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{{short description|Staple crop}}
{{good article}}
{{Redirect|Yuca|the flowering shrubs|Yucca}}
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|image2=Manihot esculenta 001.jpg
|image2_caption=[[Tuber]] (waxed)
|image2_alt=Photograph of oblong brown
|genus=Manihot
|species=esculenta
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}}
'''''Manihot esculenta''''', [[common name|commonly called]] '''cassava''', '''manioc''',<!--<ref name=GRIN>{{GRIN |access-date=4 January 2014}}</ref>--> or '''yuca''' (among numerous regional names), is a woody [[shrub]] of the [[spurge]] family, [[Euphorbiaceae]], native to South America, from Brazil, Paraguay and parts of the Andes. Although a perennial plant, cassava is extensively cultivated in [[tropical]] and [[subtropical]] regions as an annual [[crop]] for its edible [[starch]]y
Cassava is the third-largest source of carbohydrates in food in the tropics, after [[rice]] and [[maize]], making it
Cassava is grown in sweet and bitter varieties; both contain toxins, but the bitter varieties have them in much larger amounts. Cassava has to be prepared carefully for consumption, as improperly prepared material can contain sufficient [[cyanide]] to cause [[cyanide poisoning|poisoning]]. The more toxic varieties of cassava have been used in some places as [[famine food]] during times of [[food insecurity]]. Farmers may however choose bitter cultivars to minimise crop losses.
==
The [[genus|generic]] name ''[[Manihot]]'' and the common name "manioc" both derive from the [[Guarani language|Guarani]] (Tupi) name ''mandioca'' or ''manioca'' for the plant.<ref name="SNP"/><ref>{{cite web |title=manioc (n.) |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/manioc|publisher=[[Online Etymology Dictionary]] |access-date=7 July 2024}}</ref> The specific name ''esculenta'' is Latin for 'edible'.<ref name="SNP">{{cite web |title=''Manihot esculenta'' Crantz |publisher=Singapore National Parks |url=https://www.nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/2/2/2210 |access-date=7 July 2024 |quote=Genus Manihot is from the Tupi-Guarani name "manioca" which means cassava. Species esculenta means edible by humans.}}</ref> The common name "cassava" is a 16th century word from the French or Portuguese ''cassave'', in turn from [[Taíno]] ''caçabi''.<ref>{{cite web |title=cassava (n.) |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/cassava |publisher=[[Online Etymology Dictionary]] |access-date=7 July 2024}}</ref> The common name "yuca" or "yucca" is most likely also from Taíno, via Spanish ''yuca'' or ''juca''.<ref>{{cite web |title=yucca (n.) |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/yucca |publisher=[[Online Etymology Dictionary]] |access-date=7 July 2024}}</ref>
The harvested part of a cassava plant is the root. This is long and tapered, with an easily detached rough brown rind. The white or yellowish flesh is firm and even in texture. Commercial [[cultivar]]s can be {{convert|5|to|10|cm|in|0}} wide at the top, and some {{convert|15|to|30|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} long, with a woody vascular bundle running down the middle. The roots are largely [[starch]], with small amounts of calcium (16 milligrams per 100 grams), phosphorus (27 mg/100 g), and [[Vitamin C|vitamin C]] (20.6 mg/100 g).<ref>{{cite web|title=Basic Report: 11134, Cassava, raw|url=https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/2907?manu=&fgcd=&ds=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170712215400/https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/2907?manu=&fgcd=&ds=|archive-date=12 July 2017|website=National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference Release 28|date=May 2016|publisher=Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture|access-date=7 December 2016}}</ref> Cassava roots contains little [[protein]], whereas the leaves are rich in protein,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Latif |first1=Sajid |last2=Müller |first2=Joachim |title=Potential of cassava leaves in human nutrition: a review |journal=[[Trends in Food Science & Technology]] |year=2015 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=147–158 |doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2015.04.006 }}</ref> except for being low in [[methionine]], an essential [[amino acid]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ravindran|first=Velmerugu |title=Preparation of cassava leaf products and their use as animal feeds |journal=FAO Animal Production and Health Paper |issue=95 |pages=111–125 |year=1992 |url=http://www.fao.org/Ag/AGA/AGAP/FRG/AHPP95/95-111.pdf |access-date=13 August 2010 |archive-date=15 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120115022720/http://www.fao.org/Ag/AGA/AGAP/FRG/AHPP95/95-111.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref>▼
