Editing Wolves in folklore, religion and mythology

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[[File:Capitoline she-wolf Musei Capitolini MC1181.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|The [[Capitoline Wolf]] with Romulus and Remus]]

The [[wolf]] is a common motif in the foundational mythologies and cosmologies of peoples throughout [[Eurasia]] and [[North America]] (corresponding to the historical extent of the habitat of the gray wolf), and also plays a role in ancient European cultures. The modern trope of the [[Big Bad Wolf]] arises from European folklore. The wolf holds great importance in the cultures and religions of many nomadic peoples, such as those of the [[Eurasian steppe]] and [[North American Plains]].

Wolves have sometimes been associated with [[witchcraft]] in both northern European and some Native American cultures: in Norse folklore, the [[völva]] [[Hyndluljóð|Hyndla]] and the [[gýgr]] [[Hyrrokin]] are both portrayed as using wolves as mounts, while in [[Navajo people|Navajo]] culture, wolves have sometimes been interpreted as [[Witch (Navajo)|witches]] in wolf's clothing.<ref name="l123">{{Harvnb|Lopez|1978|p=123}}</ref> Traditional [[Tsilhqot'in]] beliefs have warned that contact with wolves could in some cases possibly cause mental illness and death.<ref name="m292" />

==Akkadian==
One of the earliest written references to black wolves occurs in the [[Babylon]]ian epic ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh|Gilgamesh]]'', in which the titular character rejects the sexual advances of the goddess [[Ishtar]], reminding her that she had transformed a previous lover, a shepherd, into a wolf, thus turning him into the very animal that his flocks must be protected against.<ref name="marvin46">{{Harvnb|Marvin|2012|pp=46–47}}</ref>

==Caucasian==
The [[Names of Georgia|names]] of the nation of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] derives from [[Old Persian]] designation of the Georgians ''vrkān'' ([[wikt:𐎺𐎼𐎣𐎠𐎴|𐎺𐎼𐎣𐎠𐎴]]) meaning "the land of the wolves", that would eventually transform into ''gorğān'', term that will be finding its way into most European languages as "Georgia".<ref>[[Elguja Khintibidze|Khintibidze, E.]] (1998), The Designations of the Georgians and Their Etymology, pp. 85-86-87, [[Tbilisi State University]] Press, {{ISBN|5-511-00775-7}}</ref>

The [[Chechen wolf|wolf]] is a national symbol of [[Chechnya]].<ref name="Layton2014">{{cite book |doi=10.1057/9781137483973_3 |chapter=Cultural Symbolisms |title=Chechens |date=2014 |last1=Layton |first1=Katherine S. |pages=61–85 |isbn=978-1-349-50331-5 }}</ref> According to folklore, the Chechens are "born of a she-wolf", as included in the central line in the national myth.<ref name="Layton2014"/> The "lone wolf" symbolizes strength, independence and freedom.<ref name="Layton2014"/> A proverb about the [[teip]]s (clans) is "equal and free like wolves".<ref name="Seely2001">{{cite book|author=Robert Seely|title=Russo-Chechen Conflict, 1800-2000: A Deadly Embrace|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qSZa6_wnSiIC&pg=PA28|year=2001|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-7146-4992-4|pages=28–}}</ref>

==Indo-European==
[[File:Romolo e remo.jpg|thumb|''[[Romulus and Remus]] nursed by the [[She-wolf (Roman mythology)|She-wolf]]'' (c. 1616), [[Peter Paul Rubens]]]]

In [[Proto-Indo-European mythology]], the wolf was presumably associated with the warrior class (''[[kóryos]]''), who would "transform into wolves" (or dogs) upon their initiation. This is reflected in Iron Age Europe in the ''[[Tierkrieger]]'' depictions from the Germanic sphere, among others. The standard comparative overview of this aspect of Indo-European mythology is McCone (1987)<ref>{{cite book |first1=Kim R. |last1=McCone |chapter=Hund, Wolf, und Krieger bei den Indogermanen |trans-chapter=Dog, wolf, and warrior among the Indo-Europeans |language=de |pages=101–154 |editor1-last=Meid |editor1-first=Wolfgang |title=Studien zum indogermanischen Wortschatz |date=1987 |publisher=Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Innsbruck |isbn=978-3-85124-591-2 }}</ref>

===Baltic===

According to legend, the establishment of the [[Lithuania]]n capital [[Vilnius]] began when the grand duke [[Gediminas]] dreamt of an [[Iron Wolf (character)|iron wolf]] howling near the [[Gediminas Tower|hill]]. Lithuanian goddess [[Medeina]] was described as a single, unwilling to get married, though voluptuous and beautiful huntress. She was depicted as a she-wolf with an escort of wolves.

