Entomology

Diversity of insects from different orders

Entomology (from Ancient Greek ἔντομον (entomon) 'insect' and -λογία (-logia) 'study')^[1] is the scientific study of insects, a branch of zoology. In the past the term insect was less specific, and historically the definition of entomology would also include the study of animals in other arthropod groups, such as arachnids, myriapods, and crustaceans. This wider meaning may still be encountered in informal use. The field is also referred to as insectology in American English, while in British English insectology implies the study of the relationships between insects and humans.^[2]

Like several of the other fields that are categorized within zoology, entomology is a taxon-based category; any form of scientific study in which there is a focus on insect-related inquiries is, by definition, entomology. Entomology, therefore, overlaps with a cross-section of topics as diverse as molecular genetics, environmental archaeology, behavior, neuroscience, biomechanics, biochemistry, systematics, physiology, developmental biology, ecology, morphology, and paleontology.

Over 1.3 million insect species have been described, more than two-thirds of all known species.^[3] Some insect species date back to around 400 million years ago. They have many kinds of interactions with humans and other forms of life on Earth. For example, species such as P. pyralis conduct bioluminescent reactions in their light-emitting organs, which have been the subject of much research, especially in recent years.

Entomology is rooted in nearly all human cultures from prehistoric times, primarily in the context of agriculture (especially biological control and beekeeping). The natural Roman philosopher Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) wrote a book on the kinds of insects,^[4] while the scientist of Kufa, Ibn al-A'rābī (760–845 CE) wrote a book on flies, Kitāb al-Dabāb (كتاب الذباب). However scientific study in the modern sense began only relatively recently, in the 16th century.^[5] Ulisse Aldrovandi's De Animalibus Insectis (Concerning Insect Animals) was published in 1602. Microscopist Jan Swammerdam published History of Insects, correctly describing the reproductive organs of insects and metamorphosis.^[6] In 1705, Maria Sibylla Merian published the book Metamorphosis Insectorum Surinamensium about the tropical insects of Dutch Surinam.^[7]

Early entomological works associated with the naming and classification of species followed the practice of maintaining cabinets of curiosity, predominantly in Europe. This collecting fashion led to the formation of natural history societies, exhibitions of private collections, and journals for recording communications and the documentation of new species. Many of the collectors tended to be from the aristocracy, and there developed a trade involving collectors around the world and traders. This has been called the "era of heroic entomology". William Kirby is widely considered as the father of entomology in England. In collaboration with William Spence, he published a definitive entomological encyclopedia, Introduction to Entomology, regarded as the subject's foundational text. He also helped found the Royal Entomological Society in London in 1833, one of the earliest such societies in the world; earlier antecedents, such as the Aurelian society date back to the 1740s. In the late 19th century, the growth of agriculture, and colonial trade spawned the "era of economic entomology" which created the professional entomologist associated with the rise of the university and training in the field of biology.^[8][9]

Entomology developed rapidly in the 19th and 20th centuries and was studied by large numbers of people, including such notable figures as Charles Darwin, Jean-Henri Fabre, Vladimir Nabokov, Karl von Frisch (winner of the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine),^[10] and twice Pulitzer Prize winner E. O. Wilson.

There has also been a history of people becoming entomologists through museum curation and research assistance,^[11] such as Sophie Lutterlough at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. Insect identification is an increasingly common hobby, with butterflies^[12] and (to a lesser extent) dragonflies being the most popular.^[13]

Most insects can easily be allocated to order, such as Hymenoptera (bees, wasps, and ants) or Coleoptera (beetles). However, identifying to genus or species is usually only possible through the use of identification keys and monographs. Because the class Insecta contains a very large number of species (over 330,000 species of beetles alone) and the characteristics distinguishing them are unfamiliar, and often subtle (or invisible without a microscope), this is often very difficult even for a specialist. This has led to the development of automated species identification systems targeted on insects, for example, Daisy, ABIS, SPIDA and Draw-wing.

