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Applications: uses in pyroelectric infrared (IR) detectors
 
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| Watchedfields = changed
| Watchedfields = changed
| verifiedrevid = 476994790
| verifiedrevid = 476994790
| ImageFile = Linbo3 Unit Cell.png
| ImageFile = Lithium niobate crystal.jpg
| ImageSize = 150px
| ImageFile1 = File:LiNbO3.png
| ImageFile1 = File:LiNbO3.png
| ImageSize1 =
| ImageSize1 =
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| MolarMass = 147.846 g/mol
| MolarMass = 147.846 g/mol
| Appearance = colorless solid
| Appearance = colorless solid
| Density = 4.65 g/cm<sup>3</sup> <ref name=CT>[https://web.archive.org/web/20061016052556/http://www.crystaltechnology.com/docs/LN_LTAppNote.pdf Spec sheet] of Crystal Technology, Inc.</ref>
| Density = 4.30 g/cm<sup>3</sup><ref name=crc>Haynes, p. 4.70</ref>
| MeltingPtC = 1257
| MeltingPtC = 1240
| MeltingPt_ref = <ref name="CT" />
| MeltingPt_ref = <ref name=crc/>
| BoilingPt =
| BoilingPt =
| Solubility = None
| Solubility = None
| SolubleOther =
| SolubleOther =
| RefractIndex = n<sub>o</sub> 2.30, n<sub>e</sub> 2.21<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.luxpop.com |title=Luxpop |access-date= June 18, 2010}} (Value at ''n''<sub>D</sub>=589.2&nbsp;nm, 25&nbsp;°C.)</ref>
| RefractIndex = n<sub>o</sub> 2.3007, n<sub>e</sub> 2.2116<ref>Haynes, p. 10.250</ref>
| BandGap = 3.77 eV <ref name="Zanatta">{{cite journal |last1=Zanatta |first1=A.R. | title= The optical bandgap of lithium niobate (LiNbO3) and its dependence with temperature |journal=Results Phys. |date=August 2022 |volume=39 |pages=105736–3pp |doi=10.1016/j.rinp.2022.105736 |s2cid=249688492 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
| BandGap = 4 eV
}}
}}
|Section3={{Chembox Structure
|Section3={{Chembox Structure
| Structure_ref=<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1063/1.354572|title=The defect structure of congruently melting lithium niobate |year=1993 |last1=Wilkinson |first1=A. P. |last2=Cheetham |first2=A. K. |last3=Jarman |first3=R. H. |journal=Journal of Applied Physics |volume=74 |issue=5 |pages=3080–3083 |bibcode=1993JAP....74.3080W }}</ref>
| CrystalStruct = [[trigonal]]
| CrystalStruct = [[Trigonal]], [[Pearson symbol|hR30]]
| SpaceGroup = R3c
| SpaceGroup = R3c, No. 161
| PointGroup = 3m (C<sub>3v</sub>)
| PointGroup = 3m (C<sub>3v</sub>)
| LattConst_a = 0.51501 nm
| Coordination =
| LattConst_b = 0.51501 nm
| Dipole =
| LattConst_c = 0.54952 nm
| LattConst_alpha = 62.057
| LattConst_beta = 62.057
| LattConst_gamma = 60
| UnitCellFormulas = 6
}}
}}
|Section4={{Chembox Thermochemistry
|Section4={{Chembox Thermochemistry
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| NFPA-S =
| NFPA-S =
| FlashPt =
| FlashPt =
| LD50 = 8000 mg/kg (oral, rat)<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/rn/12031-63-9 | title=ChemIDplus - 12031-63-9 - PSVBHJWAIYBPRO-UHFFFAOYSA-N - Lithium niobate - Similar structures search, synonyms, formulas, resource links, and other chemical information}}</ref>
| LD50 = 8 g/kg (oral, rat)<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://chem.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/rn/12031-63-9 | title=ChemIDplus 12031-63-9 PSVBHJWAIYBPRO-UHFFFAOYSA-N Lithium niobate Similar structures search, synonyms, formulas, resource links, and other chemical information}}</ref>
}}
}}
|Section8={{Chembox Related
|Section8={{Chembox Related
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}}
}}


'''Lithium niobate''' ({{chem2|auto=1|LiNbO3}}) is a non-naturally-occurring [[Salt (chemistry)|salt]] consisting of [[niobium]], [[lithium]], and [[oxygen]]. Its single crystals are an important material for optical waveguides, mobile phones, piezoelectric sensors, optical modulators and various other linear and non-linear optical applications.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Weis, R. S. |author2=Gaylord, T. K. |title=Lithium Niobate: Summary of Physical Properties and Crystal Structure |journal=Applied Physics A: Materials Science & Processing |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=191–203 |year=1985 |doi=10.1007/BF00614817 |bibcode=1985ApPhA..37..191W |s2cid=97851423 }}</ref> Lithium niobate is sometimes referred to by the brand name '''linobate'''.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Thermally fixed holograms in LiNbO<sub>3</sub> |first1=D.L. |last1=Staebler |first2=J.J. |last2=Amodei |journal=Ferroelectrics |year=1972 |volume=3 |pages=107–113|doi=10.1080/00150197208235297 |s2cid=51674085 }}, seen in {{cite book |title=Landmark Papers On Photorefractive Nonlinear Optics |year=1995 |publisher=World Scientific |page=182 |editor1-first=Pochi |editor1-last=Yeh |editor2-first=Claire |editor2-last=Gu |isbn=9789814502979}}</ref>
'''Lithium niobate''' ({{chem2|auto=1|LiNbO3}}) is a synthetic [[Salt (chemistry)|salt]] consisting of [[niobium]], [[lithium]], and [[oxygen]]. Its single crystals are an important material for optical waveguides, mobile phones, piezoelectric sensors, optical modulators and various other linear and non-linear optical applications.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Weis, R. S. |author2=Gaylord, T. K. |title=Lithium Niobate: Summary of Physical Properties and Crystal Structure |journal=Applied Physics A: Materials Science & Processing |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=191–203 |year=1985 |doi=10.1007/BF00614817 |bibcode=1985ApPhA..37..191W |s2cid=97851423 }}</ref> Lithium niobate is sometimes referred to by the brand name '''linobate'''.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Thermally fixed holograms in LiNbO<sub>3</sub> |first1=D.L. |last1=Staebler |first2=J.J. |last2=Amodei |journal=Ferroelectrics |year=1972 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=107–113|doi=10.1080/00150197208235297 |bibcode=1972Fer.....3..107S |s2cid=51674085 }}, seen in {{cite book |title=Landmark Papers On Photorefractive Nonlinear Optics |year=1995 |publisher=World Scientific |page=182 |editor1-first=Pochi |editor1-last=Yeh |editor2-first=Claire |editor2-last=Gu |isbn=9789814502979}}</ref>


