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{{Short description|Genus of gastropods}}
{{Taxobox
{{Automatic taxobox
| image = Phyllodesmium briareum 2.jpg
| image = Phyllodesmium briareum 2.jpg
| image_caption = A live individual of ''[[Phyllodesmium briareum]]'', head end towards the front
| image_caption = A live individual of ''[[Phyllodesmium briareum]]'', head end towards the front
⚫
| synonyms = * ''Ennoia'' <small>Bergh, 1896</small>
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Mollusca]]
| classis = [[Gastropoda]]
| unranked_ordo = clade [[Heterobranchia]]<br/>
clade [[Euthyneura]]<br/>
clade [[Nudipleura]]<br />
clade [[Nudibranchia]]<br />
clade [[Dexiarchia]]<br />
clade [[Cladobranchia]]<br />
clade [[Aeolidida]]
| superfamilia = [[Aeolidioidea]]
| familia = [[Facelinidae]]
| subfamilia = [[Favorininae]]
⚫
| genus = '''''Phyllodesmium'''''
⚫
| genus_authority = [[Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg|Ehrenberg]], 1831 (1828)<ref>[[Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg|Ehrenberg C. G.]] (1831). ''Sym. Phys., Moll.'', sign. h. (plates are from 1828.)</ref>
| synonyms =
⚫
* ''Ennoia'' <small>Bergh, 1896</small>
* ''Myrrhine'' <small>Bergh, 1905</small>
* ''Myrrhine'' <small>Bergh, 1905</small>
| display_parents = 5
⚫
| type_species= ''Phyllodesmium hyalinum'' <small>Ehrenberg, 1831</small>
⚫
| taxon = Phyllodesmium
⚫
| diversity_link = Biodiversity
⚫
| authority = [[Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg|Ehrenberg]], 1831 (1828)<ref>[[Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg|Ehrenberg C. G.]] (1831). ''Sym. Phys., Moll.'', sign. h. (plates are from 1828.)</ref>
| diversity =
⚫
| type_species = ''Phyllodesmium hyalinum'' <small>Ehrenberg, 1831</small>
⚫
25 species (in this list)
⚫
| diversity_link =
⚫
| diversity = 27 species (in this list)
}}
}}


'''''Phyllodesmium''''' is a [[genus]] of [[predatory]] [[sea slug]]s, aeolid [[nudibranch]]s, marine [[gastropod]] [[mollusk]]s in the family [[Facelinidae]]. <ref name="WoRMS"> Bouchet, P. (2012). Phyllodesmium Ehrenberg, 1831. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=204424 on 2012-06-05 </ref>
'''''Phyllodesmium''''' is a [[genus]] of [[predatory]] [[sea slug]]s, aeolid [[nudibranch]]s, marine [[gastropod]] [[mollusc]]s in the family [[Myrrhinidae]].<ref name="WoRMS">Bouchet, P. (2012). ''Phyllodesmium'' Ehrenberg, 1831. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=204424 on 2012-06-05</ref>


These nudibranchs occur in the tropical [[Indo-Pacific]] Oceans.
These nudibranchs occur in the tropical [[Indo-Pacific]] Ocean and warm temperate waters of Japan, Tasmania and South Africa.


The nudibranchs in this genus often show extraordinary [[mimicry]], each species very closely resembling its prey species, which are [[Octocorallia|octocorals]], a kind of [[soft coral]].<ref name="Moore">Moore E. & Gosliner T. (18 August 2009). [http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2009/f/zt02201p048.pdf "Three new species of ''Phyllodesmium'' Ehrenberg (Gastropoda: Nudibranchia: Aeolidoidea), and a revised phylogenetic analysis"]. ''[[Zootaxa]]'' '''2201''': 30–48.</ref>
The nudibranchs in this genus often show extraordinary [[mimicry]], each species very closely resembling its prey species, which are [[Octocorallia|octocorals]], a kind of [[soft coral]].<ref name="Moore">Moore E. & Gosliner T. (18 August 2009). [http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2009/f/zt02201p048.pdf "Three new species of ''Phyllodesmium'' Ehrenberg (Gastropoda: Nudibranchia: Aeolidoidea), and a revised phylogenetic analysis"]. ''[[Zootaxa]]'' '''2201''': 30–48.</ref>