In 1994, the Entomological Society of America launched a new professional certification program for the pest control industry called the Associate Certified Entomologist (ACE). To qualify as a "true entomologist" an individual would normally require an advanced degree, with most entomologists pursuing a PhD. While not true entomologists in the traditional sense, individuals who attain the ACE certification may be referred to as ACEs or Associate Certified Entomologists.^[14]

As such, other credential programs managed by the Entomological Society of America have varying credential requirements. These different programs are known as Public Health Entomology (PHE), Certified IPM Technicians (CITs), and Board Certified Entomologists (BCEs) (ESA Certification Corporation). To be qualified in public health entomology (PHE), one must pass an exam on the types of arthropods that can spread diseases and lead to medical complications (ESA Certification Corporation). These individuals also have to "agree to ascribe to a code of ethical behavior" (ESA Certification Corporation). Individuals who are planning to become Certified IPM Technicians (CITs), need to obtain at around 1-4 years of experience in pest management and successfully pass an exam, that is based on the information, that they are acquainted with (ESA Certification Corporation). Like in Public Health Entomology (PHE), those who want to become Certified IPM Technicians (CITs) also have to "agree to ascribe to a code of ethical behavior" (ESA Certification Corporation). These individuals must also be approved to use pesticides (ESA Certification Corporation). For those who plan on becoming Board Certified Entomologists (BCEs), individuals have to pass two exams and "agree to ascribe to a code of ethical behavior" (ESA Certification Corporation). As with this, they also have to fulfill a certain amount of educational requirements every 12 months (ESA Certification Corporation).^[15]

Forensic entomology is a branch of forensic science that studies insects found on corpses or elsewhere around crime scenes. This includes studying the types of insects commonly found on cadavers, their life cycles, their presence in different environments, and how insect assemblages change with decomposition.^[16]

Medical entomology is focused upon insects and arthropods that impact human health. Veterinary entomology is included in this category, because many animal diseases can "jump species" and become a human health threat, for example, bovine encephalitis. Medical entomology also includes scientific research on the behavior, ecology, and epidemiology of arthropod disease vectors, and involves a tremendous outreach to the public, including local and state officials and other stake holders in the interest of public safety.

Anthecology is the study of pollination and the relationships between flowers and their pollinators.^[17] It has received increasing attention in the interest of agriculture science amid the impacts of pollinator decline from human actions.^[18][19]

Many entomologists specialize in a single order or even a family of insects, and a number of these subspecialties are given their own informal names, typically (but not always) derived from the scientific name of the group:

• Coleopterology – beetles
• Dipterology – flies
• Odonatology – dragonflies and damselflies
• Hemipterology – true bugs
• Isopterology – termites
• Lepidopterology – moths and butterflies
• Melittology (or Apiology) – bees
• Myrmecology – ants
• Orthopterology – grasshoppers, crickets, etc.
• Trichopterology – caddisflies
• Vespology – social wasps

Like other scientific specialties, entomologists have a number of local, national, and international organizations. There are also many organizations specializing in specific subareas.

• Amateur Entomologists' Society
• Entomological Society of America
• Entomological Society of Canada
• Entomological Society of Japan
• Entomologischer Verein Krefeld
• Entomological Society of India^[20]
• International Union for the Study of Social Insects
• Netherlands Entomological Society
• Royal Belgian Entomological Society
• Royal Entomological Society of London
• Russian Entomological Society
• Senckenberg Deutsches Entomologisches Institut
• Société entomologique de France
• Australian Entomological Society^[21]
• Entomological Society of New Zealand^[22]

Here is a list of selected very large insect collections, housed in museums, universities, or research institutes.