==Properties==
==Properties==
Lithium niobate is a colorless solid, and it is insoluble in water. It has a [[trigonal]] [[crystal system]], which lacks [[inversion symmetry]] and displays [[ferroelectricity]], the [[Pockels effect]], the [[piezoelectric]] effect, [[photoelasticity]] and [[nonlinear optics|nonlinear optical]] polarizability. Lithium niobate has negative uniaxial [[birefringence]] which depends slightly on the [[stoichiometry]] of the crystal and on temperature. It is transparent for wavelengths between 350 and 5200 [[nanometer]]s.
Lithium niobate is a colorless solid, and it is insoluble in water. It has a [[trigonal]] [[crystal system]], which lacks [[inversion symmetry]] and displays [[ferroelectricity]], the [[Pockels effect]], the [[piezoelectric]] effect, [[photoelasticity]] and [[nonlinear optics|nonlinear optical]] polarizability. Lithium niobate has negative uniaxial [[birefringence]] which depends slightly on the [[stoichiometry]] of the crystal and on temperature. It is transparent for wavelengths between 350 and 5200 [[nanometer]]s.


Lithium niobate can be doped by [[magnesium oxide]], which increases its resistance to optical damage (also known as photorefractive damage) when doped above the [[optical damage threshold]]. Other available dopants are [[iron]], [[zinc]], [[hafnium]], [[copper]], [[gadolinium]], [[erbium]], [[yttrium]], [[manganese]] and [[boron]].
Lithium niobate can be [[Dopant|doped]] with [[magnesium oxide]], which increases its [[Laser damage threshold|resistance to optical damage]] (also known as photorefractive damage). Other available dopants are [[iron]], [[zinc]], [[hafnium]], [[copper]], [[gadolinium]], [[erbium]], [[yttrium]], [[manganese]] and [[boron]].


==Growth==
==Growth==
[[File:Lithium Niobate Wafer.jpg|175px|thumb|A Z-cut, single-crystal lithium-niobate wafer|left]]
[[Single crystal]]s of lithium niobate can be grown using the [[Czochralski process]].<ref>{{cite book|title = Lithium Niobate: Defects, Photorefraction and Ferroelectric Switching|first = Tatyana|last = Volk|author2=Wohlecke, Manfred |publisher = Springer|year = 2008|isbn = 978-3-540-70765-3|doi=10.1007/978-3-540-70766-0|pages=1–9}}</ref>
[[Single crystal]]s of lithium niobate can be grown using the [[Czochralski process]].<ref>{{cite book|title = Lithium Niobate: Defects, Photorefraction and Ferroelectric Switching|first = Tatyana|last = Volk|author2=Wohlecke, Manfred |publisher = Springer|year = 2008|isbn = 978-3-540-70765-3|doi=10.1007/978-3-540-70766-0|pages=1–9}}</ref>

[[File:Lithium Niobate Wafer.jpg|175px|thumb|A Z-cut, single crystal lithium niobate wafer|left]]
After a crystal is grown, it is sliced into wafers of different orientation. Common orientations are Z-cut, X-cut, Y-cut, and cuts with rotated angles of the previous axes.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wong|first=K. K.|title=Properties of Lithium Niobate|year=2002|publisher=INSPEC|location=London, United Kingdom|isbn=0-85296-799-3|pages=8}}</ref>
After a crystal is grown, it is sliced into wafers of different orientation. Common orientations are Z-cut, X-cut, Y-cut, and cuts with rotated angles of the previous axes.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wong|first=K. K.|title=Properties of Lithium Niobate|year=2002|publisher=INSPEC|location=London, United Kingdom|isbn=0-85296-799-3|pages=8}}</ref>


