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Rumford Medal

Not to be confused with Rumford Prize.

The Rumford Medal is an award bestowed by the Royal Society for "outstanding contributions in the field of physics". The award is named in honour of British scientist Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford, who is noted for his works on thermodynamics and for establishing the Royal Institution. The award was created in 1796 after Thompson transferred £1,000 to the Royal Society in stocks, instructing the latter to grant the awardee the fund's interest as a premium. Thompson was awarded the inaugural award in 1800.[2]

Rumford Medal
refer to caption
Count Rumford (Sir Benjamin Thompson), for whom the award is named.
Awarded for"outstanding contributions in the field of physics"[1]
Date1800 (1800)
Country United Kingdom
Presented byRoyal Society
Websiteroyalsociety.org/medals-and-prizes/rumford-medal

The award initially consisted of two medals, one each in silver and gold, struck in the same die.[3] This was later replaced with a single medal made of silver gilt. The medal is awarded with a cash prize of £2,000.[4] British painter Robert Smirke created the original design of the medal. The diameter of the medal is 3 inches (7.62 cm). The obverse featured a tripod altar with a flame upon it, circumscribed by a Latin inscription from Lucretius' poem De rerum natura "Noscere quae vis et causa". The reverse had the Latin inscription "Proemium optime merenti ex instituto Benj. a Rumford, S.R.I. Comitis: adjudicatum a Reg. Soc. Lond." surrounded by an ornamental border of leaves.[5] This design was discontinued in 1863. As of 2024, the obverse of the medal has a portrait of Thompson, surrounded by the Latin inscription "Beniamin Ab Rvmford S. Rom. Imp. Comes Institvit" ("Benjamin Rumford, Count of the Holy Roman Empire, founded this"), with the Roman numeral MDCCXCVI (1796) on the exergue. The reverse has the Latin inscription "Optime In Lvcis Caloqisqve Natvra Exqvirena Merenti Adivdicat Soc: Reg: Lond." ("The Royal Society of London awards this to one outstandingly deserving in investigating the nature of light and heat") inscribed within a wreath of oak and laurel leaves bound with ribbons.[6][7]

All citizens or residents of the Commonwealth of Nations or the Republic of Ireland for more than three years are eligible for the medal. Candidates for the medal are selected by the Royal Society Council on the recommendations of the Physical Sciences Awards Committee.[1] Ten times during the early 19th century, no medals were awarded due to the unavailability of suitable candidates or political considerations of the Royal Society Council.[2][8]

Since its inception, the medal has been granted to 108 scientists. It has been awarded to citizens of the United Kingdom sixty-seven times,[a] France fourteen times, Germany seven times,[b] the Netherlands seven times, Sweden four times, the United States thrice, Italy twice, Hungary twice,[c] and once each to citizens of Australia, Belgium, Luxembourg, Mexico and New Zealand. The medal has been awarded to multiple individuals twice: in 1896, to Philipp Lenard and Wilhelm Röntgen and in 1918, to Charles Fabry and Alfred Perot. From 1800 to 2018, the medal was awarded biennially; since then it has been awarded annually. The most recent recipient is British physicist Tony Bell, who received it in 2024. British academic and engineer Polina Bayvel is the only female recipient.[9]