== Description ==
▲The harvested part of a cassava plant is the root. This is long and tapered, with an easily detached rough brown rind. The white or yellowish flesh is firm and even in texture. Commercial [[cultivar]]s can be {{convert|5|to|10|cm|in|0}} wide at the top, and some {{convert|15|to|30|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} long, with a woody vascular bundle running down the middle. The [[tuber]]ous roots are largely [[starch]], with small amounts of calcium (16 milligrams per 100 grams), phosphorus (27 mg/100 g), and [[Vitamin C|vitamin C]] (20.6 mg/100 g).<ref>{{cite web|title=Basic Report: 11134, Cassava, raw|url=https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/2907?manu=&fgcd=&ds=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170712215400/https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/2907?manu=&fgcd=&ds=|archive-date=12 July 2017|website=National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference Release 28|date=May 2016|publisher=Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture|access-date=7 December 2016}}</ref> Cassava roots contains little [[protein]], whereas the leaves are rich in
<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180>
File:Cassava plant.jpg|Cassava plant
File:Manihot esculenta dsc07325.jpg|Unprocessed
File:Manihot esculenta - cross section 2.jpg|
File:Cassava1 (3945716612).jpg |Leaf
File:Cassava2 (3945624614).jpg |Leaf detail
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=== Genome ===
The complete and haplotype-resolved African cassava (TME204) genome has been reconstructed and made available using the Hi-C technology.<ref name="qi">{{Cite journal |last1=Qi |first1=W. |last2=Lim |first2=Y. |last3=Patrignani |first3=A. |last4=Schläpfer |first4=P. |last5=Bratus-Neuenschwander |first5=A. |last6=Grüter |first6=S. |last7=Chanez |first7=C. |last8=Rodde |first8=N. |last9=Prat |first9=E. |last10=Vautrin |first10=S. |last11=Fustier |first11=M. |last12=Pratas |first12=D. |last13=Schlapbach |first13=R. |last14=Gruissem |first14=W. |display-authors=5 |year=2022 |title=The haplotype-resolved chromosome pairs of a heterozygous diploid African cassava cultivar reveal novel pan-genome and allele-specific transcriptome features |journal=[[GigaScience]] |volume=11 |doi=10.1093/gigascience/giac028 |pmid=35333302
Although [[smallholder]]s are otherwise [[economic efficiency|economically inefficient]] producers, they are vital to productivity at particular times.<ref name="Challenges-Opportunities" /> Small cassava farmers are no exception.<ref name="Challenges-Opportunities" /> [[Crop genetic diversity|Genetic diversity]] is vital when productivity has declined due to [[crop pest|pests]] and [[List of cassava diseases|diseases]], and smallholders tend to retain less productive but more diverse [[gene pool]]s.<ref name="Challenges-Opportunities">{{cite journal |
{{ visible anchor |MeFT1 |MeFT2 |FLOWERING LOCUS T |FT |FT protein }} (FT) is a gene producing FT proteins which affect the formation of storage roots in many plants, including this one.<ref name="Development" /> Alleles in cassava include ''MeFT1'' and ''MeFT2''.<ref name="Development" /> ''MeFT1'' [[gene expression|expression]] in leaves seems to not be [[photoperiodic]], while ''MeFT2'' clearly is.<ref name="Development" /> ''MeFT1'' expression encourages motivation of [[sucrose]] towards the reproductive organs, as shown by experimental [[overexpression]] reducing storage root accumulation.<ref name="Development">{{cite journal |year=2021 |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |issue=1 |volume=72 |pages=551–580 |first2=David |first4=Sophia |first1=Wolfgang |first3=Uwe |last4=Sonnewald |last3=Sonnewald |last2=Rüscher |last1=Zierer |issn=1543-5008 |journal=[[Annual Review of Plant Biology]] |doi=10.1146/annurev-arplant-080720-084456 |title=Tuber and Tuberous Root Development |pmid=33788583 |doi-access=free
== History ==
[[File:Taíno women preparing cassava bread.png|thumb|[[Taíno]] women preparing [[cassava bread]] in 1565: grating
[[File:Albert_Eckhout_-_Mandioca.jpg|thumb|17th-century painting by [[Albert Eckhout]] in [[Dutch Brazil]]]]