===Dacian===
{{further|Dacian draco}}

In his book ''From Zalmoxis to Genghis Khan'', Mircea Eliade attempted to give a mythological foundation to an alleged special relation between Dacians and the wolves:{{sfn|Eliade|1995|p=11}}
* Dacians might have called themselves "wolves" or "ones the same with wolves",{{sfn|Eisler|1951|p=137}}{{sfn|Eliade|1995|p=11}} suggesting religious significance.{{sfn|Eliade|1995|p=13}}
* Dacians draw their name from a god or a legendary ancestor who appeared as a wolf.{{sfn|Eliade|1995|p=13}}
* Dacians had taken their name from a group of fugitive immigrants arrived from other regions or from their own young outlaws, who acted similarly to the wolves circling villages and living from looting. As was the case in other societies, those young members of the community went through an initiation, perhaps up to a year, during which they lived as a "wolf".{{sfn|Jeanmaire|1975|p=540}}{{sfn|Eliade|1995|p=13}} Comparatively, [[Hittites|Hittite]] laws referred to fugitive outlaws as "wolves".{{sfn|Eisler|1951|p=144}}
* The existence of a ritual that provides one with the ability to turn into a wolf.{{sfn|Eliade|1995|p=15}} Such a transformation may be related either to [[lycanthropy]] itself, a widespread phenomenon, but attested especially in the [[Balkans]]-[[Carpathian]] region,{{sfn|Eisler|1951|p=144}} or a ritual imitation of the behavior and appearance of the wolf.{{sfn|Eliade|1995|p=15}} Such a ritual was presumably a military initiation, potentially reserved to a secret brotherhood of warriors (or [[Männerbünde]]).{{sfn|Eliade|1995|p=15}} To become formidable warriors they would assimilate behavior of the wolf, wearing wolf skins during the ritual.{{sfn|Eliade|1995|p=13}} Traces related to wolves as a cult or as totems were found in this area since the [[Neolithic]] period, including the [[Vinča culture]] artifacts: wolf statues and fairly rudimentary figurines representing dancers with a wolf mask.{{sfn|Zambotti|1954|loc=p. 184, fig. 13–14, 16}}{{sfn|Eliade|1995|p=23}} The items could indicate warrior initiation rites, or ceremonies in which young people put on their seasonal wolf masks.{{sfn|Eliade|1995|p=23}} The element of unity of beliefs about [[werewolves]] and lycanthropy exists in the magical-religious experience of mystical solidarity with the wolf by whatever means used to obtain it. But all have one original myth, a primary event.{{sfn|Eliade|1995|p=27}}{{sfn|Eliade|1986}}

===Germanic===
{{further|Wulf|Werewolf|Wolfsegen|Ulfheðnar}}
[[File:The binding of Fenris by D Hardy.jpg|upright|thumb|right|Fenrir, bound by the gods]]

[[Norse mythology]] prominently includes three malevolent wolves, in particular: the giant [[Fenrisulfr]] or Fenrir, eldest child of [[Loki]] and [[Angrboda]] who was feared and hated by the [[Æsir]], and Fenrisulfr's children, [[Sköll]] and [[Hati Hróðvitnisson|Hati]]. Fenrir is bound by the gods, but is ultimately destined to grow too large for his bonds and devour [[Odin]] during the course of [[Ragnarök]]. At that time, he will have grown so large that his upper jaw touches the sky while his lower touches the earth when he gapes. He will be slain by Odin's son, [[Viðarr]], who will either stab him in the heart or rip his jaws asunder, according to different accounts.<ref>{{cite book| chapter-url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/8*.html#81| title=Historia Naturalis| author=Pliny the Elder| chapter=viii| page=81}} 22/34</ref> Fenrir's two offspring will, according to legend, devour the sun and moon at Ragnarök. On the other hand, however, the wolves [[Geri and Freki]] were the Norse god [[Odin]]'s faithful pets who were reputed to be "of good omen."<ref name="Myths of the Norsemen">{{cite book|last=Guerber|first=Hélène Adeline|title=Myths of the Norsemen: from the eddas and the sagas|orig-year=1909|edition=Dover|year=1992|publisher=Dover Publications|location=Mineola, N.Y.|isbn=0-486-27348-2|pages=17, 347|chapter=Odin's Personal Appearance, Greek and Northern Mythologies|quote=At his feet crouched two wolves or hunting hounds, Geri and Freki, animals therefore sacred to him, and of good omen if met by the way. Odin always fed these wolves with his own hands from meat set before him.}}</ref>

Wolves were seen as both being negative and positive to the Norse people. On one hand, they represent the untameable forces of nature (e.g. Fenrir, Skoll, and Hati), while on the other hand, they can also represent bravery, loyalty, protection, and wisdom. 
 
In the [[Hervarar saga]], king [[Heidrek]] is asked by [[Gestumblindi]] ([[Odin]]), "What is that lamp which lights up men, but flame engulfs it, and [[wargs]] grasp after it always." Heidrek knows the answer is the [[Sun]], explaining: "She lights up every land and shines over all men, and Skoll and Hatti are called wargs. Those are wolves, one going before the sun, the other after the moon."

But wolves also served as mounts for more or less dangerous humanoid creatures. For instance, ''[[Gunnr]]'s horse'' was a [[kenning]] for "wolf" on the [[Rök runestone]], in the [[Lay of Hyndla]], the [[völva]] Hyndla rides a wolf, and to [[Baldr]]'s funeral, the [[gýgr]] [[Hyrrokin]] arrived on a wolf.

[[Wolf]] or [[Wulf]] is used as a surname, given name, and a name among Germanic-speaking peoples. "Wolf" is also a component in other Germanic names:
*[[Wolfgang]] ([[wikt:wolf#Old High German|wolf]] + [[wikt:gang#Old High German|gang]] ("path, journey"))
*[[Adolf]], derived from the [[Old High German]] ''Athalwolf'', a composition of ''athal'', or ''adal'', meaning ''noble'', and ''[[wolf]]''; its [[Anglo-Saxon]] [[cognate]] is [[Æthelwulf]].
*[[Rudolph (name)|Rudolf]], deriving from two stems: ''Rod'' or ''Hrōð'', meaning "fame", and ''olf'' meaning "wolf" (''see also [[Hroðulf]]'').

===Greek===
{{further|Lycaon (king of Arcadia)}}
The [[Ancient Greeks]] associated wolves with the sun god [[Apollo]].<ref name="m292" />

[[Mount Lykaion]] ({{lang|grc|Λύκαιον ὄρος}}) is a mountain in [[Arcadia (regional unit)|Arcadia]] where an altar of [[Zeus]] was located. ''Zeus Lykaios'' was said to have been born and brought up on it, and was the home of [[Pelasgus]] and his son [[Lycaon (king of Arcadia)|Lycaon]], who is said to have founded the ritual of Zeus practiced on its summit. This seems to have involved a [[human sacrifice]], and a feast in which the man who received the portion of a human victim was changed to a wolf, as Lycaon had been after sacrificing a child. The sanctuary of Zeus played host to athletic games held every four years, the ''[[Lykaia]]''.