They are also unusual in that they are able to utilize [[zooxanthellae]] from their prey, in a symbiotic relationship that provides them with extra nutrition from [[photosynthesis]], hence they are one of only two groups of '''"solar-powered" sea slugs"''' (also see the [[Sacoglossa]]).
Some of the species are also unusual in that they are able to utilize [[zooxanthellae]] from their prey, in a symbiotic relationship that provides them with extra nutrition from [[photosynthesis]], hence they are commonly called '''"solar-powered" sea slugs''' (also see the [[Sacoglossa]]).<ref name=SSF2 />

⚫
[[File:Phyllodesmium crypticum.jpg|left|thumb|''[[Phyllodesmium crypticum]]'']]
⚫
[[File:Phyllodesmium kabiranum.jpg|left|thumb|''[[Phyllodesmium kabiranum]]'']]
⚫
[[File:Phyllodesmium longicirrum.jpg|left|thumb|''[[Phyllodesmium longicirrum]]'']]
[[File:Phyllodesmium serratum.jpg|left|thumb|''[[Phyllodesmium serratum]]'']]


== Species ==
== Species ==
Species within the genus ''Phyllodesmium'' include:
Species within the genus ''Phyllodesmium'' include:
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* ''[[Phyllodesmium acanthorhinum]]'' Moore & Gosliner, 2014
* ''[[Phyllodesmium briareum]]'' (Bergh, 1896)
* ''[[Phyllodesmium briareum]]'' (Bergh, 1896)
* ''[[Phyllodesmium colemani]]'' Rudman, 1991<ref name="Rudman1991"/>
* ''[[Phyllodesmium colemani]]'' Rudman, 1991<ref name="Rudman1991"/>
* ''[[Phyllodesmium crypticum]]'' Rudman, 1981<ref name="Rudman 1981">Rudman W. B. (1981). "The anatomy and biology of alconarian-feeding aeolid opistobranch molluscs and their development of symbiosis with zooxanthellae". ''[[Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society]]'' '''72'''(3): 219-262. {{doi|10.1111/j.1096-3642.1981.tb01571.x}}.</ref>
* ''[[Phyllodesmium crypticum]]'' Rudman, 1981<ref name="Rudman1981">Rudman W. B. (1981). "The anatomy and biology of alcyonarian-feeding aeolid opisthobranch molluscs and their development of symbiosis with zooxanthellae". ''[[Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society]]'' '''72'''(3): 219-262. {{doi|10.1111/j.1096-3642.1981.tb01571.x}}.</ref>
* ''[[Phyllodesmium fastuosum]]'' Ehrenberg, 1831
* ''[[Phyllodesmium guamense]]'' Avila, Ballesteros, Slattery, Starmer & Paul, 1998<ref>Avila C., Ballesteros M., Slattery M., Starmer J. & Paul V. J. (1998). "''Phyllodesmium guamensis'' (Nudibranchia: Aeolidoidea), a new species from [[Guam]] (Micronesia)". ''[[Journal of Molluscan Studies]]'' '''64''': 147–160. [http://mollus.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/64/2/147 abstract].</ref>
* ''[[Phyllodesmium guamense]]'' C. Ávila, Ballesteros, Slattery, Starmer & Paul, 1998<ref>Avila C., Ballesteros M., Slattery M., Starmer J. & Paul V. J. (1998). "''Phyllodesmium guamensis'' (Nudibranchia: Aeolidoidea), a new species from [[Guam]] (Micronesia)". ''[[Journal of Molluscan Studies]]'' '''64''': 147–160. [https://web.archive.org/web/20061003224423/http://mollus.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/64/2/147 abstract].</ref>
* ''[[Phyllodesmium horridum]]'' (Macnae, 1954)
* ''[[Phyllodesmium horridum]]'' (Macnae, 1954)
* ''[[Phyllodesmium hyalinum]]'' (Ehrenberg, 1831) - type species<ref name="Burghardt 2004"/>
* ''[[Phyllodesmium hyalinum]]'' (Ehrenberg, 1831) - type species<ref name="Burghardt 2004"/>
Line 53: Line 38:
* ''[[Phyllodesmium koehleri]]'' Burghardt, Schrödl & Wägele, 2008<ref name="Burghardt2008"/>
* ''[[Phyllodesmium koehleri]]'' Burghardt, Schrödl & Wägele, 2008<ref name="Burghardt2008"/>
* ''[[Phyllodesmium lembehense]]'' Burghardt, Schrödl & Wägele, 2008<ref name="Burghardt2008"/>
* ''[[Phyllodesmium lembehense]]'' Burghardt, Schrödl & Wägele, 2008<ref name="Burghardt2008"/>
* ''[[Phyllodesmium lizardense]]'' Burghardt, Schrödl & Wägele, 2008<ref name="Burghardt2008">Burghardt I., Schrödl M. & Wägele H. (2008). "Three new solar-powered species of the genus ''Phyllodesmium'' Ehrenberg, 1831 (Mollusca: Nudibranchia: Aeolidioidea) from the tropical Indo-Pacific, with analysis of their photosynthetic activity and notes on biology". ''[[Journal of Molluscan Studies]]'' '''74'''(3): 277-292. {{doi|10.1093/mollus/eyn016}}, [http://mollus.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/74/3/277 abstract].</ref>