=== Thin-films ===
=== Thin films ===
Thin-film lithium niobate (e.g. for [[Waveguide (optics)#Two-dimensional waveguides|optical wave guide]]s) can be grown on sapphire and other substrates, using the [[MOCVD]] process.<ref>[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0022024895005706 ''Epitaxial growth of lithium niobate thin films by the solid source MOCVD method'']</ref> The technology is known as lithium niobate-on-insulator (LNOI).<ref>[https://physik.uni-paderborn.de/fileadmin/physik/Alumni/Sohler/2012/SPIE_Photonics_Europe_Hu__LNOI_2012.pdf ''Lithium Niobate-On-Insulator (LNOI): Status and Perspectives '' 2012]</ref>
Thin-film lithium niobate (e.g. for [[Waveguide (optics)#Two-dimensional waveguides|optical wave guides]]) can be transferred to or grown on sapphire and other substrates, using the [[smart cut]] (ion slicing) process<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Levy |first1=M. |last2=Osgood |first2=R. M. |last3=Liu |first3=R. |last4=Cross |first4=L. E. |last5=Cargill |first5=G. S. |last6=Kumar |first6=A. |last7=Bakhru |first7=H. |date=1998-10-19 |title=Fabrication of single-crystal lithium niobate films by crystal ion slicing |url=http://aip.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/1.121801 |journal=Applied Physics Letters |language=en |volume=73 |issue=16 |pages=2293–2295 |doi=10.1063/1.121801 |bibcode=1998ApPhL..73.2293L |issn=0003-6951}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |title= Enhanced electro-optical lithium niobate photonic crystal wire waveguide on a smart-cut thin film|url=https://opg.optica.org/oe/viewmedia.cfm?uri=oe-20-3-2974&html=true |access-date=2022-07-08 |journal=Optics Express | year=2012 |doi=10.1364/oe.20.002974| pmid=22330535 | last1=Lu | first1=H. | last2=Sadani | first2=B. | last3=Courjal | first3=N. | last4=Ulliac | first4=G. | last5=Smith | first5=N. | last6=Stenger | first6=V. | last7=Collet | first7=M. | last8=Baida | first8=F. I. | last9=Bernal | first9=M. P. | volume=20 | issue=3 | pages=2974–2981 | doi-access=free }}</ref> or [[MOCVD]] process.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/0022-0248(95)00570-6|title=Epitaxial growth of lithium niobate thin films by the solid source MOCVD method |year=1996 |last1=Feigelson |first1=R. S. |journal=Journal of Crystal Growth |volume=166 |issue=1–4 |pages=1–16 |bibcode=1996JCrGr.166....1F |doi-access=free }}</ref> The technology is known as lithium niobate on insulator (LNOI).<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://physik.uni-paderborn.de/fileadmin/physik/Alumni/Sohler/2012/SPIE_Photonics_Europe_Hu__LNOI_2012.pdf |doi=10.1117/12.922401 |chapter=Lithium niobate-on-insulator (LNOI): Status and perspectives |title=Silicon Photonics and Photonic Integrated Circuits III |year=2012 |last1=Hu |first1=Hui |last2=Yang |first2=Jin |last3=Gui |first3=Li |last4=Sohler |first4=Wolfgang |volume=8431 |pages=84311D |s2cid=120452519 }}</ref>


==Nanoparticles==
==Nanoparticles==
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==Applications==
==Applications==
Lithium niobate is used extensively in the telecommunications market, e.g. in [[mobile telephone]]s and [[optical modulator]]s.<ref name=Toney-2015>{{cite book|title = Lithium Niobate Photonics|first = James|last = Toney |publisher = Artech House|year = 2015|isbn = 978-1-60807-923-0}}</ref> It is the material of choice{{why|date=April 2021}} for the manufacture of [[surface acoustic wave]] devices. For some uses it can be replaced by [[lithium tantalate]], {{chem2|Li[[Tantalum|Ta]]O3}}. Other uses are in [[laser]] [[second harmonic generation|frequency doubling]], [[nonlinear optics]], [[Pockels effect#Pockels cells|Pockels cell]]s, [[optical parametric oscillator]]s, [[Q-switching]] devices for lasers, other [[acousto-optic effect|acousto-optic]] devices, [[optical switch]]es for gigahertz frequencies, etc. It is an excellent material for manufacture of [[optical waveguide]]s. It's also used in the making of optical spatial low-pass ([[Anti-aliasing filter|anti-aliasing]]) filters.
Lithium niobate is used extensively in the telecommunications market, e.g. in [[mobile telephone]]s and [[optical modulator]]s.<ref name=Toney-2015>{{cite book|title = Lithium Niobate Photonics|first = James|last = Toney |publisher = Artech House|year = 2015|isbn = 978-1-60807-923-0}}</ref> Due to its large electro-mechanical coupling, it is the material of choice for [[surface acoustic wave|surface acoustic wave(SAW)]] devices.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gruenke |first1=Rachel |last2=Hitchcock |first2=Oliver |year=2024 |title=Surface modification and coherence in lithium niobate SAW resonators |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=14 |page=6663 |doi=10.1038/s41598-024-57168-x}}</ref> For some uses it can be replaced by [[lithium tantalate|lithium tantalate ({{chem2|LiTaO3}})]]. Other uses are in [[laser]] [[second harmonic generation|frequency doubling]], [[nonlinear optics]], [[Pockels effect#Pockels cells|Pockels cell]]s, [[optical parametric oscillator]]s, [[Q-switching]] devices for lasers, other [[acousto-optic effect|acousto-optic]] devices, [[optical switch]]es for gigahertz frequencies, etc. It is an excellent material for manufacture of [[optical waveguide]]s. It's also used in the making of optical spatial low-pass ([[Anti-aliasing filter|anti-aliasing]]) filters. Additionally, it is used in pyroelectric infrared (IR) detectors, where it detects temperature changes by generating electric charges.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.samaterials.com/niobium-compounds/66-lithium-niobate-wafers.html |title=CY0066 Lithium Niobate Wafers (LiNbO3 Wafers) |website=Stanford Advanced Materials |access-date=Oct 18, 2024}}</ref>