List of recipients

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List of recipients of the Rumford Medal
Year Portrait Name Nationality Rationale Notes
1800 Portrait of Sir Benjamin Thompson  Benjamin Thompson   American
  British		 "For his various Discoveries respecting Heat and Light" [d][11][12]
1802 No award
1804 Black-and-white portrait of Sir John Leslie  John Leslie   British "For his Experiments on Heat, published in his Work, entitled an Experimental Inquiry into the Nature and Propagation of Heat." [13][14]
1806 No award
1808 Portrait of William Murdoch  William Murdoch   British "For his publication of the employment of Gas from Coal, for the purpose of illumination" [15]
1810 Portrait of Étienne-Louis Malus  Étienne-Louis Malus   French "For his discoveries of certain new Properties of Reflected Light, published in the Second Volume of the Mémoires d'Arcueil" [16][17]
1812 No award
1814 — William Charles Wells   British "For his Essay on Dew, published in the course of the preceding (1815) year" [18][19]
1816 Portrait of Sir Humphry Davy  Humphry Davy   British "For his Papers on Combustion and Flame, published in the last volume of the Philosophical Transactions" [20][21]
1818 Portrait of Sir David Brewster  David Brewster   British "For his Discoveries relating to the Polarisation of Light" [22][23]
1820 No award
1822 No award
1824 Black-and-white portrait of Augustin Jean-Fresnel  Augustin-Jean Fresnel   French "For his development of the undulatory theory as applied to the phenomena of polarized light, and for his various important discoveries in Physical Optics" [e][25][26]
1826 No award
1828 No award
1830 No award
1832 Portrait of John Frederic Daniell  John Frederic Daniell   British "For his paper, entitled, 'Further Experiments with a new Register Pyrometer, for measuring the Expansion of Solids,' published in the Philosophical Transactions for the year 1831" [27][28]
1834 Portrait of Macedonio Melloni  Macedonio Melloni   Parmesan "For his discoveries relevant to radiant heat" [f][30][31]
1836 No award
1838 Black-and-white photographic portrait of James David Forbes  James David Forbes   British "For his 'Experiments on the Polarization of Heat,' published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh" [32][33]
1840 Black-and-white lithographic portrait of Jean-Baptiste Biot  Jean-Baptiste Biot   French "For his researches in, and connected with, the circular Polarization of Light" [34][35]
1842 Photographic portrait of William Fox Talbot  William Fox Talbot   British "For his discoveries and improvements in photography" [36][37]
1844 No award
1846 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Michael Faraday  Michael Faraday   British "For his discovery of the Optical Phenomena developed by the action of Magnets and Electric Currents in certain Transparent Media, published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1846" [38][39]
1848 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Henri Victor Regnault  Henri Victor Regnault   French "For his 'Experiments to determine the Laws and the numerical data which enter into the calculation of Steam-Engines'" [40]
1850 Portrait of François Arago  François Arago   French "For his 'Experimental Investigations on Polarized Light,' the concluding memoirs on which were communicated to the Academy of Sciences of Paris during the last two years" [41]
1852 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Sir George Gabriel Stokes  George Gabriel Stokes   British "For his 'Discovery of the Change in the Refrangibility of Light'" [42][43]
1854 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Dr. Neil Arnott  Neil Arnott   British "For the successful construction of a new smoke-consuming and fuel-saving fire-grate, described in the Journal of the Society of Arts of May 12, 1854" [44]
1856 Photo of Louis Pasteur  Louis Pasteur   French "For his discovery of the nature of racemic acid, and its relations to polarized light, and for the researches to which he was led by that discovery" [45]
1858 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Jules Jamin  Jules Jamin   French "For his various Experimental Researches on Light" [46][47]
1860 Black-and-white photographic portrait of James Clerk Maxwell  James Clerk Maxwell   British "For his Researches on the Composition of Colours, and other Optical papers" [48][49]
1862 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Gustav Kirchhoff  Gustav Kirchhoff   Prussian "For his researches on the fixed lines of the solar spectrum, and on the inversion of the bright lines in the spectra of artificial light" [50]
1864 Black-and-white photographic portrait of John Tyndall, photographed by Lock & Whitfield  John Tyndall   British "For his researches on the absorption and radiation of heat by gases and vapours" [51]
1866 Black-and-white portrait of Hippolyte Fizeau  Hippolyte Fizeau   French "For his Optical Researches, and especially for his investigations into the Effect of Heat on the Refractive Power of Transparent Bodies" [52]