According to [[Suda]] the bodyguards of [[Peisistratos]] were called wolf-feet (Λυκόποδες), because they always had their feet covered with wolf-skins, to prevent frostbite; alternatively because they had a wolf symbol on their shields.<ref>[https://topostext.org/work/240#la.797 Suda, la.812]</ref>

===Indian===
In the [[Rig Veda]], Ṛjrāśva is blinded by his father as punishment for having given 101 of his family's sheep to a she-wolf, who in turn prays to the [[Ashvins]] to restore his sight.<ref name="murthy">Murthy, K. Krishna''Mythical animals in Indian art'', Abhinav Publications, 1985, {{ISBN|0-391-03287-9}}</ref> Wolves are occasionally mentioned in [[Hindu mythology]]. In the [[Harivamsa]], [[Krishna]], to convince the people of [[Vraja]] to migrate to [[Vṛndāvana]], creates hundreds of wolves from his hairs, which frighten the inhabitants of Vraja into making the journey.<ref>Wilson, Horace Hayman & Hall, Fitzedward ''The Vishńu Puráńa: A System of Hindu Mythology and Tradition'', Trubner, 1868</ref> [[Bhima]], the voracious son of the god [[Vayu]], is described as ''Vṛkodara'', meaning "wolf-stomached".<ref>Wilkins, W. J. ''Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Puranic'', Kessinger Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|0-7661-8881-7}}</ref>

===Iranic===
According to Zoroastrian legends, [[Zoroaster]] as a child was carried by the devs (the gods) to the lair of the she-wolf, in expectation that the savage beast would kill it; but she accepted it among her own cubs, and Vahman brought an ewe (female sheep) to the den which suckled it. (It was impossible in the Zoroastrian legend for the wolf herself to give milk to the infant, since wolves are regarded as daevic creatures.) <ref>{{cite book |last1=Mary |first1=Boyce |title=A history of Zoroastrianism |date=1989 |publisher=E.J. Brill |isbn=9789004088474 |page=279}}</ref>
According to the [[Avesta]], the [[sacred text]] of the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]]s, wolves are a creation from the 'darkness' of the evil spirit [[Ahriman]], and are ranked among the most cruel of animals.<ref>''[[Yasna]]'', ix. 18–21</ref> and belong to the ''[[daevas]]''. The ''[[Bundahishn]]'', which is a [[Middle Persian]] text on the Zoroastrian creation myth, has a chapter dedicated to the 'nature of wolves' as seen in Zoroastrian mythology and belief.

[[Wusun]]s, an Indo-European<ref name="Sinor153">{{harvnb|Sinor|1990|p=153}}</ref> semi-nomadic steppe people of [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] origin,<ref name="Kusmina">{{harvnb|Kusmina|2007|pp=78, 83}}</ref> had a legend that after their king Nandoumi was killed by [[Yuezhi]], another Indo-European people, Nandoumi's infant son Liejiaomi was left in the wild and He was miraculously saved from hunger being suckled by a she-wolf, and fed meat by ravens.<ref name="FH215">{{harvnb|François|Hulsewé|1979|p=215}}</ref><ref>[http://ctext.org/dictionary.pl?if=en&id=9036 Shiji 《史記·大宛列傳》] '''Original text''': 匈奴攻殺其父，而昆莫生棄於野。烏嗛肉蜚其上，狼往乳之。</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Beckwith|2009|p=6}}</ref><ref name="Watson237">{{harvnb|Watson|1993|pp=237–238}}</ref>

=== Roman ===
In [[Roman mythology]] wolves are mainly associated to [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]], god of war and agriculture. The [[Capitoline Wolf]] nurses [[Romulus and Remus]], sons of Mars and future founders of [[Rome]]. The twin babies were ordered to be killed by their great uncle [[Amulius]]. The servant ordered to kill them, however, relented and placed the two on the banks of the [[Tiber river]]. The river, which was in flood, rose and gently carried the cradle and the twins downstream, where under the protection of the river deity [[Tiberinus (god)|Tiberinus]], they would be adopted by a she-wolf known as ''Lupa'' in [[Latin]], an animal sacred to [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]]. As a consequence, the [[Italian wolf]] is the [[list of national animals|national animal]] of the modern [[Italy|Italian Republic]].

In Antiquity, the she-wolf was identified as a symbol of Rome by both the Romans themselves and nations under the Roman rule. The ''Lupa Romana'' was an iconic scene that represented in the first place the idea of ''romanitas'', being Roman. When it was used in the [[Roman Province]]s, it can be seen as an expression of loyalty to Rome and the emperor.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rissanen |first1=Mika |title=The Lupa Romana in the Roman provinces |journal=Acta Archaeologica |date=December 2014 |volume=65 |issue=2 |pages=335–360 |id={{Gale|A458953352}} |doi=10.1556/AArch.65.2014.2.4 |url=http://real.mtak.hu/52338/1/aarch.65.2014.2.4.pdf }}</ref>

The treatment given to wolves differed from the treatment meted out to other large predators. The Romans generally seem to have refrained from intentionally harming wolves. For instance, they were not hunted for pleasure (but only in order to protect herds that were out at pasture), and not displayed in the [[venatio]]nes, either. The special status of the wolf was not based on national ideology, but rather was connected to the religious importance of the wolf to the Romans.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rissanen |first1=Mika |title=Was There a Taboo on Killing Wolves in Rome? |journal=Quaderni Urbinati di Cultura Classica |date=2014 |volume=107 |issue=2 |pages=125–147 |doi=10.1400/229735 |jstor=24645268 }}</ref>

The comedian [[Plautus]] used the image of wolves to ponder the cruelty of [[homo homini lupus|man as a wolf unto man]].

