', in which Jews were killed, their property destroyed and their synagogues torched.<ref>Ian Kershaw (2008) ''Fateful Choices'':
In 1940, the famous aviator [[Charles Lindbergh]] and many prominent Americans led the [[America First Committee]] in opposing any involvement in a European war. Lindbergh alleged that Jews were pushing America to go to war against Germany.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/politics/la-na-pol-trump-america-first-20170120-story.html|title='America First,' a phrase with a loaded anti-Semitic and isolationist history|last=Bennett|first=Brian|website=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=20 January 2017|access-date=23 November 2018|archive-date=7 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191107115008/https://www.latimes.com/politics/la-na-pol-trump-america-first-20170120-story.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017/01/trump-america-first/514037/|title=A Short History of 'America First'|last=Calamur|first=Krishnadev|date=21 January 2017|work=The Atlantic|access-date=23 November 2018
In the east the Third Reich forced Jews into ghettos [[Warsaw Ghetto|in Warsaw]], [[Kraków Ghetto|in Kraków]], [[Lwów Ghetto|in Lvov]], [[Lublin Ghetto|in Lublin]] and [[Radom Ghetto|in Radom]].<ref>Martin Kitchen (2007) ''The Third Reich: A Concise History''. Tempus.</ref>
After [[Operation Barbarossa|the beginning]] of the war between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in 1941, a campaign of mass murder, conducted by the [[Einsatzgruppen]], culminated from 1942 to 1945 in systematic [[genocide]]: [[the Holocaust]].<ref name="saul1">[[Saul Friedländer]] (2008): ''The Years of Extermination: Nazi Germany and the Jews''. London, Phoenix</ref> Eleven million Jews were targeted for extermination by the Nazis, and some six million were eventually killed.<ref name="saul1"/><ref>[[Wolfgang Benz]] in ''Dimension des Volksmords: Die Zahl der Jüdischen Opfer des Nationalsozialismus'' (Munich: Deutscher Taschebuch Verlag, 1991). Israel Gutman, ''Encyclopedia of the Holocaust'', Macmillan Reference Books; Reference edition (1 October 1995)</ref><ref>[[Lucy Dawidowicz|Dawidowicz, Lucy]]. ''The War Against The Jews, 1933–1945''. New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975.</ref>
==
===Post-WWII antisemitism===
{{See also|Soviet anti-Zionism|Soviet anti-Semitism}}
There have continued to be antisemitic incidents since WWII, some of which had been state-sponsored. In the [[Soviet Union]], antisemitism was even used as an instrument for settling personal conflicts, starting with the conflict between [[Joseph Stalin]] and [[Leon Trotsky]] and continuing through numerous conspiracy theories spread by official propaganda. [[Antisemitism in the Soviet Union|Antisemitism in the USSR]] reached new heights after 1948 during the campaign against the "[[rootless cosmopolitan]]" (euphemism for "Jew") in which numerous Yiddish-language poets, writers, painters, and sculptors were killed or arrested.<ref name="jcws">{{cite journal| author=Konstantin Azadovskii and Boris Egorov| title=From Anti-Westernism to Anti-Semitism| journal=Journal of Cold War Studies| year=2002| volume=4:1| issue=Winter| pages=66–80| url=http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/egorov.htm#REF31| access-date=1 December 2008| archive-date=20 February 2021| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220161918/https://sites.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/egorov.htm#REF31| url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Myth">{{cite book|title=The Myth of the Jewish Race| author1=Raphael| author2=Jennifer Patai| year=1989| page=178| publisher=Wayne State University Press| isbn=978-0-8143-1948-2}}</ref> This culminated in the antisemitic conspiracy theory of the '[[Doctors' Plot]]' in 1952.▼
▲There have continued to be antisemitic incidents since WWII, some of which had been state-sponsored. In the [[Soviet Union]], antisemitism was even used as an instrument for settling personal conflicts, starting with the conflict between [[Joseph Stalin]] and [[Leon Trotsky]] and continuing through numerous conspiracy theories spread by official propaganda. [[Antisemitism in the Soviet Union|Antisemitism in the USSR]] reached new heights after 1948 during the campaign against the "[[rootless cosmopolitan]]" (euphemism for "Jew") in which numerous Yiddish-language poets, writers, painters, and sculptors were killed or arrested.<ref name="jcws">{{cite journal|
In the 20th century, [[Antisemitism in the Soviet Union|Soviet]] and [[Antisemitism in Russia|Russian]] antisemitism underwent significant transformations, shaped by political, social, and ideological shifts. During the early Soviet period, the [[Bolsheviks]] initially condemned antisemitism, seeing it as incompatible with [[Marxism|Marxist]] ideology. However, under [[Joseph Stalin]]'s regime, antisemitism reemerged, often cloaked in 'anti-Zionist' rhetoric. As early as 1943, Stalin and his propagandists intensified attacks against Jews as "[[rootless cosmopolitan]]s".<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |date=25 January 2024 |title=More than a Century of Antisemitism: How Successive Occupants of the Kremlin Have Used Antisemitism |url=https://www.state.gov/more-than-a-century-of-antisemitism-how-successive-occupants-of-the-kremlin-have-used-antisemitism/ |access-date=29 July 2024 |website=[[United States Department of State]] |language=en}}</ref> The Party issued confidential directives to fire Jews from positions of power, but state-controlled media did not openly attack Jews until the late 1940s.<ref name=":7" /> The [[Doctors' plot|Doctors' Plot]] of 1952, a fabricated conspiracy accusing predominantly Jewish doctors of attempting to assassinate Soviet leaders, exemplified this resurgence. This campaign fostered widespread antisemitic sentiments and resulted in the arrest and execution of numerous Jewish professionals.▼