1868 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Balfour Stewart  Balfour Stewart   British "For his researches on the qualitative as well as quantitative relation between the emissive and absorptive powers of bodies for heat and light, published originally in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and the Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, and now made more generally accessible by the publication in 1866 of his treatise on heat" [50]
1870 Black-and-white portrait of Alfred Des Cloizeaux  Alfred Des Cloizeaux   French "For his researches in Mineralogical Optics" [53][54]
1872 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Anders Jonas Angström  Anders Jonas Ångström   Swedish "For his Researches on Spectral Analysis" [55]
1874 Black-and-white portrait of Sir Norman Lockyer  Joseph Norman Lockyer   British "For his spectroscopic researches on the sun and on the chemical elements" [56]
1876 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Jules Janssen, photographed by Nadar  Jules Janssen   French "For his numerous & important researches in the radiation and absorption of light, carried on chiefly by means of the spectroscope" [57][58]
1878 Photographic portrait of Marie Alfred Cornu, photographed by Nadar  Alfred Cornu   French "For his various optical researches, and especially for his recent re-determination of the velocity of propagation of light" [59]
1880 Portrait of Sir William Huggins, created by John Collier  William Huggins   British "For his important researches in astronomical spectroscopy, and especially for his determination of the radial component of the proper motions of stars" [60]
1882 Black-and-white portrait of Sir William de Wiveleslie Abney  William de Wiveleslie Abney   British "For his Photographic Researches and his discovery of the method of photographing the less refrangible part of the spectrum, especially the infra-red region; also for his Researches on the absorption of various compound bodies in this part of the spectrum" [61]
1884 Black-and-white portrait of Tobias Robertus Thalén  Tobias Robertus Thalén   Swedish "For his spectroscopic researches" [62]
1886 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Samuel Pierpont Langley  Samuel Pierpont Langley   American "For his researches on the spectrum by means of the Bolometer" [63]
1888 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Pietro Tacchini  Pietro Tacchini   Italian "For important and long-continued investigations, which have largely advanced our knowledge of the physics of the sun" [64][65]
1890 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Heinrich Hertz  Heinrich Hertz   German "For his work in electro-magnetic radiation" [66]
1892 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Nils Christoffer Dunér  Nils Christoffer Dunér   Swedish "For his Spectroscopic Researches on Stars" [67]
1894 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Sir James Dewar  James Dewar   British "For his researches on the properties of matter at extremely low temperatures" [68][69]
1896 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Philipp Lenard  Philipp Lenard   Hungarian "For their investigation of the phenomena produced outside a highly exhausted vacuum tube through which electrical discharge is taking place" [g][71][72]
Black-and-white photographic portrait of Wilhelm Röntgen, photographed by German photographer Nicola Perscheid in 1915  Wilhelm Röntgen   German
1898 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Sir Oliver Lodge  Oliver Joseph Lodge   British "For his researches in radiation and in the relations between matter and ether" [73]
1900 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Henri Becquerel  Henri Becquerel   French "For his discoveries in radiation proceeding from Uranium" [74]
1902 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Sir Charles Algernon Parsons  Charles Algernon Parsons   British "For his success in the application of the steam turbine to industrial purposes, and for its recent extension to navigation" [75][76]
1904 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Ernest Rutherford  Ernest Rutherford   New Zealander "For his researches on radio-activity, particularly for his discovery of the existence and properties of the gaseous emanations from radio-active bodies" [h][78][79]
1906 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Hugh Longbourne Callender  Hugh Longbourne Callendar   British "For his experimental work on heat" [80]
1908 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Hendrik Lorentz  Hendrik Lorentz   Dutch "On the ground of his investigations in optical and electrical science" [81]
1910 — Heinrich Rubens   German "For his researches on radiation, especially of long wave-length" [82]
1912 Black-and-white photograph of Heike Kamerlingh Onnes  Heike Kamerlingh Onnes   Dutch "For his researches at low temperatures" [83][84]
1914 Black-and-white photographic portrait of John William Strutt  John Strutt   British "For his numerous researches in optics" [85]