"[[Lupus (name)|Lupus]]" (Wolf) was used as a Latin first name and as a [[List of Roman cognomina#L|Roman cognomen]].

===Slavic===
The [[Slavic languages]] share a term for "[[werewolf]]" derived from a [[Common Slavic]] ''vuko-dlak'' "wolf-furr".

The wolf as a mythological creature is greatly linked to Balkan and [[Serbian mythology]] and cults.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sis7AQAAIAAJ|page=257|quote=Вук као митска животиња дубо- ко је везан за балканску и српску митологију и култове. Заправо, то је животиња која је била распрострањена у јужнословенским крајевима и која је представљала сталну опасност како за стоку ...|title=Maske, maskiranje i rituali u Srbiji|isbn=9788675585572|last1=Marjanović|first1=Vesna|year=2005|publisher=Чигоја штампа }}</ref> It has an important part in Serbian mythology.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=780NAAAAIAAJ|page=221|quote=Тако стоји и еа осталим атрибутима деспота Вука. По- зната је ствар, да и вук (животиња) има зпатну уло- I у у митологији|title=Brankovo kolo za zabavu, pouku i književnost|year=1910}}</ref> In the [[Slavic mythology|Slavic]], old Serbian religion and mythology, the wolf was used as a [[totem]].<ref>{{cite book|quote=У старој српској ре- лигији и митологији вук је био табуирана и тотемска животиња.}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=May 2019}} In the [[Serbian epic poetry]], the wolf is a symbol of fearlessness.<ref name=miklosich>{{Cite journal| last=Miklosich| first=Franz| author-link=Franz Miklosich| year=1860| title=Die Bildung der slavischen Personennamen| publisher=Aus der kaiserlich-königlichen Hoff- und Staatdruckerei| place=Vienna| language=de| pages=44–45}}</ref> [[Vuk Karadžić]], 19th-century [[Serbs|Serbian]] philologist and ethnographer, explained the traditional, [[apotropaic]] use of the name [[Vuk (name)|Vuk]] ("wolf"): a woman who had lost several babies in succession, would name her newborn son Vuk, because it was believed that the witches, who "ate" the babies, were afraid to attack the wolves.<ref>{{Cite journal| last=Karadžić| first=Vuk Stefanović| author-link=Vuk Stefanović Karadžić| year=1852| script-title=sr:Српски рјечник| publisher=Typis congregationis mechitaristicae| place=Vienna| language=sr| page=[http://scc.digital.nb.rs/view/S–II–0473&p=048 78]}}</ref>

==Japanese==
[[Raijū]] ("thunder beast") is a god from the Shinto religion. It is attributed with causing thunder, along with Raijin, who causes lightning. While Raijū is generally calm and harmless, during thunderstorms it becomes agitated, and leaps about in trees, fields, and even buildings.

In another Japanese myth, Grain farmers once worshiped wolves at shrines and left food offerings near their dens, beseeching them to protect their crops from wild boars and deer.<ref name="w132">{{Harvnb|Walker|2005|p=132}}</ref> Talismans and charms adorned with images of wolves were thought to protect against fire, disease, and other calamities and brought fertility to agrarian communities and to couples hoping to have children. The [[Ainu people]] believed that they were born from the union of a wolf like creature and a goddess.<ref name="AINU">{{cite book | author = Walker, Brett L. | title = The Lost Wolves Of Japan | year = 2005 | isbn = 0-295-98492-9 | page = 331| publisher = University of Washington Press }}</ref>

[[Japanese wolf#Culture|Ōkami]] is wolf spirit along Shinto religion with pet Amaterasu

==Turkic==

In the [[Turkic mythology|mythology of the Turkic peoples]], the wolf is a revered animal. In the [[Turkic mythology]], wolves were believed to be the ancestors of their people.<ref>Wink, André (2002). ''Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World''. Brill Academic Publishers, p. 65. {{ISBN|0-391-04173-8}}.</ref><ref name="w83">{{Harvnb|Walker|2005|pp=83–84}}</ref> The legend of [[Ashina tribe|Ashina]] is an old Turkic myth that tells of how the Turkic people were created. In Northern China a small Turkic village was raided by Chinese soldiers, but one small baby was left behind. An old she-wolf with a sky-blue mane named Ashina found the baby and nursed him, then the she-wolf gave birth to half-wolf, half-human cubs, from whom the Turkic people were born. Also in Turkic mythology it is believed that a gray wolf showed the Turks the way out of their legendary homeland ''[[Ergenekon (legendary place)|Ergenekon]]'', which allowed them to spread and conquer their neighbours.<ref>[http://www.byegm.gov.tr/yayinlarimiz/kitaplar/turkiye2003/content/english/434-435.htm Cultural Life – Literature] Turkey Interactive CD-ROM. Retrieved on 2007-08-11.</ref><ref>T.C. Kultur Bakanligi. [http://www.discoverturkey.com/english/kultursanat/h-nevruz.html Nevruz Celebrations in Turkey and Central Asia.] Ministry of Culture, Republic of Turkey. Retrieved on 2007-08-11,</ref>