▲In the 20th century, [[Antisemitism in the Soviet Union|Soviet]] and [[Antisemitism in Russia|Russian]] antisemitism underwent significant transformations, shaped by political, social, and ideological shifts. During the early Soviet period, the [[Bolsheviks]] initially condemned antisemitism, seeing it as incompatible with [[Marxism|Marxist]] ideology. However, under [[Joseph Stalin]]'s regime, antisemitism reemerged, often cloaked in 'anti-Zionist' rhetoric. As early as 1943, Stalin and his propagandists intensified attacks against Jews as "[[rootless cosmopolitan]]s".<ref name=":7">{{Cite web
In that same year, the antisemitic [[Slánský trial|Slánský show trial]] alleged the existence of an 'international Zionist conspiracy' to destroy Socialism. Izabella Tabarovsky, a scholar of the history of antisemitism, argues that, "Manufactured by the Soviet secret services, the trial tied together Zionism, Israel, Jewish leaders, and American imperialism, turning 'Zionism' and 'Zionist' into dangerous labels that could be used against one's political enemies."<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=Tabarovsky |first=Izabella |date=1 May 2019 |title=Soviet Anti-Zionism and Contemporary Left Antisemitism |url=https://fathomjournal.org/soviet-anti-zionism-and-contemporary-left-antisemitism/ |access-date=29 July 2024 |website=Fathom Journal}}</ref> In the post-Stalin era, state-sanctioned antisemitism persisted and intensified.In February 1953, the Soviet Union severed diplomatic relations with the [[Israel|State of Israel]] and "soon the state media was saturated with anti-Zionist propaganda, depicting bloated, hook-nosed Jewish bankers and all-consuming serpents embossed with the Star of David."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ryvchin |first=Alex |date=10 September 2019 |title=Red Terror: How the Soviet Union Shaped the Modern Anti-Zionist Discourse |url=https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/red-terror-how-the-soviet-union-shaped-the-modern-anti-zionist-discourse/ |access-date=29 July 2024 |website=[[Australian Institute of International Affairs]] |language=en-US}}</ref> The 1963 publication of the antisemitic book ''[[Judaism Without Embellishment]],'' written under orders from the central Soviet government, echoed [[Propaganda in Nazi Germany|Nazi propaganda]], alleging a global Jewish conspiracy to subvert the Soviet Union.<ref name=":02" /> It was the beginning of a new wave of government-sponsored anti-Semitism.▼
▲In that same year, the antisemitic [[Slánský trial|Slánský show trial]] alleged the existence of an 'international Zionist conspiracy' to destroy Socialism. Izabella Tabarovsky, a scholar of the history of antisemitism, argues that, "Manufactured by the Soviet secret services, the trial tied together Zionism, Israel, Jewish leaders, and American imperialism, turning 'Zionism' and 'Zionist' into dangerous labels that could be used against one's political enemies."<ref name=":02">{{Cite web
The [[Six-Day War]] in 1967 led to an intensification in Soviet anti-Zionist propaganda as the Soviets had backed the defeated Arab states.<ref name=":02" /> This propaganda often blurred the lines with antisemitism, leading to discriminatory policies against Jews and restricting their emigration. By the end of the war, "the "corporate Jew", whether "cosmopolitan" or "Zionist", became identified as the enemy. Popular anti-Semitic stereotyping had been absorbed into official channels, generated by chauvinist needs and totalitarian requirements."<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Korey |first=William |author-link=William Korey |date=1972 |title=The Origins and Development of Soviet Anti-Semitism: An Analysis |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/slavic-review/article/origins-and-development-of-soviet-antisemitism-an-analysis/99945786B60F74C869F8F1E36BE7280E |journal=[[Slavic Review]] |language=en |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=111–135 |doi=10.2307/2494148 |jstor=2494148 |issn=0037-6779}}</ref> The [[Anti-Zionist Committee of the Soviet Public]] shut down and expropriated [[synagogue]]s, [[yeshiva]]s, and Jewish civil organisations and prohibited the learning of [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]. It also engaged in a wide-scale propaganda campaign between 1967 and 1988 overseen by the [[KGB]] and published pamphlets featuring antisemitic conspiracy theories, for example falsely claiming that Zionist Jews collaborated with the Nazi regime in the Holocaust and of inflating the significance and scale of anti-Jewish persecution.<ref name=":02" />▼
▲The [[Six-Day War]] in 1967 led to an intensification in Soviet anti-Zionist propaganda as the Soviets had backed the defeated Arab states.<ref name=":02" /> This propaganda often blurred the lines with antisemitism, leading to discriminatory policies against Jews and restricting their emigration. By the end of the war, "the "corporate Jew", whether "cosmopolitan" or "Zionist", became identified as the enemy. Popular anti-Semitic stereotyping had been absorbed into official channels, generated by chauvinist needs and totalitarian requirements."<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal
Their propaganda frequently borrowed directly from the forged [[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion|Protocols of the Elders of Zion]] and sometimes relied upon [[Adolf Hitler]]'s ''[[Mein Kampf]]'' as a source of information about Zionism.<ref name=":02" /> Antizionism helped Moscow "bond both with its Arab allies and the Western hard left of all shades. Having appointed Zionism as a scapegoat for humanity's greatest evils, Soviet propaganda could score points by equating it with racism in African radio broadcasts and with Ukrainian nationalism on Kyiv TV."<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Tabarovsky |first=Izabella |date=1 March 2022 |title=Demonization Blueprints: Soviet Conspiracist Antizionism in Contemporary Left-Wing Discourse |journal=[[Journal of Contemporary Antisemitism]] |language=en |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.26613/jca/5.1.97 |issn=2472-9906|doi-access=free }}</ref> The still-extant [[Novosti Press Agency]], a key element in the Soviet propaganda machine, also participated in the spreading of antisemitic anti-Zionism. Its chairman, Ivan Udaltsov, published a memorandum on 27 January 1971, to the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|CPSU]] in which he claimed that "Zionists, by provoking antisemitism, recruit volunteers for the Israeli army", blaming Jews for antisemitism, and falsely alleged that Zionists were responsible for "subversive activities" during the 1968 [[Prague Spring]].<ref name=":22" /> According to historian [[William Korey]], "Judaism was singled out for condemnation as prescribing 'racial exclusivism' and as justifying 'crimes against 'Gentiles.'"<ref name=":12" />▼
▲Their propaganda frequently borrowed directly from the forged [[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion|Protocols of the Elders of Zion]] and sometimes relied upon [[Adolf Hitler]]'s ''[[Mein Kampf]]'' as a source of information about Zionism.<ref name=":02" /> Antizionism helped Moscow "bond both with its Arab allies and the Western hard left of all shades. Having appointed Zionism as a scapegoat for humanity's greatest evils, Soviet propaganda could score points by equating it with racism in African radio broadcasts and with Ukrainian nationalism on Kyiv TV."<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal
Similar [[Antisemitism in Poland|antisemitic propaganda in Poland]] resulted in the flight of Polish Jewish survivors from the country.<ref name="Myth" /> After the war, the [[Kielce pogrom]] and the "[[March 1968 events]]" in communist Poland represented further incidents of antisemitism in Europe. The [[Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, 1944–1946|anti-Jewish violence in postwar Poland]] had a common theme of [[blood libel]] rumours.<ref>{{Cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4Iiw0KB31rgC&pg=PA233 | title = Contested memories: Poles and Jews during the Holocaust and its aftermath | isbn = 978-0-8135-3158-8 | last1 = Zimmerman | first1 = Joshua D | year = 2003 | publisher = Rutgers University Press | access-date = 23 August 2020 | archive-date = 30 December 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001712/https://books.google.com/books?id=4Iiw0KB31rgC&pg=PA233#v=onepage&q&f=false | url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xZ5Ceq6l0M0C&pg=PA74 | title = World without civilization: Mass murder and the Holocaust, history and analysis | isbn = 978-0-7618-2963-8 | last1 = Spector | first1 = Robert Melvin | year = 2005 | publisher = University Press of America | access-date = 23 August 2020 | archive-date = 30 December 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001648/https://books.google.com/books?id=xZ5Ceq6l0M0C&pg=PA74#v=onepage&q&f=false | url-status = live }}</ref>▼
▲Similar [[Antisemitism in Poland|antisemitic propaganda in Poland]] resulted in the flight of Polish Jewish survivors from the country.<ref name="Myth" /> After the war, the [[Kielce pogrom]] and the "[[March 1968 events]]" in communist Poland represented further incidents of antisemitism in Europe. The [[Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, 1944–1946|anti-Jewish violence in postwar Poland]] had a common theme of [[blood libel]] rumours.<ref>{{Cite book
=== 21st-century European antisemitism ===▼
{{Further|Antisemitism in Europe#21st century}}
Physical assaults against Jews in Europe have included beatings, stabbings, and other violence, which increased markedly, sometimes resulting in serious injury and death.<ref name = "mgjmsp">{{cite journal
This rise in antisemitic attacks is associated with both [[Antisemitism in Islam|Muslim antisemitism]] and the rise of far-right political parties as a result of the economic crisis of 2008.<ref>{{cite news|agency=SBS|date=24 February 2015|url=https://www.sbs.com.au/news/special-report-the-rise-of-the-right-in-europe|title=Special report: The rise of the right in Europe|access-date=17 June 2015|archive-date=20 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220160403/https://www.sbs.com.au/news/special-report-the-rise-of-the-right-in-europe|url-status=live}}</ref> This rise in the support for far-right ideas in [[western Europe|western]] and [[eastern Europe]] has resulted in the increase of antisemitic acts, mostly attacks on Jewish memorials, synagogues and cemeteries but also a number of physical attacks against Jews.<ref>{{cite web
In Eastern Europe the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the instability of the new states brought the rise of nationalist movements and the accusation against Jews for the economic crisis, taking over the local economy and bribing the government, along with traditional and religious motives for antisemitism such as [[blood libel]]s. Writing on the [[rhetoric]] surrounding the 2022 [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]], [[Jason Stanley]] relates these perceptions to broader historical narratives: "the dominant version of antisemitism alive in parts of eastern Europe today is that Jews employ the Holocaust to seize the victimhood narrative from the 'real' victims of the Nazis, who are Russian Christians (or other non-Jewish eastern Europeans)".<ref name="Stanley 2022">{{Cite news