In the past few years lithium niobate is finding applications as a kind of electrostatic tweezers, an approach known as optoelectronic tweezers as the effect requires light excitation to take place.<ref name="Carrascosa M 2015">{{cite journal | last1=Carrascosa | first1=M. | last2=García-Cabañes | first2=A. | last3=Jubera | first3=M. | last4=Ramiro | first4=J. B. | last5=Agulló-López | first5=F. | title=LiNbO<sub>3</sub>: A photovoltaic substrate for massive parallel manipulation and patterning of nano-objects | journal=Applied Physics Reviews | publisher=AIP Publishing | volume=2 | issue=4 | year=2015 | issn=1931-9401 | doi=10.1063/1.4929374 | page=040605| bibcode=2015ApPRv...2d0605C | hdl=10486/669584 }}</ref><ref name="García-Cabañes A 2018">{{cite journal | last1=García-Cabañes | first1=Angel | last2=Blázquez-Castro | first2=Alfonso | last3=Arizmendi | first3=Luis | last4=Agulló-López | first4=Fernando | last5=Carrascosa | first5=Mercedes | title=Recent Achievements on Photovoltaic Optoelectronic Tweezers Based on Lithium Niobate | journal=Crystals | publisher=MDPI AG | volume=8 | issue=2 | date=2018-01-30 | issn=2073-4352 | doi=10.3390/cryst8020065 | page=65| doi-access=free }}</ref> This effect allows for fine manipulation of micrometer-scale particles with high flexibility since the tweezing action is constrained to the illuminated area. The effect is based on the very high electric fields generated during light exposure (1–100 kV/cm) within the illuminated spot. These intense fields are also finding applications in biophysics and biotechnology, as they can influence living organisms in a variety of ways.<ref name="Blázquez-Castro A 2018">{{cite journal | last1=Blázquez-Castro | first1=A. | last2=García-Cabañes | first2=A. | last3=Carrascosa | first3=M. | title=Biological applications of ferroelectric materials | journal=Applied Physics Reviews | publisher=AIP Publishing | volume=5 | issue=4 | year=2018 | issn=1931-9401 | doi=10.1063/1.5044472 | page=041101| arxiv=2109.00429 | bibcode=2018ApPRv...5d1101B | s2cid=139511670 }}</ref> For example, iron-doped lithium niobate excited with visible light has been shown to produce cell death in tumoral cell cultures.<ref name="Blázquez-Castro A 2011">{{cite journal | last1=Blázquez-Castro | first1=Alfonso | last2=Stockert | first2=Juan C. | last3=López-Arias | first3=Begoña | last4=Juarranz | first4=Angeles | last5=Agulló-López | first5=Fernando | last6=García-Cabañes | first6=Angel | last7=Carrascosa | first7=Mercedes | title=Tumour cell death induced by the bulk photovoltaic effect of LiNbO<sub>3</sub>:Fe under visible light irradiation | journal=Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=10 | issue=6 | year=2011 | pages=956–963 | issn=1474-905X | doi=10.1039/c0pp00336k | pmid=21336376 }}</ref>
In the past few years lithium niobate is finding applications as a kind of electrostatic tweezers, an approach known as optoelectronic tweezers as the effect requires light excitation to take place.<ref name="Carrascosa M 2015">{{cite journal | last1=Carrascosa | first1=M. | last2=García-Cabañes | first2=A. | last3=Jubera | first3=M. | last4=Ramiro | first4=J. B. | last5=Agulló-López | first5=F. | title=LiNbO<sub>3</sub>: A photovoltaic substrate for massive parallel manipulation and patterning of nano-objects | journal=Applied Physics Reviews | publisher=AIP Publishing | volume=2 | issue=4 | year=2015 | issn=1931-9401 | doi=10.1063/1.4929374 | page=040605| bibcode=2015ApPRv...2d0605C | hdl=10486/669584 | hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="García-Cabañes A 2018">{{cite journal | last1=García-Cabañes | first1=Angel | last2=Blázquez-Castro | first2=Alfonso | last3=Arizmendi | first3=Luis | last4=Agulló-López | first4=Fernando | last5=Carrascosa | first5=Mercedes | title=Recent Achievements on Photovoltaic Optoelectronic Tweezers Based on Lithium Niobate | journal=Crystals | publisher=MDPI AG | volume=8 | issue=2 | date=2018-01-30 | issn=2073-4352 | doi=10.3390/cryst8020065 | page=65| doi-access=free | hdl=10486/681685 | hdl-access=free }}</ref> This effect allows for fine manipulation of micrometer-scale particles with high flexibility since the tweezing action is constrained to the illuminated area. The effect is based on the very high electric fields generated during light exposure (1–100 kV/cm) within the illuminated spot. These intense fields are also finding applications in biophysics and biotechnology, as they can influence living organisms in a variety of ways.<ref name="Blázquez-Castro A 2018">{{cite journal | last1=Blázquez-Castro | first1=A. | last2=García-Cabañes | first2=A. | last3=Carrascosa | first3=M. | title=Biological applications of ferroelectric materials | journal=Applied Physics Reviews | publisher=AIP Publishing | volume=5 | issue=4 | year=2018 | issn=1931-9401 | doi=10.1063/1.5044472 | page=041101| arxiv=2109.00429 | bibcode=2018ApPRv...5d1101B | s2cid=139511670 }}</ref> For example, iron-doped lithium niobate excited with visible light has been shown to produce cell death in tumoral cell cultures.<ref name="Blázquez-Castro A 2011">{{cite journal | last1=Blázquez-Castro | first1=Alfonso | last2=Stockert | first2=Juan C. | last3=López-Arias | first3=Begoña | last4=Juarranz | first4=Angeles | last5=Agulló-López | first5=Fernando | last6=García-Cabañes | first6=Angel | last7=Carrascosa | first7=Mercedes | title=Tumour cell death induced by the bulk photovoltaic effect of LiNbO<sub>3</sub>:Fe under visible light irradiation | journal=Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=10 | issue=6 | year=2011 | pages=956–963 | issn=1474-905X | doi=10.1039/c0pp00336k | pmid=21336376 | doi-access=free }}</ref>