==Mongolian==

In the ''[[Secret History of the Mongols]]'', the Mongol peoples are said to have descended from the mating of a doe (''gua maral'') and a wolf (''boerte chino'').<ref>Монголын нууц товчоо</ref> In modern Mongolia, the wolf is still seen as a good luck symbol, especially for males. In Mongolian [[folk medicine]], eating the [[intestine]]s of a wolf is said to alleviate chronic indigestion, while sprinkling food with powdered wolf [[rectum]] is said to cure [[hemorrhoids]].<ref name="GK">{{cite book | author = Severin, Tim| title = In Search of Genghis Khan: An Exhilarating Journey on Horseback Across the Steppes of Mongolia | year = 2003 | isbn = 0-8154-1287-8 | page = 280| publisher = Cooper Square Press }}</ref> Mongol mythology explains the wolf's occasional habit of [[surplus killing]] by pointing to their traditional creation story. It states that when God explained to the wolf what it should and should not eat, he told it that it may eat one sheep out of 1,000. The wolf however misunderstood and thought God said kill 1,000 sheep and eat one.<ref name="MONGWOLF">{{cite web |author = Jasper Becker| url = http://www.mongoliatoday.com/issue/5/wolf_jasper.html| title = Outlaw or Hunting Wolves | publisher = Mongolia Today | access-date = 2007-09-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070916170648/http://www.mongoliatoday.com/issue/5/wolf_jasper.html |archive-date=September 16, 2007}}</ref>

==Arctic and North America==
In most Native American cultures, wolves are considered a medicine being associated with courage, strength, loyalty, and success at hunting.<ref name="native-languages.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.native-languages.org/legends-wolf.htm|title=Native American Indian Wolf Legends, Meaning and Symbolism from the Myths of Many Tribes|website=www.native-languages.org|access-date=23 April 2018}}</ref>

===Arctic and Canada===
[[File:Casco y collera de lobo tlingit (M. América, Madrid) 01.jpg|thumb|Helmet and collar representing a wolf, at the [[Museum of the Americas (Madrid)|Museum of the Americas]] in [[Madrid]]. Made of wood, shell and made in the 18th century by tlingit indigenous people, from the North American Pacific Northwest Coast. Tlingit people admired and feared wolves for their strength and ferocity.]]

Wolves were generally revered by [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Aboriginal Canadian]]s that survived by hunting, but were thought little of by those that survived through agriculture. Some [[Alaska Natives]] including the [[Nunamiut]] of both northern and northwestern [[Alaska]] respected the wolf's hunting skill and tried to emulate the wolf in order to hunt successfully. First Nations such as [[Naskapi]] as well as [[Squamish people|Squamish]] and [[Lil'wat First Nation|Lil'wat]] view the wolf as a daytime hunting guide.<ref name="SAM">{{cite book | author = Lopez, Barry | title = Of wolves and men | year = 1978 | isbn = 0-7432-4936-4 | page = 320| publisher = Simon and Schuster }}</ref> The Naskapis believed that the [[caribou]] afterlife is guarded by giant wolves that kill careless hunters who venture too near. The [[Netsilik Inuit]] and [[Inuit|Takanaluk-arnaluk]] believed that the seawoman Nuliayuk's home was guarded by wolves. Wolves were feared by the [[Tsilhqot'in]], who believed that contact with wolves would result in nervous illness or death.<ref name="WOLVES">{{cite book | author= L. David Mech & Luigi Boitani | title=Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation | year=2001 | page= 448 | publisher=University of Chicago Press | isbn= 0-226-51696-2 }}</ref> The [[Dena'ina people|Dena'ina]] believed wolves were once men, and viewed them as brothers.<ref name="m292">{{Harvnb|Mech|Boitani|2003|p=292}}</ref>

===United States===
Wolves are important figures in a number of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] cultures, with the wolf's dedication to its pack, in particular, inspiring many of the beliefs and symbolism associated with them.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Wollert|first1=Edward|title=Wolves in Native American Religion|url=http://www.wolfsongalaska.org/chorus/node/179|website=Wolf Song Alaska|access-date=March 27, 2017}}</ref>

The [[Cheyenne|Tsitsista (Cheyenne)]], [[Lakota people|Lakota]], [[Dakota people|Dakota]], [[Blackfoot Confederacy|Siksikaitsitapi (Blackfoot)]], [[Assiniboine]], [[Arikara]], [[Arapaho]], [[Osage Nation|Osage]], [[Shoshone]], and [[Pawnee people|Pawnee]] all tell stories of wolves as role models who taught people how to hunt. Many of the stories involve mutual support between people and wolves. Several of these tribes have warrior groups named after wolves. The Tsitsista call wolves the masters of the grasslands and protectors of all animals; hunters would call wolves to share their kill in the same manner that a wolf calls upon the raven, fox, and coyote to share. The Siksikaitsitapi consider wolves to be friends with humans, and believe against shooting them.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fogg |first1=Brandy R. |last2=Howe |first2=Nimachia |last3=Pierotti |first3=Raymond |title=Relationships Between Indigenous American Peoples and Wolves 1: Wolves as Teachers and Guides |journal=Journal of Ethnobiology |date=July 2015 |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=262–285 |doi=10.2993/etbi-35-02-262-285.1 |s2cid=86236996 }}</ref> In Pawnee spiritual stories, the wolf was the first creature to experience death.<ref name="l133">{{Harvnb|Lopez|1978|p=133}}</ref>

The [[Lenape]] have three major clans, one of which is the Wolf clan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Clan System – Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape Tribal Nation |url=https://nlltribe.com/clan-system/ |access-date=2023-03-27 |language=en}}</ref>