Most of the antisemitic incidents in Eastern Europe are against Jewish cemeteries and buildings (community centers and synagogues). Nevertheless, there were several violent attacks against Jews in Moscow in 2006 when a neo-Nazi stabbed 9 people at the Bolshaya Bronnaya Synagogue,<ref>{{cite news|title=Rabbi's son foils bombing attempt at Moscow shul – j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern California|newspaper=J|date=30 July 1999|url=http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/11250/rabbi-s-son-foils-bombing-attempt-at-moscow-shul/|access-date=17 June 2015|archive-date=6 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706124450/http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/11250/rabbi-s-son-foils-bombing-attempt-at-moscow-shul/|url-status=live}}</ref> the failed bomb attack on the same synagogue in 1999,<ref>{{cite news|
According to [[Paul Johnson (writer)|Paul Johnson]], antisemitic policies are a sign of a state which is poorly governed.<ref>[[Paul Johnson (writer)|Johnson, Paul]]. [https://www.commentarymagazine.com/article/the-anti-semitic-disease/ "The Anti-Semitic Disease."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150817030629/https://www.commentarymagazine.com/article/the-anti-semitic-disease/ |date=17 August 2015 }} ''Commentary Magazine''. 1 June 2005. 26 January 2015</ref> While no European state currently has such policies, the [[Economist Intelligence Unit]] notes the rise in political uncertainty, notably populism and nationalism, as something that is particularly alarming for Jews.<ref name="Cohen">Cohen, Ben. [http://www.algemeiner.com/2015/01/26/europe%E2%80%99s-jews-tied-to-a-declining-political-class/ "Europe's Jews Tied to a Declining Political Class."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200817195418/https://www.algemeiner.com/2015/01/26/europe%e2%80%99s-jews-tied-to-a-declining-political-class/ |date=17 August 2020 }} ''Algemeiner''. 26 January 2015.</ref>
===
{{Main|Antisemitism in the Arab world}}
[[File:Graffiti of a swastika on a building in the Palestinian city Nablus.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|[[Graffiti]] of a [[swastika]] on a building in the [[Palestinians|Palestinian]] city of [[Nablus]], 2022]]
[[Robert L. Bernstein|Robert Bernstein]], founder of [[Human Rights Watch]], says that antisemitism is "deeply ingrained and institutionalized" in "Arab nations in modern times".<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/why-do-human-rights-groups-ignore-palestinians-war-of-words/2011/09/26/gIQAWU5y2K_story.html Why do human rights groups ignore Palestinians' war of words?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211002401/https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/why-do-human-rights-groups-ignore-palestinians-war-of-words/2011/09/26/gIQAWU5y2K_story.html |date=11 February 2021 }}. The Washington Post (26 September 2011). Retrieved 2 June 2012.</ref>
In a 2011 survey by the [[Pew Research Center]], all of the Muslim-majority Middle Eastern countries polled held significantly negative opinions of Jews. In the questionnaire, only 2% of [[Egypt]]ians, 3% of [[Lebanon|Lebanese]] Muslims, and 2% of [[Jordan]]ians reported having a positive view of Jews. Muslim-majority countries outside the Middle East similarly held markedly negative views of Jews, with 4% of [[Turkey|Turks]] and 9% of [[Indonesia]]ns viewing Jews favorably.<ref>{{cite web
According to a 2011 exhibition at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, United States, some of the dialogue from Middle East media and commentators about Jews bear a striking resemblance to [[Nazi propaganda]].<ref>United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. [https://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/24/arts/design/24muse.html "Nazis' 'Terrible Weapon,' Aimed at Minds and Hearts"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125152303/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/24/arts/design/24muse.html |date=25 January 2021 }}, ''[[The New York Times]]'', 23 February 2009. Retrieved 24 November 2010.</ref> According to Josef Joffe of ''[[Newsweek]]'', "anti-Semitism—the real stuff, not just bad-mouthing particular Israeli policies—is as much part of Arab life today as the hijab or the hookah. Whereas this darkest of creeds is no longer tolerated in polite society in the West, in the Arab world, Jew hatred remains culturally endemic."<ref>Joffe, Josef. [http://www.newsweek.com/id/186974 "Anti-Semitism In Araby"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100328001627/http://www.newsweek.com/id/186974 |date=28 March 2010 }}, ''[[Newsweek]]'', 28 February 2009. Retrieved 24 November 2010.</ref>
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Muslim clerics in the Middle East have frequently referred to Jews as descendants of apes and pigs, which are conventional epithets for Jews and Christians.<ref>[[Bernard Lewis|Lewis, Bernard]] (1984). ''The Jews of Islam''. Princeton: Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|0-691-00807-8}} p. 33</ref><ref>Aluma Solnick. [http://memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Area=sr&ID=SR01102 ''Based on Koranic Verses, Interpretations, and Traditions, Muslim Clerics State: The Jews Are the Descendants of Apes, Pigs, And Other Animals''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090905201355/http://www.memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Area=sr&ID=SR01102 |date=5 September 2009 }} MEMRI Special Report – No. 11, 1 November 2002</ref><ref>Neil J. Kressel. [http://chronicle.com/free/v50/i27/27b01401.htm "The Urgent Need to Study Islamic Anti-Semitism"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090710020511/http://chronicle.com/free/v50/i27/27b01401.htm |date=10 July 2009 }}, ''The Chronicle of Higher Education'', ''The Chronicle Review'', 12 March 2004.</ref>