1916 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Sir William Henry Bragg  William Henry Bragg   British "For his researches in X-ray radiation" [86]
1918 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Charles Fabry  Charles Fabry   French "For their contributions to optics" [87]
Black-and-white photographic portrait of Alfred Perot  Alfred Perot
1920 Black-and-white photograph of Robert John Strutt with his son  Robert Strutt   British "For his researches into the properties of gases at high vacua" [88]
1922 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Pieter Zeeman  Pieter Zeeman   Dutch "For his researches in optics" [89]
1924 Portrait of Sir Charles Vernon Boys by John Collier  Charles Vernon Boys   British "For his invention of the gas calorimeter" [90]
1926 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Sir Arthur Schuster  Arthur Schuster   German
  British		 "For his services to physical science, especially in the subjects of optics and terrestrial magnetism" [91]
1928 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Friedrich Paschen  Friedrich Paschen   German "For his contributions to the knowledge of spectra" [92]
1930 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Peter Debye  Peter Debye   Dutch "For his work relating to specific heats and X-ray spectroscopy" [93]
1932 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Fritz Haber  Fritz Haber   German "For the outstanding importance of his work in physical chemistry, especially in the application of thermodynamics to chemical reactions" [94][95]
1934 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Wander Johannes de Haas  Wander Johannes de Haas   Dutch "For his researches on the properties of bodies at low temperatures, and in particular, for his recent work on cooling by the use of adiabatic demagnetisation" [96]
1936 — Ernest George Coker   British "For his researches on the use of polarized light for investigating directly the stresses in transparent models of engineering structures" [97]
1938 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Robert W. Wood  Robert Wood   American "In recognition of his distinguished work and discoveries in many branches of physical optics" [98]
1940 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Manne Siegbahn  Manne Siegbahn   Swedish "For his pioneer work in high precision X-ray spectroscopy and its applications" [99]
1942 — Gordon Dobson   British "For his outstanding work on the physics of the upper air and its application to meteorology" [100]
1944 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Sir Harry Ricardo  Harry Ricardo   British "In recognition of his important contributions to research on the internal combustion engine, which have greatly influenced the development of the various types" [101]
1946 — Alfred Egerton   British "For his leading part in the application of modern physical chemistry to many technological problems of pressing importance" [102]
1948 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Sir Francis Simon  Francis Simon   British "For his outstanding contributions to the attainment of low temperatures and to the study of the properties of substances at temperatures near the absolute zero" [103][104]
1950 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Sir Frank Whittle  Frank Whittle   British "For his pioneering contributions to the jet propulsion of aircraft" [105]
1952 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Frits Zernike  Frits Zernike   Dutch "For his outstanding work in the development of phase-contrast microscopy" [106][107]
1954 — Cecil Reginald Burch   British "For his distinguished contributions to the technique for the production of high vacua and to the development of the reflecting microscope" [108][109]
1956 — Frank Philip Bowden   Australian "For his distinguished work on the nature of friction" [i][111]
1958 — Thomas Ralph Merton   British "For his distinguished researches in spectroscopy and optics" [112][113]
1960 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Alfred Gordon Gaydon  Alfred Gordon Gaydon   British "For his distinguished work in the field of molecular spectroscopy and particularly its application to the study of flame phenomena" [114]
1962 — Dudley Maurice Newitt   British "For his distinguished contributions to chemical engineering" [115][116]
1964 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Hendrik van de Hulst  Hendrik van de Hulst   Dutch "For his distinguished work on the scattering processes in the interplanetary medium and his prediction of the 21 cm spectral line from interstellar neutral hydrogen" [117]
1966 Black-and-white photographic portrait of William Penney  William Penney   British "In recognition of his distinguished and paramount personal contribution to the establishment of economic nuclear energy in Great Britain" [118][119]
1968 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Dennis Gabor  Dennis Gabor   Hungarian