• Zoological Survey of India
• Insect Museum, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
• National Pusa Collection, Division of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India
• Pakistan Museum of Natural History Garden Avenue, Shakarparian, Islamabad, Pakistan
• Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense, Indonesia

• Natal Museum, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa^[23]
• Natural History Museum (Bulawayo) Zimbabwe - 5 million specimens - https://naturalhistorymuseumzimbabwe.com/entomology/

• Lincoln University Entomology Research Collection, Lincoln, New Zealand
• Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa, Wellington, New Zealand
• New Zealand Arthropod Collection, Landcare Research Manaaki Whenua, Auckland, New Zealand

• Bavarian State Collection of Zoology, Zoologische Staatssammlung München
• Museu de Ciències Naturals de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
• Muséum national d'histoire naturelle, Paris, France
• Museum für Naturkunde, Berlin, Germany
• Kelvingrove Art Gallery, Glasgow, Scotland
• Natural History Museum, Budapest Hungarian Natural History Museum^[24]
• Natural History Museum, Geneva^[25]
• Natural History Museum, Leiden, the Netherlands
• Natural History Museum, London, United Kingdom
• Natural History Museum, Oslo^[26] Norway
• Natural History Museum, St. Petersburg Zoological Collection of the Russian Academy of Science
• Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna, Austria
• Oxford University Museum of Natural History, Oxford^[27]
• Royal Museum for Central Africa, Brussels, Belgium
• Swedish Museum of Natural History, Stockholm, Sweden
• World Museum Liverpool, the Bug House

• Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia
• American Museum of Natural History, New York City
• Auburn University Museum of Natural History,^[28] Auburn, Alabama
• Audubon Insectarium, New Orleans
• Bohart Museum of Entomology, Davis, California
• California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco
• Carnegie Museum of Natural History,^[29] Pittsburgh
• Cleveland Museum of Natural History, Cleveland
• Entomology Research Museum, University of California, Riverside
• Essig Museum of Entomology, Berkeley, California
• Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago
• Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
• Illinois Natural History Survey, Champaign, Illinois
• J. Gordon Edwards Museum, San Jose, California
• Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Massachusetts
• Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, Los Angeles
• National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C.
• New Mexico State University Arthropod Museum^[30]
• North Carolina State University Insect Museum, Raleigh, North Carolina
• Peabody Museum of Natural History, New Haven, Connecticut
• San Diego Natural History Museum, San Diego, California
• The National Museum of Play, Rochester, New York
• Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
• University of Minnesota, St. Paul campus (UMSP), Minnesota
• University of Kansas Natural History Museum, Lawrence, Kansas
• University of Nebraska State Museum, Lincoln, Nebraska
• University of Missouri Enns Entomology Museum,^[31] University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri

• Canadian Museum of Nature, Ottawa, Ontario
• Canadian National Collection of Insects, Arachnids and Nematodes,^[32] Ottawa, Ontario
• E.H. Strickland Entomological Museum,^[33] University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta
• Lyman Entomological Museum,^[34] Macdonald Campus of McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec
• Montreal Insectarium, Montreal, Quebec
• Newfoundland Insectarium, Reidville, Newfoundland and Labrador
• Royal Alberta Museum, Edmonton, Alberta
• Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, Ontario
• University of Guelph Insect Collection,^[35] Guelph, Ontario
• Victoria Bug Zoo,^[36] Victoria, British Columbia
• J. B. Wallis / R. E. Roughley Museum of Entomology,^[37] Winnipeg, Manitoba

• Capinera, JL (editor). 2008. Encyclopedia of Entomology, 2nd Edition. Springer. ISBN 1-4020-6242-7

• Chiang, H.C. and G. C. Jahn 1996. Entomology in the Cambodia-IRRI-Australia Project. (in Chinese) Chinese Entomol. Soc. Newsltr. (Taiwan) 3: 9–11.
• Davidson, E. 2006. Big Fleas Have Little Fleas: How Discoveries of Invertebrate Diseases Are Advancing Modern Science University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 208 pages, ISBN 0-8165-2544-7.
• Gillot, Cedric. Entomology. Second Edition, Plenum Press, New York, NY / London 1995, ISBN 0-306-44967-6.
• Grimaldi, David; Engel, Michael S. (2005). Evolution of the Insects. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-82149-5.

• Triplehorn, Charles A. and Norman F. Johnson (2005-05-19). Borror and DeLong's Introduction to the Study of Insects, 7th edition, Thomas Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0-03-096835-6. — a classic textbook in North America.
• Wale, Matthew. Making Entomologists: How Periodicals Shaped Scientific Communities in Nineteenth-Century Britain (U of Pittsburgh Press, 2022) online book review