According to professor [[Robert Wistrich]], director of the [[Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism]] (SICSA), the calls for the destruction of Israel by [[Iran]] or by [[Hamas]], [[Hezbollah]], [[Islamic Jihad Movement in Palestine|Islamic Jihad]], or the [[Muslim Brotherhood]], represent a contemporary mode of genocidal antisemitism.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.timesofisrael.com/holocaust-remembrance-day-a-somber-anniversary/|title=Holocaust Remembrance Day — a somber anniversary|website=
===21st-century antisemitism at universities===
{{Main|Universities and antisemitism}}
After the [[2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel]] on 7 October, antisemitism and anti-Jewish hate crimes around the world increased significantly.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Abboud |first1=Leila |last2=Klasa |first2=Adrienne |last3=Chazan |first3=Guy |date=15 October 2023 |title=Israel-Hamas war unleashes wave of antisemitism in Europe |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/ed744535-d04f-4519-ac27-2be077cac912 |access-date=19 October 2023 |archive-date=18 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231018225127/https://www.ft.com/content/ed744535-d04f-4519-ac27-2be077cac912 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Chrisafis |first1=Angelique |last2=Kassam |first2=Ashifa |last3=Connolly |first3=Kate |last4=Giuffrida |first4=Angela |date=20 October 2023 |title='A lot of pain': Europe's Jews fear rising antisemitism after Hamas attack |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2023/oct/20/a-lot-of-pain-europes-jews-fear-rising-antisemitism-after-hamas-attack |access-date=21 October 2023 |issn=0261-3077 |archive-date=21 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231021041322/https://www.theguardian.com/news/2023/oct/20/a-lot-of-pain-europes-jews-fear-rising-antisemitism-after-hamas-attack |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Sforza |first=Lauren |date=6 May 2024 |title=Antisemitism surging worldwide since Oct. 7 attack: Report |url=https://thehill.com/blogs/blog-briefing-room/4646435-antisemitism-surging-worldwide-since-october-7-attack-report/ |access-date=17 July 2024 |work=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]]}}</ref> Multiple universities and university officials have been accused of systemic antisemitism.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/01/11/us/harvard-antisemitism-lawsuit.html|first=Stephanie|last=Saul|title=Students sue Harvard, calling it a bastion of antisemitism|work=The New York Times|date=11 January 2024|access-date=23 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Harvard president keeps her job after antisemitism backlash |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/harvard-president-claudine-gay-antisemitism-1.7056381 |website=CBC news|date=12 December 2023|access-date=23 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Stanford is the latest elite university to be slammed for its lack of 'moral resolve' in its response to Hamas' attack on Israel |url=https://fortune.com/2023/10/27/stanford-alumni-students-hamas-israel-response/ |access-date=31 October 2023 |website=Fortune |language=en}}</ref> On 1 May 2024, the [[United States House of Representatives]] voted 320–91 in favour of adopting a bill enshrining the [[International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance]] definition of antisemitism into law.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Amiri |first=Farnoush |date=1 May 2024 |title=House passes bill to expand definition of antisemitism amid growing campus protests over Gaza war |url=https://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinian-campus-protests-columbia-congress-df4ba95dae844b3a8559b4b3ad7e058a |access-date=17 July 2024 |website=[[AP News]] |language=en}}</ref> The bill was opposed by some who claimed it conflated criticism of Israel with antisemitism, while Jewish advocacy groups like the [[American Jewish Committee]] and [[World Jewish Congress]] generally supported it in response to the increase in antisemitic incidents on university campuses.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 October 2023 |title=Confronting Campus Antisemitism: An Action Plan for University Students |url=https://www.ajc.org/UniversityStudentsActionPlan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240501032235/https://www.ajc.org/UniversityStudentsActionPlan |archive-date=1 May 2024 |access-date=17 July 2024 |website=[[American Jewish Committee]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=23 December 2023 |title=Year in Review 2023: Jewish Unity Amid Challenges |url=https://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/news/year-in-review-2023-jewish-unity-amid-challenges |access-date=17 July 2024 |website=[[World Jewish Congress]]}}</ref> An open letter by 1,200 Jewish professors opposed the proposal.<ref>Yonat Shimron, [https://religionnews.com/2024/05/14/1200-jewish-professors-call-on-senate-to-reject-controversial-antisemitism-definition/ 1,200 Jewish professors call on Senate to reject controversial antisemitism definition,'] [[Religion News Service]] 14 May 2024.</ref>▼
▲After the [[2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel]] on 7 October, antisemitism and anti-Jewish hate crimes around the world increased significantly.<ref>{{Cite news
=== Black Hebrew Israelite antisemitism ===▼
{{Undue weight section|date=July 2024}}
{{Further|Black Hebrew Israelites}}