  British

"For his contributions to optics, especially by establishing the principles of holography" [120][121]
1970 — Christopher Hinton   British "In recognition of his outstanding contributions to engineering and of his leadership of engineering design teams in the chemical and atomic energy industries and in electricity generation" [122]
1972 — Basil John Mason   British "In recognition of his distinguished contributions to meteorology, particularly the physics of clouds" [123][124]
1974 — Alan Cottrell   British "In recognition of his contributions to physical metallurgy and particularly in extending knowledge of the role of dislocation in the fracture of metals" [125]
1976 Black-and-white photograph of Viscount Ilya Prigogine  Ilya Prigogine   Belgian "In recognition of his distinguished contributions to the theory of irreversible thermodynamics" [126][127]
1978 Black-and-white photographic portrait of George Porter  George Porter   British "In recognition of his distinguished studies of very fast chemical reactions by flash photolysis" [128][129]
1980 — William Frank Vinen   British "In recognition of his discovery of the quantum of circulation in superfluid helium and his development of new techniques for precise measurements within liquid helium" [130][131]
1982 — Charles Gorrie Wynne   British "In recognition of his unique contribution to the design of optical instruments ranging from large telescopes to bubble-chamber optics" [132]
1984 — Harold Hopkins   British "In recognition of his many contributions to the theory and design of optical instruments, especially of a wide variety of important new medical instruments which have made a major contribution to clinical diagnosis and surgery" [133]
1986 — Denis Rooke   British "In recognition of his contributions to scientific developments in the gas industry" [134][135]
1988 — Felix Weinberg   Czech
  British		 "In recognition of his pioneering work on optical diagnostics and electrical aspects of combustion and his fundamental studies of flame problems associated with jet engines and furnaces" [136][137]
1990 — Walter Eric Spear   German "For discovering and applying techniques for depositing and characterising thin films of high quality amorphous silicon and for demonstrating that these can be doped to give useful electronic devices, such as cost-effective solar cells and large arrays of thin film transistors, now used in commercial, flat-panel, LCD colour TV screens" [138][139]
1992 — Harold Neville Vazeille Temperley   British "In recognition of his wide-ranging and imaginative contributions to applied mathematics and statistical physics, especially in the physical properties of liquids and the development of the Temperley-Lieb algebra" [140][141]
1994 — Andrew Keller   British "In recognition of his contributions to polymer science, in particular his elucidation of the basis of polymeric crystallization, a fundamental ingredient in many materials, to methods of making strong fibres and to the understanding of polymer solutions which underlie this technology" [142]
1996 — Grenville Turner   British "In recognition of his work on the 40Ar/39Ar method of dating developing this technique to a sophisticated level and one which is widely used for dating extraterrestrial and terrestrial rocks" [143][144]
1998 Photographic portrait of Sir Richard Friend  Richard Friend   British "In recognition of his leading research in the development of polymer-based electronics and optoelectronics leading to a very rapid growth of development activities aimed at plastic electronic displays, with advantages of very low cost, flexibility, and the option of curved or flat surfaces" [145][144]
2000 — Wilson Sibbett   British "In recognition of his research on ultra-short pulse laser science and technology." [146][147]
2002 Photographic portrait of Sir David King  David King   South African
  British		 "For outstanding contributions to our fundamental understanding of the structure and dynamics of reaction processes on solid surfaces" [148][149]
2004 — Richard Dixon   British "In recognition of his many contributions to molecular spectroscopy and to the dynamics of molecular photodissociation" [150][151]
2006 — Jean-Pierre Hansen   Luxembourger "For his pioneering work on molten salts and dense plasmas that has led the way to a quantitative understanding of the structure and dynamics of strongly correlated ionic liquids" [152][153]
2008 — Edward Hinds   British "For his extensive and highly innovative work in ultra-cold matter" [154][155]
2010 — Gilbert George Lonzarich   British "For his outstanding work into novel types of quantum matter using innovative instrumentation and techniques" [156]
2012 Photographic portrait of J. Roy Taylor  Roy Taylor   British "For his outstanding contributions to tunable ultrafast lasers and nonlinear fibre optics, including fibre Raman, soliton and supercontinuum laser sources, which translated fundamental discoveries to practical technology" [157][158]
2014 Black-and-white photographic portrait of Jeremy Baumberg  Jeremy Baumberg   British "For his outstanding creativity in nanophotonics, investigating many ingenious nanostructures, both artificial and natural to support novel plasmonic phenomena relevant to Raman spectroscopy, solar cell performance and meta-materials applications." [159][160]
2016 — Ortwin Hess   German