* ''[[Phyllodesmium lizardense]]'' Burghardt, Schrödl & Wägele, 2008<ref name="Burghardt2008">Burghardt I., Schrödl M. & Wägele H. (2008). "Three new solar-powered species of the genus ''Phyllodesmium'' Ehrenberg, 1831 (Mollusca: Nudibranchia: Aeolidioidea) from the tropical Indo-Pacific, with analysis of their photosynthetic activity and notes on biology". ''[[Journal of Molluscan Studies]]'' '''74'''(3): 277-292. {{doi|10.1093/mollus/eyn016}}, [https://archive.today/20130415160542/http://mollus.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/74/3/277 abstract].</ref>
* ''[[Phyllodesmium longicirrum]]'' (Bergh, 1905)
* ''[[Phyllodesmium longicirrum]]'' (Bergh, 1905)
* ''[[Phyllodesmium macphersonae]]'' (Burn, 1962)
* ''[[Phyllodesmium macphersonae]]'' (Burn, 1962)
* ''[[Phyllodesmium magnum]]'' Rudman, 1991<ref name="Rudman1991">Rudman W. B. (1991). "Further studies on the taxonomy and biology of the octocoral-feeding genus ''Phyllodesmium'' Ehrenberg, 1831 (Nudibranchia: Aeolidacea)". ''Journal of Molluscan Studies'' '''57'''(2): 167–203. [http://mollus.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/57/2/167 abstract].</ref>
* ''[[Phyllodesmium magnum]]'' Rudman, 1991<ref name="Rudman1991">Rudman W. B. (1991). "Further studies on the taxonomy and biology of the octocoral-feeding genus ''Phyllodesmium'' Ehrenberg, 1831 (Nudibranchia: Aeolidacea)". ''Journal of Molluscan Studies'' '''57'''(2): 167–203. [https://archive.today/20130113144633/http://mollus.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/57/2/167 abstract].</ref>
* ''[[Phyllodesmium opalescens]]'' Rudman, 1991<ref name="Rudman1991"/>
* ''[[Phyllodesmium opalescens]]'' Rudman, 1991<ref name="Rudman1991"/>
⚫
* ''[[Phyllodesmium parangatum]]'' Ortiz & Gosliner, 2003<ref>Ortiz D. M. & Gosliner T. M. (31 July 2003). [https://web.archive.org/web/20210701173412/https://research.calacademy.org/research/scipubs/pdfs/v54/proccas_v54_n09.pdf "A New Species of ''Phyllodesmium'' Ehrenberg, 1831 (Mollusca, Nudibranchia) from the Tropical Indo-Pacific"]. ''[[Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences]]'' '''54'''(9): 161–168, 5 figs.</ref>
⚫
* ''[[Phyllodesmium orientale]]'' Baba, 1991<ref name="Baba 1991"/>
⚫
* ''[[Phyllodesmium pecten]]'' Rudman, 1981<ref name="Rudman1981"/>
⚫
* ''[[Phyllodesmium parangatum]]'' Ortiz & Gosliner, 2003<ref>Ortiz D. M. & Gosliner T. M. (31 July 2003). [http://research.calacademy.org/research/scipubs/pdfs/v54/proccas_v54_n09.pdf "A New Species of ''Phyllodesmium'' Ehrenberg, 1831 (Mollusca, Nudibranchia) from the Tropical Indo-Pacific"]. ''[[Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences]]'' '''54'''(9): 161–168, 5 figs.</ref>
⚫
* ''[[Phyllodesmium pecten]]'' Rudman, 1981<ref name="Rudman 1981"/>
* ''[[Phyllodesmium pinnatum]]'' Moore & Gosliner, 2009<ref name="Moore"/>
* ''[[Phyllodesmium pinnatum]]'' Moore & Gosliner, 2009<ref name="Moore"/>
* ''[[Phyllodesmium poindimiei]]'' (Risbec, 1928)
* ''[[Phyllodesmium poindimiei]]'' (Risbec, 1928)
* ''[[Phyllodesmium rudmani]]'' Burghardt & Gosliner, 2006<ref name="Burghardt 2006">Burghardt I. & Gosliner T. M. (2006). "''Phyllodesmium rudmani'' (Mollusca: Nudibranchia: Aeolidoidea), a new solar powered species from the Indo-West Pacific with data on its symbiosis with zooxanthellae". ''[[Zootaxa]]'' '''1308''': 31-47. [http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2006f/z01308p047f.pdf abstract]. [http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2006/zt01308p047.pdf full PDF]. {{subscription}}</ref>
* ''[[Phyllodesmium rudmani]]'' Burghardt & Gosliner, 2006<ref name="Burghardt 2006">Burghardt I. & Gosliner T. M. (2006). "''Phyllodesmium rudmani'' (Mollusca: Nudibranchia: Aeolidoidea), a new solar powered species from the Indo-West Pacific with data on its symbiosis with zooxanthellae". ''[[Zootaxa]]'' '''1308''': 31-47. [http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2006f/z01308p047f.pdf abstract]. [http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2006/zt01308p047.pdf full PDF]. {{subscription required}}</ref>
* ''[[Phyllodesmium serratum]]'' (Baba, 1949)
* ''[[Phyllodesmium serratum]]'' (Baba, 1949)
* ''[[Phyllodesmium tuberculatum]]'' Moore & Gosliner, 2009<ref name="Moore"/>
* ''[[Phyllodesmium tuberculatum]]'' Moore & Gosliner, 2009<ref name="Moore"/>
* ''[[Phyllodesmium undulatum]]'' Moore & Gosliner, 2014
{{div col end}}