Mexican wolves and related subspecies are important to many tribes in the [[Southwestern United States]], including the [[Apache]],[[Akimel O'odham|Akimel O'odham/Pima]], [[Navajo|Diné/Navajo]], [[Hopi]], and [[Havasupai]]. Several of these tribes have traditional stories, names and rituals associated with wolves.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ba'cho |url=https://www.arizonahighways.com/article/bacho |access-date=2024-03-25 |website=Arizona Highways |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |id={{ProQuest|1020132667}} |last1=Rinkevich |first1=Sarah E |date=2012 |title=An assessment of abundance, diet, and cultural significance of Mexican gray wolves in Arizona }}{{pn|date=March 2024}}</ref> ''Further information'': {{Section link|Mexican wolf|History}}

=== Mexico ===
[[Mexican wolf|Mexican wolves]] were importantly symbolic in [[Teotihuacan]] and other [[Pre-Columbian Mexico|Pre-Columbian Mexican]] cultures. They were considered representative of the Sun, war, and the god [[Xolotl]].<ref>{{cite book |first1=Raúl |last1=Valadez |first2=Bernardo |last2=Rodríguez |first3=Linda |last3=Manzanilla |first4=Samuel |last4=Tejeda |chapter=Dog-wolf Hybrid Biotype Reconstruction from the Archaeological City of Teotihuacan in Prehispanic Central Mexico |pages=121–131 |editor1-last=Snyder |editor1-first=L. |title=Dogs and People in Social, Working, Economic or Symbolic Interaction |date=2016 |publisher=Oxbow Books |isbn=978-1-78570-428-4 }}</ref>

==Abrahamic traditions==

=== Judaism ===
In the [[Hebrew Bible|Tanakh]] (Hebrew Bible), the wolf symbolizes the [[Tribe of Benjamin|Israelite Tribe of Benjamin]]. This symbol originates from Genesis 49:27, when the [[Jacob|patriarch Jacob]] [[Blessing of Jacob|blesses]] his youngest son: "[[Benjamin]] is a ravenous wolf; In the morning he consumes the foe, And in the evening he divides the spoil.” This symbolism has been interpreted by scholars to reference such attributes as the tribe's fearless and often warlike nature ([[Judges 21]]), and to refer to some notable victorious members of the Tribe, such as [[Saul|King Saul]] and [[Mordecai]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Genesis 49:27 |url=https://www.sefaria.org/Genesis.49.27?ven=The_Contemporary_Torah,_Jewish_Publication_Society,_2006&lang=bi&with=Commentary&lang2=en |access-date=2023-02-23 |website=www.sefaria.org}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite book |doi=10.4324/9781003004035-5 |chapter=A Brotherhood of Wolves |title=Animals and Their Children in Victorian Culture |date=2019 |last1=Katzir |first1=Lindsay |last2=Katzir |first2=Brandon |pages=66–86 |isbn=978-1-003-00403-5 }}</ref> The [[Temple in Jerusalem]] was traditionally said to be partly in the territory of the Tribe of Benjamin (but mostly in that of [[Tribe of Judah|Judah]]), and some traditional interpretations of the Blessing consider the ''ravenous wolf'' to refer to the Temple's altar which devoured [[Korban|biblical sacrifices]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gottheil |first=Richard |title="Benjamin," in the Jewish Encyclopedia. |year=1906}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Twersky |first1=Geula |title=Genesis 49: The foundation of Israelite monarchy and priesthood |journal=Journal for the Study of the Old Testament |date=March 2019 |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=317–333 |doi=10.1177/0309089217720625 }}</ref> The wolf has appeared as a literary and illustrated symbol for the Tribe of Benjamin across [[Judaism|Jewish]], [[Samaritans|Samaritan]], and [[Christianity|Christian]] artwork - including in [[Place of worship|places of worship]], [[Bible|bibles]], and [[Siddur|prayer books]] - for centuries.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1163/9789004405271_012 |chapter=The Twelve Tribes of Israel: From Biblical Symbolism to Emblems of a Mythical Promised Land |title=Secularizing the Sacred |date=2019 |last1=Mishory |first1=Alec |pages=209–243 |isbn=978-90-04-40527-1 }}</ref>

In the [[Book of Isaiah|Book of Yeshayahu (Isaiah)]] (11:6), the prophet predicts that in the utopian [[Messianic Age]], "The wolf shall dwell with the lamb, The leopard lie down with the kid; The calf, the beast of prey, and the fatling together, With a little boy to herd them."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Isaiah 11:6 |url=https://www.sefaria.org/Isaiah.11.6?ven=Tanakh:_The_Holy_Scriptures,_published_by_JPS&lang=bi&with=Commentary%20ConnectionsList&lang2=en |access-date=2023-02-23 |website=www.sefaria.org}}</ref>

Wolves in the Tanakh and other [[Jewish literature]] are often portrayed as predators of livestock, other wildlife, and occasionally, humans.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Wolves {{!}} Texts & Source Sheets from Torah, Talmud and Sefaria's library of Jewish sources. |url=https://www.sefaria.org/topics/wolves?tab=sources |access-date=2023-02-24 |website=www.sefaria.org}}</ref> The prophet [[Jeremiah]] (5:6) warns that "The wolf of the desert ravages them" as a divine punishment against [[Jewish views on sin|transgressors]]. [[Rashi]] interprets this wolf as a representation of the antagonistic [[Medes|Kingdom of Media]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jeremiah 5:6 |url=https://www.sefaria.org/Jeremiah.5.6?lang=bi&with=Rashi&lang2=en |access-date=2023-02-23 |website=www.sefaria.org}}</ref>