==Periodically-poled lithium niobate (PPLN)==
==Periodically poled lithium niobate (PPLN)==
'''Periodically poled lithium niobate''' ('''PPLN''') is a domain-engineered lithium niobate crystal, used mainly for achieving [[quasi-phase-matching]] in [[nonlinear optics]]. The [[ferroelectric]] domains point alternatively to the ''+c'' and the ''−c'' direction, with a period of typically between 5 and 35 [[micrometre|µm]]. The shorter periods of this range are used for [[second harmonic generation]], while the longer ones for [[Optical parametric oscillator|optical parametric oscillation]]. [[Periodic poling]] can be achieved by electrical poling with periodically structured electrode. Controlled heating of the crystal can be used to fine-tune [[phase matching]] in the medium due to a slight variation of the dispersion with temperature.
'''Periodically poled lithium niobate''' ('''PPLN''') is a domain-engineered lithium niobate crystal, used mainly for achieving [[quasi-phase-matching]] in [[nonlinear optics]]. The [[ferroelectric]] domains point alternatively to the ''+c'' and the ''−c'' direction, with a period of typically between 5 and 35&nbsp;[[micrometre|μm]]. The shorter periods of this range are used for [[second-harmonic generation]], while the longer ones for [[Optical parametric oscillator|optical parametric oscillation]]. [[Periodic poling]] can be achieved by electrical poling with periodically structured electrode. Controlled heating of the crystal can be used to fine-tune [[phase matching]] in the medium due to a slight variation of the dispersion with temperature.


Periodic poling uses the largest value of lithium niobate's nonlinear tensor, d<sub>33</sub> = 27 pm/V. Quasi-phase matching gives maximum efficiencies that are 2/π (64%) of the full d<sub>33</sub>, about 17 pm/V.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1007/s003400100623|title=Fabrication of periodically poled lithium tantalate for UV generation with diode lasers|journal=Applied Physics B|volume=73|issue=2|pages=111–114|year=2001|last1=Meyn|first1=J.-P.|last2=Laue|first2=C.|last3=Knappe|first3=R.|last4=Wallenstein|first4=R.|last5=Fejer|first5=M.M.|bibcode=2001ApPhB..73..111M|s2cid=119763435}}</ref>
Periodic poling uses the largest value of lithium niobate's nonlinear tensor, ''d''<sub>33</sub> = 27&nbsp;pm/V. Quasi-phase-matching gives maximum efficiencies that are 2/π (64%) of the full ''d''<sub>33</sub>, about 17&nbsp;pm/V.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s003400100623 |title=Fabrication of periodically poled lithium tantalate for UV generation with diode lasers |journal=Applied Physics B |volume=73 |issue=2 |pages=111–114 |year=2001 |last1=Meyn |first1=J.-P. |last2=Laue |first2=C. |last3=Knappe |first3=R. |last4=Wallenstein |first4=R.|last5=Fejer |first5=M. M. |bibcode=2001ApPhB..73..111M |s2cid=119763435}}</ref>


Other materials used for [[periodic poling]] are wide [[band gap]] inorganic crystals like [[potassium titanyl phosphate|KTP]] (resulting in [[periodically poled KTP]], [[PPKTP]]), [[lithium tantalate]], and some organic materials.
Other materials used for [[periodic poling]] are wide-[[band-gap]] inorganic crystals like [[potassium titanyl phosphate|KTP]] (resulting in [[periodically poled KTP]], [[PPKTP]]), [[lithium tantalate]], and some organic materials.


The periodic poling technique can also be used to form surface [[nanostructure]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Surface nanoscale periodic structures in congruent lithium niobate by domain reversal patterning and differential etching |author=S. Grilli |author2=P. Ferraro |author3=P. De Natale |author4=B. Tiribilli |author5=M. Vassalli |journal=Applied Physics Letters |volume=87 |issue=23 |pages=233106 |year=2005 |doi=10.1063/1.2137877|bibcode=2005ApPhL..87w3106G }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Modulating the thickness of the resist pattern for controlling size and depth of submicron reversed domains in lithium niobate
The periodic-poling technique can also be used to form surface [[nanostructure]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Surface nanoscale periodic structures in congruent lithium niobate by domain reversal patterning and differential etching |journal=Applied Physics Letters |volume=87 |issue=23 |pages=233106 |year=2005 |doi=10.1063/1.2137877|bibcode=2005ApPhL..87w3106G |last1=Grilli |first1=Simonetta |last2=Ferraro |first2=Pietro |last3=De Natale |first3=Paolo |last4=Tiribilli |first4=Bruno |last5=Vassalli |first5=Massimo |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Modulating the thickness of the resist pattern for controlling size and depth of submicron reversed domains in lithium niobate |journal=Applied Physics Letters |volume=89 |issue=13 |pages=133111 |year=2006 |doi=10.1063/1.2357928| bibcode =2006ApPhL..89m3111F |last1=Ferraro |first1=P. |last2=Grilli |first2=S. }}</ref>
| author =P. Ferraro |author2=S. Grilli |journal=Applied Physics Letters |volume=89 |issue=13 |pages=133111 |year=2006 |doi=10.1063/1.2357928| bibcode =2006ApPhL..89m3111F }}</ref>


However, due to its low photorefractive damage threshold, PPLN only finds limited applications: at very low power levels. MgO-doped lithium niobate is fabricated by periodically poled method. Periodically poled MgO-doped lithium niobate (PPMgOLN) therefore expands the application to medium power level.
However, due to its low photorefractive damage threshold, PPLN only finds limited applications, namely, at very low power levels. MgO-doped lithium niobate is fabricated by periodically poled method. Periodically poled MgO-doped lithium niobate (PPMgOLN) therefore expands the application to medium power level.