;Species brought into synonymy:
;Species brought into synonymy:
* ''Phyllodesmium xeniae'' Gohar & Aboul-Ela, 1957: synonym of ''Phyllodesmium hyalinum'' Ehrenberg, 1831
* ''Phyllodesmium xeniae'' Gohar & Aboul-Ela, 1957: synonym of ''Phyllodesmium hyalinum'' Ehrenberg, 1831

;Species with unknown placement:
⚫
* ''[[Phyllodesmium orientale]]'' Baba, 1991<ref name="Baba 1991"/>
<gallery mode=packed>
⚫
File:Phyllodesmium crypticum.jpg|''[[Phyllodesmium crypticum]]''
⚫
File:Phyllodesmium kabiranum.jpg|''[[Phyllodesmium kabiranum]]''
⚫
File:Phyllodesmium longicirrum.jpg|''[[Phyllodesmium longicirrum]]''
</gallery>


== Ecology ==
== Ecology ==
[[File:Phyllodesmium briareum and Briareum violacea.jpg|thumb|''[[Phyllodesmium briareum]]'' (one specimen at the bottom of the image) and its food species, the coral ''[[Briareum violaceum]]'' (at the top of the image), showing how closely the nudibranch resembles its food source. It is well camouflaged from predators]]
[[File:Phyllodesmium briareum and Briareum violacea.jpg|thumb|''[[Phyllodesmium briareum]]'' (one specimen at the bottom of the image) and its food species, the coral ''[[Briareum violaceum]]'' (at the top of the image), showing how closely the nudibranch resembles its food source. It camouflages itself well from predators.]]