Wild populations of ''M. esculenta'' subspecies ''flabellifolia'', shown to be the progenitor of domesticated cassava, are centered in west-central Brazil, where it was likely first domesticated no more than 10,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Olsen|first1=K. M. |last2=Schaal |first2=B. A. |title=Evidence on the origin of cassava: phylogeography of ''Manihot esculenta'' |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]]|volume=96 |issue=10 |pages=5586–5591 |year=1999 |pmid=10318928 |pmc=21904 |bibcode=1999PNAS...96.5586O |doi=10.1073/pnas.96.10.5586 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Forms of the modern domesticated species can also be found growing in the wild in the south of Brazil. By 4600 BC, cassava pollen appears in the [[Gulf of Mexico]] lowlands, at the [[San Andrés (Mesoamerican site)|San Andrés]] archaeological site.<ref>{{cite journal
[[Spaniards]] in their early occupation of Caribbean islands did not want to eat cassava or maize, which they considered insubstantial, dangerous, and not nutritious. They much preferred foods from Spain, specifically wheat bread, olive oil, red wine, and meat, and considered maize and cassava damaging to Europeans.<ref>Earle, Rebecca (2012) ''The Body of the Conquistador: Food, Race, and the Colonial Experience in Spanish America, 1492–1700''. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 54–57, 151. {{ISBN|978-1107693296}}.</ref> The cultivation and consumption of cassava were nonetheless continued in both Portuguese and Spanish America. Mass production of cassava bread became the first Cuban industry established by the Spanish.<ref>{{cite book|author=Long, Janet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rn9LZ2XrIWgC&pg=PA75 |title=Conquest and food: consequences of the encounter of two worlds; page 75|publisher=UNAM|date=2003 |isbn=978-9703208524 |access-date=24 August 2020 |archive-date=20 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420125914/https://books.google.com/books?id=Rn9LZ2XrIWgC&pg=PA75 |url-status=live}}</ref> Ships departing to Europe from Cuban ports such as [[Havana]], [[Santiago de Cuba|Santiago]], [[Bayamo]], and [[Baracoa]] carried goods to Spain, but sailors needed to be provisioned for the voyage. The Spanish also needed to replenish their boats with dried meat, water, fruit, and large amounts of cassava bread.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/havana.htm |title=The Economic History of Havana, Cuba: A City So Beautiful and Important It Was Once Worth More Than All of Florida |author=Watkins, Thayer|publisher=San José State University, Department of Economics|date=2006|access-date=20 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502042108/http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/havana.htm |archive-date=2 May 2016}}</ref> Sailors complained that it caused them digestive problems.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Super, John C. |title=Spanish Diet in the Atlantic Crossing|journal=[[Terrae Incognitae]] |volume=16 |year=1984 |pages=60–63 |doi=10.1179/008228884791016718}}</ref>
Portuguese traders introduced cassava to Africa from Brazil in the 16th century. Around the same period, it was
There is a legend that cassava was introduced in 1880–1885 CE to the South Indian state of [[Kerala]] by the King of [[Travancore]], Vishakham Thirunal Maharaja, after a great famine hit the kingdom, as a substitute for rice.<ref name=Saraswathy2019>{{cite web |date=June 27, 2019 |author=Saraswathy Nagarajan |url=https://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/food/how-tapioca-came-to-travancore/article28181288.ece |title=How tapioca came to Travancore |work=The Hindu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727082403/https://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/food/how-tapioca-came-to-travancore/article28181288.ece |archive-date=27 July 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> However, there are documented cases of cassava cultivation in parts of the state before the time of Vishakham Thirunal Maharaja.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ainslie |first1=Whitelaw |url=http://archive.org/details/b28037340 |title=Materia medica of Hindoostan, and artisan's and agriculturalist's nomenclature |last2=Halford|first2=Henry|date=1813|publisher=Government Press |location=Madras State}}</ref> Cassava is called kappa or maricheeni in [[Malayalam]], and [[tapioca]] in Indian English usage.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kappa for all seasons - many avatars of the magic starch root... |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/food/features/2018/01/30/kappa-for-all-seasons.html |website=Onmanorama |location=[[Kerala]], India |access-date=11 May 2024 |date=1 February 2018}}</ref>