===Sellmeier equations===
===Sellmeier equations===
The [[Sellmeier equation]]s for the extraordinary index are used to find the poling period and approximate temperature for quasi-phase matching. Jundt<ref name="Jundt">{{cite journal| author=Dieter H. Jundt| journal=Optics Letters|volume=22 |title=Temperature-dependent Sellmeier equation for the index of refraction <math>n_e</math> in congruent lithium niobate| year=1997|pages=1553–5 |doi=10.1364/OL.22.001553| pmid=18188296| issue=20| bibcode=1997OptL...22.1553J}}</ref> gives
The [[Sellmeier equation]]s for the extraordinary index are used to find the poling period and approximate temperature for quasi-phase-matching. Jundt<ref name="Jundt">{{cite journal |author=Jundt, Dieter H. |journal=Optics Letters |volume=22 |title=Temperature-dependent Sellmeier equation for the index of refraction <math>n_e</math> in congruent lithium niobate |year=1997 |pages=1553–1555 |doi=10.1364/OL.22.001553 |pmid=18188296 |issue=20 |bibcode=1997OptL...22.1553J}}</ref> gives


<math>{
: <math>
n^2_e \approx 5.35583 + 4.629 \times 10^{-7} f
n^2_e \approx 5.35583 + 4.629 \times 10^{-7} f
+ {0.100473 + 3.862 \times 10^{-8} f \over \lambda^2 - (0.20692 - 0.89 \times 10^{-8} f)^2}
+ \frac{0.100473 + 3.862 \times 10^{-8} f}{\lambda^2 - (0.20692 - 0.89 \times 10^{-8} f)^2}
+ {100 + 2.657 \times 10^{-5} f \over \lambda^2 - 11.34927^2}
+ \frac{100 + 2.657 \times 10^{-5} f}{\lambda^2 - 11.34927^2}
- 1.5334 \times 10^{-2} \lambda^2
- 1.5334 \times 10^{-2} \lambda^2,
}</math>
</math>


valid from 20 to 250&nbsp;°C for wavelengths from 0.4 to 5 [[micrometre|micrometer]]s, whereas for longer wavelength,<ref name=Deng>{{cite journal|author=LH Deng|journal = Optics Communications|volume=268| title=Improvement to Sellmeier equation for periodically poled LiNbO<sub>3</sub> crystal using mid-infrared difference-frequency generation|issue=1|year=2006| pages=110–114|doi=10.1016/j.optcom.2006.06.082|display-authors=etal|bibcode = 2006OptCo.268..110D}}</ref>
valid from 20 to 250&nbsp;°C for wavelengths from 0.4 to 5&nbsp;[[Micrometre|micrometer]]s, whereas for longer wavelengths,<ref name=Deng>{{cite journal |journal=Optics Communications |volume=268 |title=Improvement to Sellmeier equation for periodically poled LiNbO<sub>3</sub> crystal using mid-infrared difference-frequency generation |issue=1 |year=2006 |pages=110–114 |doi=10.1016/j.optcom.2006.06.082 |bibcode=2006OptCo.268..110D |last1=Deng |first1=L. H. |last2=Gao |first2=X. M. |last3=Cao |first3=Z. S. |last4=Chen |first4=W. D. |last5=Yuan |first5=Y.Q. |last6=Zhang |first6=W. J. |last7=Gong |first7=Z. B. }}</ref>


<math>{
: <math>
n^2_e \approx 5.39121 + 4.968 \times 10^{-7} f
n^2_e \approx 5.39121 + 4.968 \times 10^{-7} f
+ {0.100473 + 3.862 \times 10^{-8} f \over \lambda^2 - (0.20692 - 0.89 \times 10^{-8} f)^2}
+ \frac{0.100473 + 3.862 \times 10^{-8} f}{\lambda^2 - (0.20692 - 0.89 \times 10^{-8} f)^2}
+ {100 + 2.657 \times 10^{-5} f \over \lambda^2 - 11.34927^2} - (1.544 \times 10^{-2} + 9.62119 \times 10^{-10} \lambda) \lambda^2
+ \frac{100 + 2.657 \times 10^{-5} f}{\lambda^2 - 11.34927^2}
- (1.544 \times 10^{-2} + 9.62119 \times 10^{-10} \lambda) \lambda^2,
}</math>
</math>


which is valid for ''T'' = 25 to 180&nbsp;°C, for wavelengths λ between 2.8 and 4.8 micrometers.
which is valid for ''T'' = 25 to 180&nbsp;°C, for wavelengths λ between 2.8 and 4.8 micrometers.
Line 127: Line 133:
More generally for ordinary and extraordinary index for MgO-doped {{chem2|LiNbO3}}:
More generally for ordinary and extraordinary index for MgO-doped {{chem2|LiNbO3}}:


<math>{
: <math>{
n^2 \approx a_1 + b_1 f
n^2 \approx a_1 + b_1 f
+ {a_2 + b_2 f \over \lambda^2 - (a_3 + b_3 f)^2}
+ \frac{a_2 + b_2 f}{\lambda^2 - (a_3 + b_3 f)^2}
+ {a_4 + b_4 f \over \lambda^2 - a_5^2}
+ \frac{a_4 + b_4 f}{\lambda^2 - a_5^2}
- a_6 \lambda^2
- a_6 \lambda^2,
}</math>,
}</math>