Species of the genus ''Phyllodesmium'' are [[carnivorous]] and feed on [[octocoral]]s<ref name="Rudman1991"/> (for example in the family [[Xeniidae]]<ref name="Burghardt2008"/>). This is a unique feature within the [[Aeolidida]].<ref name="Rudman1991"/>
Species of the genus ''Phyllodesmium'' are [[carnivorous]] and feed on [[octocoral]]s<ref name="Rudman1991"/> (for example, in the family [[Xeniidae]]<ref name="Burghardt2008"/>). This is a unique feature within the [[Aeolidida]].<ref name="Rudman1991"/>


Some of these nudibranchs contain endo[[symbiotic]] [[zooxanthellae]], which are in effect single-celled plants.<ref name="Rudman1991"/> Zooxanthellae are one kind of [[dinoflagellate]] [[protist]]s and they live only within other organisms, most notably in corals. The nudibranchs in this genus obtain zooxanthellae from their food, the soft corals.<ref name="Rudman1991"/>
Some of these nudibranchs contain [[endosymbiotic]] [[zooxanthellae]], which are in effect single-celled plants.<ref name="Rudman1991"/> Zooxanthellae are one kind of [[dinoflagellate]] [[protist]]s and they live only within other organisms, most notably in corals. The nudibranchs in this genus obtain zooxanthellae from their food, the soft corals.<ref name="Rudman1981"/><ref name="Rudman1991"/>
As they previously did within the corals, the zooxanthellae provide the nudibranch with a supply of food in the form of the products of [[photosynthesis]]. The nudibranchs are able to avoid digesting these protists, and sequester them in their tissues instead. This process is somewhat reminiscent of the relationship between the [[Sacoglossa]]n sea slugs and the living [[chloroplasts]] that they are able to sequester. Both these nudibranchs and the sacoglossans have been referred to as "solar-powered sea slugs".<ref name="Burghardt2008"/>
As they previously did within the corals, the zooxanthellae provide the nudibranch with a supply of food in the form of the products of [[photosynthesis]]. The nudibranchs are able to avoid digesting these protists, and sequester them in their tissues instead. This process is somewhat reminiscent of the relationship between the [[Sacoglossa]]n sea slugs and the living [[chloroplast]]s that they are able to sequester. Both these nudibranchs and the sacoglossans have been referred to as "solar-powered sea slugs".<ref name=SSF2>Rudman, W.B., 1998 (October 11) [http://www.seaslugforum.net/factsheet/solarpow Solar-powered sea slugs.] <nowiki>[In]</nowiki> Sea Slug Forum. Australian Museum, Sydney.</ref><ref name="Burghardt2008"/>


Many other species of nudibranchs are brilliantly colored in order to warn away would-be predators, that is, they have [[aposematic]] coloring. This is because they contain in their tissues many examples of an organ called the [[cnidosac]]<ref>[http://www.seaslugforum.net/factsheet.cfm?base=defcnid ''Aeolid cnidosac'']. Sea Slug Forum, accessed 26 September 2009.</ref> which contains undischarged [[cnidocytes]] (also known as [[nematocyst]]s). These are stinging cells that the nudibranchs obtain from the tissues of the [[cnidaria]]ns they eat. Thus the very brightly colored nudibranchs are quite unpalatabe for predators. Some nudibranchs, such as ''[[Glaucus atlanticus]]'', are even capable of stinging humans very painfully.
Many other species of nudibranchs have [[aposematic]] coloring in order to warn away would-be predators, giving them brilliant colors. This is because they contain in their tissues many examples of an organ called the [[cnidosac]]<ref>[http://www.seaslugforum.net/factsheet.cfm?base=defcnid ''Aeolid cnidosac''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091109140340/http://www.seaslugforum.net/factsheet.cfm?base=defcnid |date=2009-11-09 }}. Sea Slug Forum, accessed 26 September 2009.</ref> which contains undischarged [[cnidocyte]]s (also known as [[nematocyst]]s). These are stinging cells that the nudibranchs obtain from the tissues of the [[cnidaria]]ns they eat. Thus, the very brightly colored nudibranchs are quite unpalatable for predators. Some nudibranchs, such as ''[[Glaucus atlanticus]]'', are even capable of giving humans painful stings.