Medieval Jewish [[Jewish folklore|folklorist]] [[Berechiah ha-Nakdan]] wrote about wolves extensively as characters in his [[Mishlè Shu'alim]] (Fox Fables).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Natronai (ha-Nakdan) |first=Berechiah ben |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s6EjsopJmp4C&q=wolf |title=Fables of a Jewish Aesop |date=2001 |publisher=David R. Godine Publisher |isbn=978-1-56792-131-1 |language=en}}</ref> Late Victorian [[British Jews|Anglo-Jewish]] stories, such as those by [[Israel Zangwill]] and [[Samuel Gordon (novelist)|Samuel Gordon]], sympathetically liken the close-knit, dispersed, and [[Antisemitism in Europe|persecuted Jewish community]] to Europe's wolves; loyal, family-oriented animals that had been [[Wolf hunting|killed]] and stereotyped unjustly due to prejudice from a Christian-majority Europe. The authors specifically focus on Jewish brotherhood in comparison to wolves' pack dedication.<ref name=":0" />

The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Yiddish]] words for wolf, [[Ze'ev]] (זְאֵב) and [[Velvel]] (װעלװעל), are historically common first names for [[Jews]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gorr |first=Rabbi Shmuel |title=Popular Jewish (Hebrew) Boy Names |url=https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/3825225/jewish/Popular-Jewish-Hebrew-Boy-Names.htm |website=Chabad.org}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

===Christianity===
[[File:Immanuelskirken Copenhagen mosaic.jpg|thumb|A mosaic on the entrance of a Church in [[Denmark]] depicting the [[The Good Shepherd (Christianity)|Good Shepherd]] protecting a lamb from a wolf]]

The [[Bible]] contains 13 references to wolves, usually as metaphors for greed and destructiveness. In the [[New Testament]], [[Jesus]] is quoted to have used wolves as illustrations to the dangers His followers would have faced should they follow him (Matthew 10:16, Acts 20:29, Matthew 7:15)<ref name="BOTF">{{cite book | author=Bright, Michael | title=Beasts of the Field: The Revealing Natural History of Animals in the Bible | year=2006 | isbn=1-86105-831-4 | page=[https://archive.org/details/beastsoffieldrev0000brig/page/346 346] | publisher=Pavilion Books | url=https://archive.org/details/beastsoffieldrev0000brig/page/346 }}</ref>

[[File:Gustave Doré - Dante Alighieri - Inferno - Plate 4 (Dante meets Virgil).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Virgil]] leads [[Dante]] away from the she-wolf in ''Inferno'' Canto 1 lines 87-88 as drawn by [[Gustave Doré]], 1861]]

The [[Book of Genesis]] was interpreted in Medieval Europe as stating that nature exists solely to support man (Genesis 1:29), who must cultivate it (Genesis 2:15), and that animals are made for his own purposes (Genesis 2:18–20).
The wolf is repeatedly mentioned in the scriptures as an enemy of flocks: a metaphor for evil men with a lust for power and dishonest gain, as well as a metaphor for Satan preying on innocent God-fearing Christians, contrasted with the shepherd Jesus who keeps his flock safe.{{citation needed|date=December 2013}} The [[Roman Catholic Church]] often used the negative imagery of wolves to create a sense of real devils prowling the real world.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} Quoting from [[Leviticus]] and [[Deuteronomy]], the ''[[Malleus Maleficarum]]'' states that wolves are either agents of [[God]] sent to punish sinners, or agents of the [[Satan|Devil]] sent with God's blessing to harass true believers to test their faith.<ref name="SAM" />

However, legends surrounding [[Saint Francis of Assisi]] show him befriending a wolf.<ref name="SAM"/> According to the ''[[Fioretti]]'', the city of [[Gubbio]] was besieged by the [[Wolf of Gubbio]], which devoured both livestock and men. [[Francis of Assisi]], who was living in Gubbio at the time took pity on the townsfolk, and went up into the hills to find the wolf. Soon fear of the animal had caused all his companions to flee, but the saint pressed on and when he found the wolf he made the sign of the cross and commanded the wolf to come to him and hurt no one. Miraculously the wolf closed his jaws and lay down at the feet of St. Francis. "Brother Wolf, you do much harm in these parts and you have done great evil ..." said Francis. "All these people accuse you and curse you... But brother wolf, I would like to make peace between you and the people." Then Francis led the wolf into the town, and surrounded by startled citizens he made a pact between them and the wolf. Because the wolf had "done evil out of hunger" the townsfolk were to feed the wolf regularly, and in return, the wolf would no longer prey upon them or their flocks. In this manner Gubbio was freed from the menace of the predator. Francis, ever the lover of animals, even made a pact on behalf of the town dogs, that they would not bother the wolf again.

In Canto I of [[Dante]]'s ''[[Divine Comedy|Inferno]]'', the pilgrim encounters a she-wolf blocking the path to a hill bathed in light. The she-wolf represents the sins of [[concupiscence]] and [[incontinence (philosophy)|incontinence]]. She is prophecised by the shade of [[Virgil]] to one day be sent to [[Hell]] by a greyhound.

Much of the symbolism [[Jesus]] used in the [[New Testament]] revolved around the pastoral culture of Israel, and explained his relationship with his followers as analogous to that of a [[good shepherd]] protecting his flock from wolves. An innovation in the popular image of wolves started by Jesus includes the concept of the [[The Wolf in Sheep's Clothing|wolf in sheep's clothing]], which warns people against [[false prophet]]s.<ref name="marvin43">{{Harvnb|Marvin|2012|pp=43–45}}</ref> Several authors have proposed that Jesus's portrayal of wolves, comparing them to dangerous and treacherous people, was an important development in perceptions on the species, which legitimized centuries of subsequent wolf persecution in the [[western world]].<ref name="marvin43" /><ref name="l208">{{Harvnb|Lopez|1978|p=208}}</ref><ref name="m293">{{Harvnb|Mech|Boitani|2003|p=293}}</ref> Subsequent medieval [[Christian literature]] followed and expanded upon Biblical teachings on the wolf. It appeared in the seventh century edition of the ''[[Physiologus]]'', which infused pagan tales with the spirit of Christian moral and mystical teaching. The ''Physiologus'' portrays wolves as being able to strike men dumb on sight, and of having only one [[cervical vertebra]]. [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]] included a she-wolf, representing greed and [[fraud]], in the first [[canto]] of the ''[[Inferno (Dante)|Inferno]]''. The ''[[Malleus Maleficarum]]'', first published in 1487, states that wolves are either agents of [[God]] sent to punish the wicked, or agents of [[Satan]], sent with God's blessing to test the faith of believers.<ref name="l219">{{Harvnb|Lopez|1978|pp=205, 219 & 240}}</ref>