with:
with:
Line 161: Line 167:
| ''b''<sub>4</sub> || 1.516×10<sup>−4</sup> || −2.188×10<sup>−6</sup> || 1.096×10<sup>−4</sup>
| ''b''<sub>4</sub> || 1.516×10<sup>−4</sup> || −2.188×10<sup>−6</sup> || 1.096×10<sup>−4</sup>
|}
|}
for congruent {{chem2|LiNbO3}} (CLN) and stochiometric {{chem2|LiNbO3}} (SLN).<ref name=gayer>{{cite journal|author=O.Gayer|journal = Appl. Phys. B |volume=91|issue = 2 | title=Temperature and wavelength dependent refractive index equations for MgO-doped congruent and stoichiometric LiNbO<sub>3</sub>|year=2008| pages=343–348|doi=10.1007/s00340-008-2998-2|display-authors=etal|bibcode = 2008ApPhB..91..343G |s2cid = 195290628 }}</ref>
for congruent {{chem2|LiNbO3}} (CLN) and stochiometric {{chem2|LiNbO3}} (SLN).<ref name=gayer>{{cite journal |journal=Appl. Phys. B |volume=91 |issue=2 |title=Temperature and wavelength dependent refractive index equations for MgO-doped congruent and stoichiometric LiNbO<sub>3</sub> |year=2008 |pages=343–348 |doi=10.1007/s00340-008-2998-2 |bibcode=2008ApPhB..91..343G |s2cid=195290628 |last1=Gayer |first1=O. |last2=Sacks |first2=Z. |last3=Galun |first3=E. |last4=Arie |first4=A. }}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==
Line 179: Line 185:
{{reflist|30em}}
{{reflist|30em}}


==Further reading==
==Cited sources==
*{{cite book |ref=Haynes| editor= Haynes, William M. | date = 2016| title = [[CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics]] | edition = 97th | publisher = [[CRC Press]] | isbn = 9781498754293 }}
*{{cite book|title=Ferroelectric Crystals for Photonic Applications Including Nanoscale Fabrication and Characterization Techniques |series=Springer Series in Materials Science |volume= 91 |editor-last=Ferraro |editor-first=Pietro |editor2-last=Grilli |editor2-first=Simonetta |editor3-last=De Natale |editor3-first=Paolo |doi=10.1007/978-3-540-77965-0|year=2009 |isbn=978-3-540-77963-6 }}


==External links==
==External links==
Line 188: Line 194:
{{Niobium compounds}}
{{Niobium compounds}}


[[Category:Lithium compounds]]
[[Category:Lithium salts]]
[[Category:Niobates]]
[[Category:Niobates]]
[[Category:Ferroelectric materials]]
[[Category:Ferroelectric materials]]

Latest revision as of 15:35, 18 October 2024

Lithium niobate

__ Li+     __ Nb5+     __ O2−
Names
Other names
Lithium niobium oxide, lithium niobium trioxide
Identifiers
3D model (JSmol)
ChemSpider
ECHA InfoCard 100.031.583 Edit this at Wikidata
  • InChI=1S/Li.Nb.3O/q+1;;;;-1 checkY
    Key: GQYHUHYESMUTHG-UHFFFAOYSA-N checkY
  • InChI=1/Li.Nb.3O/q+1;;;;-1/rLi.NbO3/c;2-1(3)4/q+1;-1
    Key: GQYHUHYESMUTHG-YHKBGIKBAK
  • [Li+].[O-][Nb](=O)=O
Properties
LiNbO3
Molar mass 147.846 g/mol
Appearance colorless solid
Density 4.30 g/cm3[1]
Melting point 1,240 °C (2,260 °F; 1,510 K)[1]
None
Band gap 3.77 eV [2]
no 2.3007, ne 2.2116[3]
Structure[4]
Trigonal, hR30
R3c, No. 161
3m (C3v)
a = 0.51501 nm, b = 0.51501 nm, c = 0.54952 nm
α = 62.057°, β = 62.057°, γ = 60°
6
Hazards
Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC):
8 g/kg (oral, rat)[5]
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
☒N verify (what is checkY☒N ?)

Lithium niobate (LiNbO3) is a synthetic salt consisting of niobium, lithium, and oxygen. Its single crystals are an important material for optical waveguides, mobile phones, piezoelectric sensors, optical modulators and various other linear and non-linear optical applications.[6] Lithium niobate is sometimes referred to by the brand name linobate.[7]

Properties

[edit]

Lithium niobate is a colorless solid, and it is insoluble in water. It has a trigonal crystal system, which lacks inversion symmetry and displays ferroelectricity, the Pockels effect, the piezoelectric effect, photoelasticity and nonlinear optical polarizability. Lithium niobate has negative uniaxial birefringence which depends slightly on the stoichiometry of the crystal and on temperature. It is transparent for wavelengths between 350 and 5200 nanometers.

Lithium niobate can be doped with magnesium oxide, which increases its resistance to optical damage (also known as photorefractive damage). Other available dopants are iron, zinc, hafnium, copper, gadolinium, erbium, yttrium, manganese and boron.

Growth

[edit]
A Z-cut, single-crystal lithium-niobate wafer

Single crystals of lithium niobate can be grown using the Czochralski process.[8]

After a crystal is grown, it is sliced into wafers of different orientation. Common orientations are Z-cut, X-cut, Y-cut, and cuts with rotated angles of the previous axes.[9]

Thin films

[edit]

Thin-film lithium niobate (e.g. for optical wave guides) can be transferred to or grown on sapphire and other substrates, using the smart cut (ion slicing) process[10][11] or MOCVD process.[12] The technology is known as lithium niobate on insulator (LNOI).[13]

Nanoparticles

[edit]

Nanoparticles of lithium niobate and niobium pentoxide can be produced at low temperature.[14] The complete protocol implies a LiH induced reduction of NbCl5 followed by in situ spontaneous oxidation into low-valence niobium nano-oxides. These niobium oxides are exposed to air atmosphere resulting in pure Nb2O5. Finally, the stable Nb2O5 is converted into lithium niobate LiNbO3 nanoparticles during the controlled hydrolysis of the LiH excess.[15] Spherical nanoparticles of lithium niobate with a diameter of approximately 10 nm can be prepared by impregnating a mesoporous silica matrix with a mixture of an aqueous solution of LiNO3 and NH4NbO(C2O4)2 followed by 10 min heating in an infrared furnace.[16]