The nudibranchs in this genus, however, use an opposite tactic. They do not have cnidosacs, and thus they would in reality be palatable to eat for various predators, however they are almost all extremely well camouflaged, so that they resemble almost perfectly the soft coral on which they live and feed, not only in color but also in form. The shape and form of the cerata of the nudibranch in each individual species resembles very closely the tentacles of the species of soft coral polyp on which that species feeds. This excellent camouflage also makes these nudibranchs difficult for humans to notice, and it is likely that a number of species in this genus have not yet been discovered, described and named scientifically.
The nudibranchs in this genus, however, use an opposite tactic. They do not have cnidosacs, and thus they would in reality be palatable to eat for various predators, however they are almost all extremely well camouflaged, so that they resemble almost perfectly the soft coral on which they live and feed, not only in color but also in form. The shape and form of the nudibranch's cerata in each individual species very closely resembles the tentacles of the species of soft coral polyp on which that species feeds. This excellent camouflage also makes these nudibranchs difficult for humans to notice, and it is likely that several species in this genus have not yet been discovered, described, and named scientifically.


Another tactic these nudibranchs use to protect themselves is that when threatened by a predator, they can drop one or more of their [[cerata]]. These organs will wiggle for some time after being cast off, hopefully distracting a predator away from the animal itself.<ref>[http://www.seaslugforum.net/factsheet.cfm?base=phylmagn ''Phyllodesmium magnum Rudman, 1991]. Sea Slug Forum, accessed 26 September 2009.</ref> This is an example of a defensive technique known as [[autotomy]].
Another tactic these nudibranchs use to protect themselves is that when threatened by a predator, they can drop one or more of their [[cerata]]. These organs will wiggle for some time after being cast off, hopefully distracting a predator away from the animal itself.<ref>[http://www.seaslugforum.net/factsheet.cfm?base=phylmagn ''Phyllodesmium magnum Rudman, 1991] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313231558/http://www.seaslugforum.net/factsheet.cfm?base=phylmagn |date=2012-03-13 }}. Sea Slug Forum, accessed 26 September 2009.</ref> This is an example of a defensive technique known as [[autotomy]].


A [[molecular phylogeny]] study of ''Phyllodesmium'' by Moore and Gosliner (2010)<ref name="Moore 2010">Moore E. J. & Gosliner T. M. (in press, available online 20 November 2010). "Molecular phylogeny and evolution of symbiosis in a clade of Indopacific nudibranchs". ''[[Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution]]''<!--ADD VOLUME HERE and then check the year --> {{doi|10.1016/j.ympev.2010.11.008}}. accessed 17 December 2010.</ref> demonstrated that the non-symbiotic species of ''Phyllodesmium'' evolved separately from the symbiotic species of ''Phyllodesmium''.<ref name="Moore 2010"/> However there is one exception: ''[[Phyllodesmium karenae]]'' evolved in the symbiotic clade and subsequently lost its zooxanthellae.<ref name="Moore 2010"/>
A [[molecular phylogeny]] study of ''Phyllodesmium'' by Moore and Gosliner (2011)<ref name="Moore 2011">Moore E. J. & Gosliner T. M. (2011). "Molecular phylogeny and evolution of symbiosis in a clade of Indopacific nudibranchs". ''[[Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution]]'' Volume 58, Issue 1, January 2011, Pages 116–123 {{doi|10.1016/j.ympev.2010.11.008}}. accessed 17 December 2010.</ref> demonstrated that the non-symbiotic species of ''Phyllodesmium'' evolved separately from the symbiotic species of ''Phyllodesmium''.<ref name="Moore 2011"/> However, there is one exception: ''[[Phyllodesmium karenae]]'' evolved in the symbiotic clade and subsequently lost its zooxanthellae.<ref name="Moore 2011"/>