  British

"For his pioneering work in active nano-plasmonics and optical metamaterials with quantum gain." [161][162]
2018 — Ian Walmsley   British "For pioneering work in the quantum control of light and matter on ultrashort timescales, especially the invention and application of new techniques for characterization of quantum and classical light fields." [163][164]
2019 Photographic portrait of Miles John Padgett  Miles Padgett   British "For world leading research on optical orbital momentum including an angular form of the Einstein-Padolsky-Rosen paradox" [165][166]
2020 Photographic portrait of Patrick Gill  Patrick Gill   British "For his development of optical atomic clocks of exquisite precision, of ultra-stable lasers and of frequency standards for fundamental physics, quantum information processing, space science, satellite navigation and Earth observation." [167][168]
2021 Photograph of Carlos Frenk  Carlos Frenk   Mexican

  British

"For revealing via elaborate computer simulations, how small fluctuations in the early universe develop into today’s galaxies." [169][170]
2022 Photograph of Raymond Pierrehumbert  Raymond Pierrehumbert   American "For his wide-ranging contributions to atmospheric physics, employing fundamental principles of physics to elucidate phenomena across the spectrum of planetary atmospheres." [171][172]
2023 Photographic portrait of Polina Bayvel  Polina Bayvel   British "For pioneering contributions to the fundamental physics and nonlinear optics, enabling the realisation of high capacity, broad bandwidth, multi-wavelength, optical communication systems that have underpinned the information technology revolution." [173][9]
2024 Image of Tony Bell  Tony Bell   British "For his seminal contributions to theoretical developments of cosmic ray acceleration and origins." [174][175]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ This number includes three scientists of mixed background. They are Ortwin Hess (German/British), Dennis Gabor (Hungarian/British) and Carlos Frenk (Mexican/British).
  2. ^ This number includes Ortwin Hess, who is of mixed background (German/British).
  3. ^ This number includes Dennis Gabor, who is of mixed background (Hungarian/British).
  4. ^ Thompson received the medal in 1804.[10]
  5. ^ Fresnel was awarded the Rumford Medal for the year 1824 in 1827.[24]
  6. ^ At the time of the award, Melloni was living as a refugee in France for his role in the rebellion of 1831 in Parma.[29]
  7. ^ At the time of the award, Lenard was living in Germany, though he retained his Hungarian citizenship.[70]
  8. ^ At the time of the award, Rutherford was living in Montreal, working at McGill University.[77]
  9. ^ At the time of the award, Bowden was living in the United Kingdom.[110]