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; Bacteria
Among the most serious bacterial pests is [[Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis|''Xanthomonas axonopodis'' pv. ''manihotis'']], which causes [[bacterial blight of cassava]]. This disease originated in South America and has followed cassava around the world.<ref name="Lozano-1986">{{Cite journal |last=Lozano |first=J. Carlos |date=September 1986 |title=Cassava bacterial blight: a manageable disease |url=http://www.apsnet.org/publications/PlantDisease/BackIssues/Documents/1986Articles/PlantDisease70n12_1089.PDF |journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] (APS) |volume=70 |issue=12 |pages=1089–1093 |doi=10.1094/PD-70-1089 |access-date=14 January 2023 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114224139/https://www.apsnet.org/publications/PlantDisease/BackIssues/Documents/1986Articles/PlantDisease70n12_1089.PDF |url-status=live }}</ref> Bacterial blight has been responsible for near catastrophic losses and famine in past decades, and its mitigation requires active management practices.<ref name="Lozano-1986" /> Several other bacteria attack cassava, including the related ''[[Xanthomonas campestris]]'' pv. ''cassavae'', which causes bacterial angular leaf spot.<ref name="
; Fungi
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; Nematodes
Nematode pests of cassava are thought to cause harms ranging from negligible to seriously damaging,<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Coyne, D. L. |author2=Talwana, L. A. H. |date=2000 |title=Reaction of cassava cultivars to root-knot nematode (''Meloidogyne'' spp.) in pot experiments and farmer-managed field trials in Uganda |journal=International Journal of Nematology|volume=10 |pages=153–158 |url=https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/20013117434 |access-date=22 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Makumbi-Kidza, N. N. |author2=Speijer |author3=Sikora R. A. |date=2000 |title=Effects of ''Meloidogyne incognita'' on growth and storage-root formation of cassava (''Manihot esculenta'') |journal=Journal of Nematology|volume=32 |issue=4S |pages=475–477 |pmc=2620481 |pmid=19270997}}</ref><ref name="Gapasin"/> making the choice of management methods difficult.<ref name="Coyne"/> A wide range of plant parasitic nematodes have been reported associated with cassava worldwide. These include ''[[Pratylenchus brachyurus]]'', ''[[Rotylenchulus reniformis]]'', ''[[Helicotylenchus]]'' spp., ''[[Scutellonema]]'' spp. and ''[[Root-knot nematode|Meloidogyne]]'' spp., of which ''[[Meloidogyne incognita]]'' and ''[[Meloidogyne javanica]]'' are the most widely reported and economically important.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Mc Sorley, R. |author2=Ohair, S. K. |author3=Parrado, J. L. |date=1983 |title=Nematodes of Cassava, ''Manihot esculenta'' Crantz |url=http://journals.fcla.edu/nematropica/article/view/63820/61488 |journal=Nematropica|volume=13 |pages=261–287 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603205439/http://journals.fcla.edu/nematropica/article/view/63820/61488 |archive-date=3 June 2016 |access-date=4 May 2016}}</ref> ''Meloidogyne'' spp. feeding produces physically damaging galls with eggs inside them. Galls later merge as the females grow and enlarge, and they interfere with water and nutrient supply.<ref name="Gapasin">{{cite journal |author1=Gapasin, R. M. |date=1980 |title=Reaction of golden yellow cassava to ''Meloidogyne'' spp. Inoculation |journal=Annals of Tropical Research|volume=2 |pages=49–53}}</ref> Cassava roots become tough with age and restrict the movement of the juveniles and the egg release. It is therefore possible that extensive galling can be observed even at low densities following infection.<ref name="Coyne">{{cite journal |author1=Coyne, D. L. |date=1994 |title=Nematode pests of cassava |journal=African Crop Science Journal|volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=355–359 |url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/acsj/article/view/135776 |access-date=22 September 2018 |archive-date=22 September 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922101847/https://www.ajol.info/index.php/acsj/article/view/135776}}</ref> Other pests and diseases can gain entry through the physical damage caused by gall formation, leading to rots. They have not been shown to cause direct damage to the enlarged