==References==
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Reflist}}


== External links ==
== External links ==
{{commons category|Phyllodesmium}}
* {{Commons category-inline|Phyllodesmium}}
* {{NCBI|219670|''Phyllodesmium''}}


{{Taxonbar|from=Q3901735}}
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[[Category:Facelinidae]]


⚫
[[Category:Myrrhinidae]]
[[it:Phyllodesmium]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg]]

Latest revision as of 17:07, 16 July 2024

Phyllodesmium
A live individual of Phyllodesmium briareum, head end towards the front
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: Gastropoda
Order: Nudibranchia
Clade: Dexiarchia
Suborder: Cladobranchia
Superfamily: Aeolidioidea
Family: Myrrhinidae
Genus: Phyllodesmium
Ehrenberg, 1831 (1828)[1]
Type species
Phyllodesmium hyalinum Ehrenberg, 1831
Diversity
27 species (in this list)
Synonyms
  • Ennoia Bergh, 1896
  • Myrrhine Bergh, 1905

Phyllodesmium is a genus of predatory sea slugs, aeolid nudibranchs, marine gastropod molluscs in the family Myrrhinidae.[2]

These nudibranchs occur in the tropical Indo-Pacific Ocean and warm temperate waters of Japan, Tasmania and South Africa.

The nudibranchs in this genus often show extraordinary mimicry, each species very closely resembling its prey species, which are octocorals, a kind of soft coral.[3]

Some of the species are also unusual in that they are able to utilize zooxanthellae from their prey, in a symbiotic relationship that provides them with extra nutrition from photosynthesis, hence they are commonly called "solar-powered" sea slugs (also see the Sacoglossa).[4]

Species

[edit]

Species within the genus Phyllodesmium include:

Species brought into synonymy
  • Phyllodesmium xeniae Gohar & Aboul-Ela, 1957: synonym of Phyllodesmium hyalinum Ehrenberg, 1831
Species with unknown placement

Ecology

[edit]
Phyllodesmium briareum (one specimen at the bottom of the image) and its food species, the coral Briareum violaceum (at the top of the image), showing how closely the nudibranch resembles its food source. It camouflages itself well from predators.

Species of the genus Phyllodesmium are carnivorous and feed on octocorals[5] (for example, in the family Xeniidae[10]). This is a unique feature within the Aeolidida.[5]

Some of these nudibranchs contain endosymbiotic zooxanthellae, which are in effect single-celled plants.[5] Zooxanthellae are one kind of dinoflagellate protists and they live only within other organisms, most notably in corals. The nudibranchs in this genus obtain zooxanthellae from their food, the soft corals.[6][5] As they previously did within the corals, the zooxanthellae provide the nudibranch with a supply of food in the form of the products of photosynthesis. The nudibranchs are able to avoid digesting these protists, and sequester them in their tissues instead. This process is somewhat reminiscent of the relationship between the Sacoglossan sea slugs and the living chloroplasts that they are able to sequester. Both these nudibranchs and the sacoglossans have been referred to as "solar-powered sea slugs".[4][10]

Many other species of nudibranchs have aposematic coloring in order to warn away would-be predators, giving them brilliant colors. This is because they contain in their tissues many examples of an organ called the cnidosac[13] which contains undischarged cnidocytes (also known as nematocysts). These are stinging cells that the nudibranchs obtain from the tissues of the cnidarians they eat. Thus, the very brightly colored nudibranchs are quite unpalatable for predators. Some nudibranchs, such as Glaucus atlanticus, are even capable of giving humans painful stings.

The nudibranchs in this genus, however, use an opposite tactic. They do not have cnidosacs, and thus they would in reality be palatable to eat for various predators, however they are almost all extremely well camouflaged, so that they resemble almost perfectly the soft coral on which they live and feed, not only in color but also in form. The shape and form of the nudibranch's cerata in each individual species very closely resembles the tentacles of the species of soft coral polyp on which that species feeds. This excellent camouflage also makes these nudibranchs difficult for humans to notice, and it is likely that several species in this genus have not yet been discovered, described, and named scientifically.

Another tactic these nudibranchs use to protect themselves is that when threatened by a predator, they can drop one or more of their cerata. These organs will wiggle for some time after being cast off, hopefully distracting a predator away from the animal itself.[14] This is an example of a defensive technique known as autotomy.