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[[File:ISUPK Passover 2012.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|4% of African-Americans self-identified as [[Black Hebrew Israelites]] in 2019.<ref name=":3" /> Between 2019 and 2022, individuals motivated by Black Hebrew Israelitism committed five religiously motivated murders.<ref name=":1" />]]
In 2022, the [[American Jewish Committee]] stated that the [[Black Hebrew Israelite]] claim that "we are the real Jews" is a "troubling anti-Semitic trope with dangerous potential".<ref>{{cite news
Black Hebrew Israelites believe that Jewish people are "imposters", who have "stolen" Black Americans' true racial and religious identity.<ref name=":1">{{cite web
==Causes==
Antisemitism has been explained in terms of [[racism]], [[xenophobia]], [[Psychological projection|projected guilt]], [[displaced aggression]], [[conspiracy theory]], and the search for a [[Scapegoating|scapegoat]].<ref>{{cite book
Antisemitism scholar Lars Fischer writes that "scholars distinguish between theories that assume an actual causal (rather than merely coincidental) correlation between what (some) Jews do and antisemitic perceptions (correspondence theories), on the one hand, and those predicated on the notion that no such causal correlation exists and that 'the Jews' serve as a foil for the projection of antisemitic assumptions, on the other."<ref name="u458">{{cite journal
▲Antisemitism has been explained in terms of [[racism]], [[xenophobia]], [[Psychological projection|projected guilt]], [[displaced aggression]], and the search for a [[Scapegoating|scapegoat]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Jews in the early modern world |first=Dean Phillip |last=Bell |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2008 |page=212 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rJ85OyVWV0C&pg=PA212 |isbn=978-0-7425-4518-2 |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230001601/https://books.google.com/books?id=5rJ85OyVWV0C&pg=PA212#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>
As an example of the correspondence theory, an 1894 book by [[Bernard Lazare]] questions whether Jews themselves were to blame for some antisemitic stereotypes, for instance arguing that Jews traditionally keeping strictly to their own communities, with their own practices and laws, led to a perception of Jews as anti-social; he later abandoned this belief and the book is considered antisemitic today.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=VP81v2Y24HUC&pg=PA9 Page 9] in: {{cite book|title=Anti-Semitism: Its History and Causes|author=Bernard Lazare|publisher=Cosimo, Inc.|year=2006|isbn=9781596056015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
▲Antisemitism scholar Lars Fischer writes that "scholars distinguish between theories that assume an actual causal (rather than merely coincidental) correlation between what (some) Jews do and antisemitic perceptions (correspondence theories), on the one hand, and those predicated on the notion that no such causal correlation exists and that 'the Jews' serve as a foil for the projection of antisemitic assumptions, on the other."<ref name="u458">{{cite journal | last=Fischer | first=Lars | title="The word 'Jew' has several meanings in relation to commerce, but almost all negative": on the evolution of a projection | journal=Jewish Historical Studies | volume=51 | issue=1 | date=27 April 2020 | issn=2397-1290 | doi=10.14324/111.444.jhs.2020v51.032 | page=}}</ref> The latter position is exemplified by [[Theodor W. Adorno]], who wrote that 'Anti-Semitism is the rumour about Jews'.<ref>{{cite web |author= schalomlibertad |title= Antisemitism and the (modern) critique of capitalism |date= 23 July 2009 |website= libcom.org |quote= Adorno, T. (1951), Minima Moralia. Reflexionen aus dem beschädigten Leben, Suhrkamp, Frankfurt, p. 141. |url= https://libcom.org/library/antisemitism-modern-critique-capitalism |access-date= 5 December 2023 |archive-date= 7 December 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20231207180431/https://libcom.org/library/antisemitism-modern-critique-capitalism |url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author= [[Francesca Trivellato|Trivellato, Francesca]] |title= The rumour about the Jews |date= 28 January 2020 |website= [[Aeon (magazine)|Aeon]] |quote= Theodor Adorno in 1951 called ‘the rumour about Jews’... |url= https://aeon.co/essays/what-is-the-link-between-medieval-and-modern-antisemitism |access-date= 5 December 2023 |archive-date= 7 December 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20231207180457/https://aeon.co/essays/what-is-the-link-between-medieval-and-modern-antisemitism |url-status= live }}</ref>
In ''Anti-Judaism: The Western Tradition'' (2013), historian [[David Nirenberg]] traces the history of antisemitism, arguing that antisemitism should be understood not as a product of isolated historical events or cultural biases but is instead embedded within the very fabric of Western thought and society.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book