Nematicides reduce the numbers of galls per feeder root, along with fewer rots in the
; Insects
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=== Harvesting ===
Before harvest, the leafy stems are removed. The harvest is gathered by pulling up the base of the stem and cutting off the tuberous roots.<ref name=CIAT/>
=== Handling and storage ===
Cassava deteriorates after harvest, when the
While alternative methods for controlling post-harvest deterioration have been proposed, such as preventing reactive oxygen species effects by using plastic bags during storage and transport, coating the roots with wax, or freezing roots, such strategies have proved to be economically or technically impractical, leading to [[plant breeding|breeding]] of cassava varieties with improved durability after harvest, achieved by different mechanisms.<ref name="gmr">{{cite journal |last1=Venturini |first1=M. T |last2=Santos |first2=L. R |last3=Vildoso |first3=C. I |last4=Santos |first4=V. S |last5=Oliveira |first5=E. J |year=2016 |title=Variation in cassava germplasm for tolerance to post-harvest physiological deterioration |journal=[[Genetics and Molecular Research]] |volume=15 |issue=2 |doi=10.4238/gmr.15027818 |pmid=27173317 |doi-access=free}}</ref
<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180><!--format prevents images becoming very large at some window widths-->
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Like many other roots and tubers, both bitter and sweet varieties of cassava contain [[antinutrient|antinutritional]] factors and toxins, with the bitter varieties containing much larger amounts.<ref name="fao.org">{{cite book |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations (FAO) |year=1990 |title=Roots, tubers, plantains and bananas in human nutrition |chapter=Ch. 7 Toxic substances and antinutritional factors |chapter-url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0207e/T0207E08.htm#Cassava%20toxicity |place=Rome |isbn=9789251028629|url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/rootstubersplant0000unse}}</ref> The more toxic varieties of cassava have been used in some places as [[famine food]] during times of [[food insecurity]].<ref name="promedmail-4799579" /><ref name="fao.org"/> For example, during the [[shortages in Venezuela]] in the late 2010s, dozens of deaths were reported due to Venezuelans resorting to eating bitter cassava in order to curb starvation.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Castro |first1=Maolis |date=6 March 2017 |title=La yuca amarga alimenta la muerte en Venezuela |language=es |work=[[El País]] |url=https://elpais.com/internacional/2017/03/05/america/1488744764_611719.html |access-date=25 February 2018 |archive-date=12 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180212184804/https://elpais.com/internacional/2017/03/05/america/1488744764_611719.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=22 February 2018 |title=Estragos de la crisis: Ocho niños han muerto en Aragua por consumir yuca amarga |language=es-ES |work=[[La Patilla]] |url=https://www.lapatilla.com/site/2018/02/22/estragos-de-la-crisis-ocho-ninos-han-muerto-en-aragua-por-consumir-yuca-amarga/ |access-date=25 February 2018 |archive-date=23 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180223022727/https://www.lapatilla.com/site/2018/02/22/estragos-de-la-crisis-ocho-ninos-han-muerto-en-aragua-por-consumir-yuca-amarga/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Cases of cassava poisoning were also documented during the famine accompanying the [[Great Leap Forward]] (1958–1962) in China.<ref>{{cite book |author=Zhou Xun |title=The Great Famine in China, 1958-1962: A Documentary History |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2012 |chapter=Ch. 3 Seasons of death}}</ref> Farmers may select bitter cultivars to reduce crop losses.<ref name="leisa">{{cite magazine |author1=Chiwona-Karltun, Linley |author2=Katundu, Chrissie |author3=Ngoma, James |author4=Chipungu, Felistus |author5=Mkumbira, Jonathan |author6=Simukoko, Sidney |author7=Jiggins, Janice |year=2002 |title=Bitter cassava and women: an intriguing response to food security |magazine=LEISA Magazine |volume=18 |issue=4 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255687456 |access-date=22 September 2018 |archive-date=22 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922101746/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255687456 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Societies that traditionally eat cassava generally understand that