A molecular phylogeny study of Phyllodesmium by Moore and Gosliner (2011)[15] demonstrated that the non-symbiotic species of Phyllodesmium evolved separately from the symbiotic species of Phyllodesmium.[15] However, there is one exception: Phyllodesmium karenae evolved in the symbiotic clade and subsequently lost its zooxanthellae.[15]

References

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  1. ^ Ehrenberg C. G. (1831). Sym. Phys., Moll., sign. h. (plates are from 1828.)
  2. ^ Bouchet, P. (2012). Phyllodesmium Ehrenberg, 1831. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=204424 on 2012-06-05
  3. ^ a b c d Moore E. & Gosliner T. (18 August 2009). "Three new species of Phyllodesmium Ehrenberg (Gastropoda: Nudibranchia: Aeolidoidea), and a revised phylogenetic analysis". Zootaxa 2201: 30–48.
  4. ^ a b Rudman, W.B., 1998 (October 11) Solar-powered sea slugs. [In] Sea Slug Forum. Australian Museum, Sydney.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g Rudman W. B. (1991). "Further studies on the taxonomy and biology of the octocoral-feeding genus Phyllodesmium Ehrenberg, 1831 (Nudibranchia: Aeolidacea)". Journal of Molluscan Studies 57(2): 167–203. abstract.
  6. ^ a b c Rudman W. B. (1981). "The anatomy and biology of alcyonarian-feeding aeolid opisthobranch molluscs and their development of symbiosis with zooxanthellae". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 72(3): 219-262. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1981.tb01571.x.
  7. ^ Avila C., Ballesteros M., Slattery M., Starmer J. & Paul V. J. (1998). "Phyllodesmium guamensis (Nudibranchia: Aeolidoidea), a new species from Guam (Micronesia)". Journal of Molluscan Studies 64: 147–160. abstract.
  8. ^ a b Burghardt I. & Wägele H. (2004). "A new solar powered species of the genus Phyllodesmium Ehrenberg, 1831 (Mollusca: Nudibranchia: Aeolidoidea) from Indonesia with analysis of its photosynthetic activity and notes on biology". Zootaxa 596: 1-18. PDFt.
  9. ^ a b c Baba K. (1991). "Taxonomical study of some species of the genus Phyllodesmium from Cape Muroto-misaki, Shikoku, and Okinawa Province, Southern Japan (Nudibranchia: Facelinidae)". Venus 50(2): 109-124. abstract.
  10. ^ a b c d e Burghardt I., Schrödl M. & Wägele H. (2008). "Three new solar-powered species of the genus Phyllodesmium Ehrenberg, 1831 (Mollusca: Nudibranchia: Aeolidioidea) from the tropical Indo-Pacific, with analysis of their photosynthetic activity and notes on biology". Journal of Molluscan Studies 74(3): 277-292. doi:10.1093/mollus/eyn016, abstract.
  11. ^ Ortiz D. M. & Gosliner T. M. (31 July 2003). "A New Species of Phyllodesmium Ehrenberg, 1831 (Mollusca, Nudibranchia) from the Tropical Indo-Pacific". Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences 54(9): 161–168, 5 figs.
  12. ^ Burghardt I. & Gosliner T. M. (2006). "Phyllodesmium rudmani (Mollusca: Nudibranchia: Aeolidoidea), a new solar powered species from the Indo-West Pacific with data on its symbiosis with zooxanthellae". Zootaxa 1308: 31-47. abstract. full PDF. (subscription required)
  13. ^ Aeolid cnidosac Archived 2009-11-09 at the Wayback Machine. Sea Slug Forum, accessed 26 September 2009.
  14. ^ Phyllodesmium magnum Rudman, 1991 Archived 2012-03-13 at the Wayback Machine. Sea Slug Forum, accessed 26 September 2009.
  15. ^ a b c Moore E. J. & Gosliner T. M. (2011). "Molecular phylogeny and evolution of symbiosis in a clade of Indopacific nudibranchs". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution Volume 58, Issue 1, January 2011, Pages 116–123 doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2010.11.008. accessed 17 December 2010.
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