▲As an example of the correspondence theory, an 1894 book by [[Bernard Lazare]] questions whether Jews themselves were to blame for some antisemitic stereotypes, for instance arguing that Jews traditionally keeping strictly to their own communities, with their own practices and laws, led to a perception of Jews as anti-social; he later abandoned this belief and the book is considered antisemitic today.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=VP81v2Y24HUC&pg=PA9 Page 9] in: {{cite book|title=Anti-Semitism: Its History and Causes|author=Bernard Lazare|publisher=Cosimo, Inc.|year=2006|isbn=9781596056015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Brustein |first1=William L. |last2=Roberts |first2=Louisa |title=The Scialism of Fools: Leftist Origins of Modern Anti-Semitism |date=2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=55 |quote=Lazare argued in his book that Jews, because of their exclusiveness, arrogance, and unsociability, were themselves responsible for anti-Semitism. Lazare blames the Jewish religion and laws for these negative traits. His bool was widely reviewed and is by many accounts a seminal anti-Semitic text. Lazare's authorship of such an anti-Semitic work is ironic, given the role he would soon play in the Dreyfus Affair.}}</ref><ref name="q406">{{cite journal | last=Swanson | first=Joel | title=We Spring from that History: Bernard Lazare, between Universalism and Particularism | journal=Religions | volume=9 | issue=10 | date=21 October 2018 | issn=2077-1444 | doi=10.3390/rel9100322 | doi-access=free | page=322}}</ref> As another example, [[Walter Laqueur]] suggested that the antisemitic perception of Jewish people as greedy (as often used in [[Stereotypes of Jews#Greed|stereotypes of Jews]]) probably evolved in Europe during medieval times where a large portion of [[creditor|money lending]] was operated by Jews.{{sfnp|Laqueur|2006|p=154}} Among factors thought to contribute to this situation include that Jews were restricted from other professions,{{sfnp|Laqueur|2006|p=154}} while the [[Christian Church]] declared for their followers that money lending constituted immoral "[[usury]]",<ref>{{cite journal|title=Hawthorne's secret: an un-told tale |jstor=41398742 |journal=The Georgia Review|volume=38|issue=3|pages=664–666|author=Philip Young|year=1984}}</ref> although recent scholarship, such as that of historian [[Julie Mell]] shows that Jews were not overrepresented in the sector and that the stereotype was founded in Christian [[Psychological projection|projection]] of taboo behaviour on to the minority.<ref name="u458"/><ref name="s525">{{cite journal | last=Cassen | first=Flora | title=Jews and Money: Time for a New Story? | journal=Jewish Quarterly Review | volume=110 | issue=2 | date=2020 | issn=1553-0604 | doi=10.1353/jqr.2020.0007 | pages=373–382}}</ref><ref name="a817">{{cite journal | last=Mell | first=Julie L. | title=Cultural Meanings of Money in Medieval Ashkenaz: On Gift, Profit, and Value in Medieval Judaism and Christianity | journal=Jewish History | publisher=Springer | volume=28 | issue=2 | year=2014 | issn=0334-701X | jstor=24709715 | pages=125–158 | doi=10.1007/s10835-014-9212-3 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/24709715 | access-date=11 July 2024}}</ref>
British [[quantum physicist]] [[David Deutsch]] has argued that antisemites have historically always attempted to provide some sort of justification for their persecution of Jews. He uses the term 'The Pattern' to describe what he argues underlies historical antisemitism: "the maintenance of the idea that it is legitimate to hurt Jews."<ref>{{Cite web
▲In ''Anti-Judaism: The Western Tradition'' (2013), historian [[David Nirenberg]] traces the history of antisemitism, arguing that antisemitism should be understood not as a product of isolated historical events or cultural biases but is instead embedded within the very fabric of Western thought and society.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Nirenberg |first=David |author-link=David Nirenberg |title=Anti-Judaism: The Western Tradition |publisher=Norton |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-393-34791-3 |edition=1. publ. as Norton paperb |location=New York |language=en-US}}</ref> Its foundation lies in the early claim of [[Jewish deicide]] and depictions of Jews as 'Christ-killers'. Throughout Western history, Jews have since been used as a symbolic '[[Other (philosophy)|other]]' to define and articulate the values and boundaries of various cultures and intellectual traditions. In philosophy, literature, and politics, Jewishness has often been constructed as a counterpoint to what is considered normative or ideal. One of the key insights from Nirenberg's work is that antisemitism has proven to be remarkably adaptable. It changes form and adapts to different contexts and times, whether in medieval religious disputes, Enlightenment critiques, or modern racial theories. Philosophers and intellectuals have often used 'Jewishness' as a foil to explore and define their ideas. For instance, in the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], figures like [[Voltaire]] critiqued Judaism as backward and superstitious to promote their visions of reason and progress. Similarly, the [[Soviet Union]] frequently [[Soviet anti-Semitism|portrayed]] Judaism as linked with capitalism and mercantilism, standing in opposition to the ideals of proletarian solidarity and [[communism]]. In each case, Judaism or the Jews are portrayed as standing in tension with prevailing moral norms.<ref name=":6" />
▲British [[quantum physicist]] [[David Deutsch]] has argued that antisemites have historically always attempted to provide some sort of justification for their persecution of Jews. He uses the term 'The Pattern' to describe what he argues underlies historical antisemitism: "the maintenance of the idea that it is legitimate to hurt Jews."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hall |first=Brett |date=1 November 2023 |title=Antisemitism: The Sinister Pattern |url=https://quillette.com/2023/11/01/antisemitism-the-sinister-pattern/ |access-date=29 July 2024 |website=[[Quillette]] |language=en}}</ref> He provides the following examples:
# The idea that Jews have collectively failed some crucial test (e.g. they rejected Jesus, or Mohammed, or do not have the Aryans' capacity for 'culture', or do not satisfy Stalin's criteria for being a 'nation', or lack a mystical 'connection to the land', etc.);
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# Conspiracy theories, especially theories that 'The Jews' are secretly 'behind' the events of history and current affairs.