The hagiography of the 16th Century [[Beatification|Blessed]] [[Sebastian de Aparicio]] includes the account that in his youth, his life was saved in a seemingly-miraculous way by a wolf. During an outbreak of the [[bubonic plague]] in his town in 1514, his parents were forced to isolate him from the community in [[quarantine]], and built a hidden shelter for him in the woods, where they left him. While lying there helpless, due to his illness, a she-wolf found the hiding spot and, poking her head into his hiding spot, sniffed and then bit and licked an infected site on his body, before running off. He began to heal from that moment.<ref name=FCC>{{cite journal|url=http://www.bridgeportdiocese.com/index.php/fcc/article/blessed_sebastian_de_aparicio_february_25|journal=Fairfield County Catholic|title=Blessed Sebastián de Aparicio|last=Markey|first=Greg, Father|date=14 February 2013|access-date=25 February 2013}}</ref>

===Islam===
Wolves are mentioned three times in the [[Qur'an]], specifically in the [[Yusuf (sura)|Sura Yusuf]].

12.13: "He said: Surely it grieves me that you should take him off, and I fear lest the wolf devour him while you are heedless of him."

12.14: "They said: Surely if the wolf should devour him notwithstanding that we are a (strong) company, we should then certainly be losers."

12.17: "They said: O our father! Surely we went off racing and left Yusuf by our goods, so the wolf devoured him, and you will not believe us though we are truthful."

== Modern folklore, literature and pop culture ==
{{further|Wolves in fiction}}
The popular image of the wolf is significantly influenced by the [[Big Bad Wolf]] stereotype from [[Aesop's Fables]] and [[Grimm's Fairy Tales]].
The Christian symbolism where the wolf represents the devil, or evil, being after the "sheep" who are the [[ecclesia militans|living faithful]], is found frequently in western literature.
In Milton's ''[[Lycidas]]'' the theological metaphor is made explicit:
:"The hungry Sheep look up, and are not fed / But swoln with wind, and the rank mist they draw / Rot inwardly and foul contagian spread: Besides what the grim Woolf with privy paw / Daily devours apace"

The wolf in the Scandinavian tradition as either representing the [[warrior]] or protector, sometimes combined with the Christian symbolism as the wolf representing evil or the devil, came to be a popular attribute in the [[heavy metal music]] subculture, used by bands such as [[Powerwolf]], [[Sonata Arctica]], [[Marduk (band)|Marduk]], [[Watain]], [[Wintersun]], and [[Wolf (band)|Wolf]].

Wolves are a popular species of choice for an individual's "fursona" in the [[furry fandom]].

Many recent animated films have portrayed wolves in a sympathetic light, such as [[Balto (film)|Balto]], [[Princess Mononoke]], [[The Secret of Kells]], and  [[Wolfwalkers]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ebert |first=Roger |title=Balto movie review & film summary (1995) {{!}} Roger Ebert |url=https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/balto-1995 |access-date=2023-09-09 |website=www.rogerebert.com/ |language=en}}</ref> Princess Mononoke and Wolfwalkers both feature wolves in a spiritual guardian role as well as an ecological one, protecting their respective forests from human encroachment.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ebert |first=Roger |title=Princess Mononoke movie review (1999) {{!}} Roger Ebert |url=https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/princess-mononoke-1999 |access-date=2023-09-09 |website=www.rogerebert.com/ |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Tallerico |first=Brian |title=Wolfwalkers movie review & film summary (2020) {{!}} Roger Ebert |url=https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/wolfwalkers-movie-review-2020 |access-date=2023-09-09 |website=www.rogerebert.com/ |language=en}}</ref> In Walt Disney's [[The Jungle Book (1967 film)|The Jungle Book]] (1967 and [[The Jungle Book (2016 film)|2016]]), the resident wolf pack are portrayed as dedicated and protective parents to the protagonist, Mowgli.

==See also==
* [[Big Bad Wolf]]
* [[Little Red Riding Hood]]
* [[Throw to the wolves]]
* [[Werewolf]]
* [[Wolf of Gubbio]]
* [[Wolves in fiction]]
* [[Wolves in heraldry]]
* [[White Fang]]
* [[Foxes in popular culture]]
* {{section link|African golden wolf|In literature and art}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==

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|year = 1986 |publisher = [[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=978-0226203850}}
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*{{Cite book |last=Marvin |first=Garry |title=Wolf |publisher=Reaktion Books |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-86189-879-1}}
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*{{cite book |last=Watson |first=Burton |author-link=Burton Watson |date=1993 |title=Records of the Grand Historian of China. Han Dynasty II. Chapter 123. The Account of Ta-yüan |location=[[New York City]] |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] }}
*{{cite book|last=Walker |first=Brett L. |year=2005 |title=The Lost Wolves Of Japan |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=978-0-295-98492-6}}
* {{cite book |last = Zambotti|first = Pia Laviosa|title = I Balcani e l'Italia nella Preistoria|year = 1954|language = it|location = Como}}

{{Mammals in culture}}

[[Category:Wolves in folklore, religion and mythology| ]]

[[de:Wolf#Der Wolf in Mythos und Literatur]]