For some smaller-rooted, sweet varieties, cooking is sufficient to eliminate all toxicity. The cyanide is carried away in the processing water and the amounts produced in domestic consumption are too small to have environmental impact.<ref name="cereda"
==Uses==
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=== Preparation of bitter cassava ===
A safe processing method known as the "wetting method" is to mix the cassava flour with water into a thick paste, spread it in a thin layer over a basket and then let it stand for five hours at 30 °C in the shade.<ref name="fca">{{cite journal |last1=Bradbury |first1=J.H. |date=2006 |title=Simple wetting method to reduce cyanogen content of cassava flour |url=http://biology-assets.anu.edu.au/hosted_sites/CCDN/papers/Howard_06.pdf |journal=[[Journal of Food Composition and Analysis]] |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=388–393 |doi=10.1016/j.jfca.2005.04.012 |access-date=23 March 2018 |archive-date=5 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205063243/http://biology-assets.anu.edu.au/hosted_sites/CCDN/papers/Howard_06.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In that time, about 83% of the cyanogenic [[glycoside]]s are broken down by [[linamarase]]; the resulting hydrogen cyanide escapes to the atmosphere, making the flour safe for consumption the same evening.<ref name="fca" />
The traditional method used in West Africa is to peel the roots and put them into water for three days to ferment. The roots are then dried or cooked. In Nigeria and several other west African countries, including Ghana, Cameroon, Benin, Togo, Ivory Coast, and Burkina Faso, they are usually grated and lightly fried in palm oil to preserve them. The result is a foodstuff called [[garri]]. Fermentation is also used in other places such as Indonesia, such as [[Tapai]]. The fermentation process also reduces the level of antinutrients, making the cassava a more nutritious food.<ref>{{cite journal |
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File:PeeledCassava.jpg|Tuber, peeled and soaking to reduce toxicity
</gallery>
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=== Biofuel ===
Cassava has been studied as a feedstock to produce [[ethanol]] as a [[biofuel]], including to improve the efficiency of conversion from cassava flour,<ref name="Bakky 2021">{{cite journal |
===Animal feed===
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== Folklore ==
In Java, a myth relates that food derives from the body of Dewi Teknowati, who killed herself rather than accept the advances of the god [[Batara Guru]]. She was buried, and her lower leg grew into a cassava plant.<ref name="Sudardi Widyastuti 2016">{{cite journal |last1=Sudardi |first1=Bani |last2=Widyastuti |first2=Hesti |title=The Folklore about Food Sustainability according Javanese Culture |journal=Journal of Education and Social Science |issue=3 |year=2016 |pages=
In Trinidad, folk stories tell of a ''saapina'' or snake-woman; the word is related to ''sabada'', meaning to pound, for what is traditionally a woman's work of pounding cassava.<ref name="Provost 2011">{{cite journal |last1=Provost |first1=M. C. L. |title=Where Asian Indian folklore meets Arawak and Kalinago folklore, 'Sound' Symmetry and Asymmetry can make you jump! |journal=Lokoratna Journal of Folklore |date=2011 |volume=6 |url=https://www.researchgate.net
The identity of the [[Macushi]] people of Guyana is closely bound up with the growth and processing of cassava in their [[slash-and-burn]] subsistence lifestyle. A story tells that the great spirit Makunaima climbed a tree, cutting off pieces with his axe; when they landed on the ground, each piece became a type of animal. The opossum brought the people to the tree, where they found all the types of food, including bitter cassava. A bird told the people how to prepare the cassava safely.<ref name="Schacht Bell 2013">{{cite journal |last1=Schacht |first1=Ryan N. |title=Cassava and the Makushi: a shared history of resiliency and transformation" |journal=Food and Identity in the Caribbean |year=2013 |pages=
== See also ==
{{Div col}}
* [[Columbian Exchange]]
* [[Cassava-based dishes#Africa|Kwanga]]▼
* [[Maní (Amazonian legend)]]
* [[Yellow cassava]]
{{Div col end}}
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