British medievalist historian Richard Landes has further argued that,<blockquote>This Pattern, Deutsch observes, is always present, but is most likely to cause persecution, expulsions and mass murder when there is a serious threat it, to the ''legitimacy'' of hurting Jews. Such a threat appeared when Europeans, previously Pattern-compliant in their belief in Jewish deicide, became 'Enlightened,' and so had difficulty blaming the Jews for killing a God in which they no longer believed.<ref>{{Cite web
The key to people's behavior in this regard, he argues, is the need to preserve the legitimacy of hurting Jews, for being Jews. This legitimacy is much more important than actually hurting Jews. And it targets only the Jews. It is not, accordingly, either a hatred or a fear, a form of racism or prejudice in the conventional sense, even though it can lead to those feelings and attitudes. But it is actually unique. No other group can substitute for the Jews as the target whom it is legitimate to hurt.<ref>{{Cite web
==
[[Education]] plays an important role in addressing and overcoming [[prejudice]] and countering social [[discrimination]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000263702|title=Addressing anti-semitism through education: guidelines for policymakers|publisher=UNESCO|year=2018|isbn=978-92-3-100274-8|access-date=9 March 2020|archive-date=17 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117130019/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000263702|url-status=live}}</ref> However, education is not only about challenging the conditions of intolerance and ignorance in which antisemitism manifests itself; it is also about building a sense of [[Global citizenship education|global citizenship]] and solidarity, respect for, and enjoyment of diversity and the ability to live peacefully together as active, democratic citizens. Education equips learners with the knowledge to identify antisemitism and biased or prejudiced messages and raises awareness about the forms, manifestations, and impact of antisemitism faced by [[Jews]] and Jewish communities.<ref name=":2" />
Some Jewish writers have argued that public education about antisemitism through the prism of the [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]] is unhelpful at best or actively deepening antisemitism at worst. [[Dara Horn]] wrote in ''[[The Atlantic]]'' that "Auschwitz is not a metaphor", arguing "That the Holocaust drives home the importance of love is an idea, like the idea that Holocaust education prevents anti-Semitism, that seems entirely unobjectionable. It is entirely objectionable. The Holocaust didn't happen because of a lack of love. It happened because entire societies abdicated responsibility for their own problems, and instead blamed them on the people who represented—have always represented, since they first introduced the idea of commandedness to the world—the thing they were most afraid of: responsibility."<ref>{{Cite web
Instead, she argues that perhaps "a more effective way to address anti-Semitism might lie in cultivating a completely different quality, one that happens to be the key to education itself: curiosity. Why use Jews as a means to teach people that we're all the same, when the demand that Jews be just like their neighbors is exactly what embedded the mental virus of anti-Semitism in the Western mind in the first place? Why not instead encourage inquiry about the diversity, to borrow a de rigueur word, of the human experience?"<ref>{{Cite news
==Geographical variation==
{{
A March 2008 report by the [[United States Department of State|U.S. State Department]] found that there was an increase in antisemitism across the world, and that both old and new expressions of antisemitism persist.<ref>[http://edition.cnn.com/2008/US/03/14/anti-semitism/index.html "Report: Anti-Semitism on the rise globally"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080315181305/http://edition.cnn.com/2008/US/03/14/anti-semitism/index.html |date=15 March 2008 }}, [[CNN]], 14 March 2008. Retrieved 24 November 2010.</ref> A 2012 report by the U.S. [[Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor]] also noted a continued global increase in antisemitism, and found that Holocaust denial and opposition to Israeli policy at times was used to promote or justify blatant antisemitism.<ref>{{cite web|title=International Religious Freedom Report for 2012|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/religiousfreedom/index.htm#wrapper|access-date=21 December 2013|archive-date=7 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207121457/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/religiousfreedom/index.htm#wrapper|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2014, the Anti-Defamation League conducted a study titled ''ADL Global 100: An Index of Anti-Semitism'',<ref>{{Cite web
In August 2024, the Israeli Ministry of the Diaspora announced a new antisemitism monitoring project.<ref name=Diaspora1>{{cite news
==See also==
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* [[Arno Tausch|Tausch, Arno]] (2015). Islamism and Antisemitism. Preliminary Evidence on Their Relationship from Cross-National Opinion Data (14 August 2015). Available at [https://ssrn.com/abstract=2600825 SSRN] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220161159/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2600825 |date=20 February 2021 }} or [https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2600825 Islamism and Antisemitism. Preliminary Evidence on Their Relationship from Cross-National Opinion Data] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117161944/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2600825 |date=17 November 2022 }}
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