References

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  1. ^ a b "The Royal Society Medals and Awards: Nomination guidance" (PDF). Royal Society. 2024. p. 6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 April 2024. Retrieved 19 June 2024.
  2. ^ a b Lange, Erwin F.; Buyers, Ray F. (August 1955). "Medals of the Royal Society of London". The Scientific Monthly. 81 (2). American Association for the Advancement of Science: 86. Bibcode:1955SciMo..81...85L. JSTOR 21857. Archived from the original on 9 February 2022. Retrieved 19 June 2024 – via JSTOR.
  3. ^ Simmonds, P. L. (9 July 1875). "Notes on medals and societies granting medals". The Journal of the Society of Arts. 23 (1181): 747. JSTOR 41335075. Retrieved 19 June 2024 – via Google Books.
  4. ^ "Rumford Medal". Royal Society. 30 November 2023. Archived from the original on 4 March 2024. Retrieved 19 June 2024.
  5. ^ Weld, Charles Richard (2011). A History of the Royal Society – With Memoirs of the Presidents. pp. 218–220. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511920479. ISBN 9780511920479. Retrieved 19 June 2024.
  6. ^ Brown, Laurence A. (1980). British Historical Medals 1760-1960. Vol. 1. London: Seaby Publications Ltd. p. 98. ISBN 9780900652561. LCCN 82110340. OCLC 1152936062. OL 42979174M. Retrieved 29 June 2024.
  7. ^ "Catalogue of the Medals in the Possession of The Royal Society". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. 50 (302–307). Royal Society: 534. 31 December 1892. doi:10.1098/rspl.1891.0068. eISSN 2053-9126. JSTOR 115194. S2CID 186209910.
  8. ^ Crosland, Maurice P. (31 May 2023) [2007]. Scientific Institutions and Practice in France and Britain, c.1700–c.1870 (1st ed.). London: Routledge. p. 40. ISBN 9781138375109. OCLC 1380361038. Retrieved 19 June 2024.
  9. ^ a b "Professor Polina Bayvel honoured with Royal Society medal". University College London. 30 August 2023. Archived from the original on 13 June 2024. Retrieved 8 June 2024.
  10. ^ James, T. E. (19 September 1931). "Rumford and the Royal Institution: A Retrospect" (PDF). Nature. 128 (3229): 477. Bibcode:1931Natur.128..476J. doi:10.1038/128476a0. eISSN 1476-4687. Retrieved 19 June 2024.
  11. ^ "Oxford DNB article: Thompson, Sir Benjamin (subscription needed)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. 2004. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/27255. Retrieved 27 January 2009. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
  12. ^ "Front Matter" (PDF). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 93: iii–iv. 31 December 1803. eISSN 2053-9223. JSTOR 107065. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 June 2022. Retrieved 11 June 2024.
  13. ^ Craik, Alex D. D. (2020). "Geometry versus Analysis in Early 19th-Century Scotland – John Leslie, William Wallace, and Thomas Carlyle". Historia Mathematica. 27 (2): 137. doi:10.1006/hmat.1999.2264. eISSN 1090-249X. S2CID 119830189.
  14. ^ "Front Matter" (PDF). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 95. Royal Society: iii–iv. 31 December 1805. eISSN 2053-9223. JSTOR 107155. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 June 2024. Retrieved 5 June 2024.
  15. ^ Hutchison, William Kenneth (30 April 1985). "The Royal Society and the foundation of the British Gas Industry". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 39 (2). Royal Society: 252. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1985.0012. JSTOR 531628. Archived from the original on 5 June 2024. Retrieved 5 June 2024 – via JSTOR.
  16. ^ O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (January 1997). "Étienne Louis Malus". MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive. University of St Andrews. Archived from the original on 7 May 2012. Retrieved 27 January 2009.
  17. ^ "Front Matter" (PDF). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 101: iii–iv. 31 December 1811. eISSN 2053-9223. JSTOR 107330. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 June 2024. Retrieved 5 June 2024 – via JSTOR.
  18. ^ Moore, Norman (2004). "Oxford DNB article: Wells, William Charles (subscription needed)". In Bergin, Catherine (ed.). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/29020. Retrieved 27 January 2009. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
  19. ^ Gould, Stephen Jay (1 July 1983). "Unorthodoxies in the First Formulation of Natural Selection". Evolution. 37 (4): 856–858. doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1983.tb05608.x. JSTOR 2407927. PMID 28568132. Archived from the original on 5 June 2024. Retrieved 5 June 2024.
  20. ^ "Oxford DNB article:Davy, Sir Humphry". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. 2004. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/7314. Retrieved 27 January 2009. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
  21. ^ "Literary and Scientific Intelligence". Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine. 1 (5). W. Blackwood: 523. August 1817. Archived from the original on 13 June 2024. Retrieved 10 June 2024 – via Google Books.
  22. ^ "Sir David Brewster". The English Mechanic and World of Science. 6 (152): 480. 21 February 1868. OCLC 867727625. Archived from the original on 13 June 2024. Retrieved 5 June 2024 – via Google Books.
  23. ^ "Front Matter". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 109. Royal Society: iii–iv. 31 December 1819. eISSN 2053-9223. JSTOR 107486. Archived from the original on 13 June 2024. Retrieved 10 June 2024 – via Google Books.
  24. ^ Kahr, Bart (April 2018). "Polarization in France". Chirality. 30 (4). New York: Wiley: 7–8. doi:10.1002/chir.22818. ISSN 1520-636X. PMID 29450920. S2CID 46858352. Archived from the original on 12 June 2024. Retrieved 12 June 2024.
  25. ^ O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (August 2002). "Augustin Jean Fresnel". MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive. University of St Andrews. Archived from the original on 3 May 2012. Retrieved 6 February 2009.
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