Applications

[edit]

Lithium niobate is used extensively in the telecommunications market, e.g. in mobile telephones and optical modulators.[17] Due to its large electro-mechanical coupling, it is the material of choice for surface acoustic wave(SAW) devices.[18] For some uses it can be replaced by lithium tantalate (LiTaO3). Other uses are in laser frequency doubling, nonlinear optics, Pockels cells, optical parametric oscillators, Q-switching devices for lasers, other acousto-optic devices, optical switches for gigahertz frequencies, etc. It is an excellent material for manufacture of optical waveguides. It's also used in the making of optical spatial low-pass (anti-aliasing) filters. Additionally, it is used in pyroelectric infrared (IR) detectors, where it detects temperature changes by generating electric charges.[19]

In the past few years lithium niobate is finding applications as a kind of electrostatic tweezers, an approach known as optoelectronic tweezers as the effect requires light excitation to take place.[20][21] This effect allows for fine manipulation of micrometer-scale particles with high flexibility since the tweezing action is constrained to the illuminated area. The effect is based on the very high electric fields generated during light exposure (1–100 kV/cm) within the illuminated spot. These intense fields are also finding applications in biophysics and biotechnology, as they can influence living organisms in a variety of ways.[22] For example, iron-doped lithium niobate excited with visible light has been shown to produce cell death in tumoral cell cultures.[23]

Periodically poled lithium niobate (PPLN)

[edit]

Periodically poled lithium niobate (PPLN) is a domain-engineered lithium niobate crystal, used mainly for achieving quasi-phase-matching in nonlinear optics. The ferroelectric domains point alternatively to the +c and the −c direction, with a period of typically between 5 and 35 μm. The shorter periods of this range are used for second-harmonic generation, while the longer ones for optical parametric oscillation. Periodic poling can be achieved by electrical poling with periodically structured electrode. Controlled heating of the crystal can be used to fine-tune phase matching in the medium due to a slight variation of the dispersion with temperature.

Periodic poling uses the largest value of lithium niobate's nonlinear tensor, d33 = 27 pm/V. Quasi-phase-matching gives maximum efficiencies that are 2/π (64%) of the full d33, about 17 pm/V.[24]

Other materials used for periodic poling are wide-band-gap inorganic crystals like KTP (resulting in periodically poled KTP, PPKTP), lithium tantalate, and some organic materials.

The periodic-poling technique can also be used to form surface nanostructures.[25][26]

However, due to its low photorefractive damage threshold, PPLN only finds limited applications, namely, at very low power levels. MgO-doped lithium niobate is fabricated by periodically poled method. Periodically poled MgO-doped lithium niobate (PPMgOLN) therefore expands the application to medium power level.

Sellmeier equations

[edit]

The Sellmeier equations for the extraordinary index are used to find the poling period and approximate temperature for quasi-phase-matching. Jundt[27] gives

valid from 20 to 250 °C for wavelengths from 0.4 to 5 micrometers, whereas for longer wavelengths,[28]

which is valid for T = 25 to 180 °C, for wavelengths λ between 2.8 and 4.8 micrometers.

In these equations f = (T − 24.5)(T + 570.82), λ is in micrometers, and T is in °C.

More generally for ordinary and extraordinary index for MgO-doped LiNbO3:

with:

Parameters 5% MgO-doped CLN 1% MgO-doped SLN
ne no ne
a1 5.756 5.653 5.078
a2 0.0983 0.1185 0.0964
a3 0.2020 0.2091 0.2065
a4 189.32 89.61 61.16
a5 12.52 10.85 10.55
a6 1.32×10−2 1.97×10−2 1.59×10−2
b1 2.860×10−6 7.941×10−7 4.677×10−7
b2 4.700×10−8 3.134×10−8 7.822×10−8
b3 6.113×10−8 −4.641×10−9 −2.653×10−8
b4 1.516×10−4 −2.188×10−6 1.096×10−4

for congruent LiNbO3 (CLN) and stochiometric LiNbO3 (SLN).[29]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Haynes, p. 4.70
  2. ^ Zanatta, A.R. (August 2022). "The optical bandgap of lithium niobate (LiNbO3) and its dependence with temperature". Results Phys. 39: 105736–3pp. doi:10.1016/j.rinp.2022.105736. S2CID 249688492.
  3. ^ Haynes, p. 10.250
  4. ^ Wilkinson, A. P.; Cheetham, A. K.; Jarman, R. H. (1993). "The defect structure of congruently melting lithium niobate". Journal of Applied Physics. 74 (5): 3080–3083. Bibcode:1993JAP....74.3080W. doi:10.1063/1.354572.
  5. ^ "ChemIDplus – 12031-63-9 – PSVBHJWAIYBPRO-UHFFFAOYSA-N – Lithium niobate – Similar structures search, synonyms, formulas, resource links, and other chemical information".
  6. ^ Weis, R. S.; Gaylord, T. K. (1985). "Lithium Niobate: Summary of Physical Properties and Crystal Structure". Applied Physics A: Materials Science & Processing. 37 (4): 191–203. Bibcode:1985ApPhA..37..191W. doi:10.1007/BF00614817. S2CID 97851423.
  7. ^ Staebler, D.L.; Amodei, J.J. (1972). "Thermally fixed holograms in LiNbO3". Ferroelectrics. 3 (1): 107–113. Bibcode:1972Fer.....3..107S. doi:10.1080/00150197208235297. S2CID 51674085., seen in Yeh, Pochi; Gu, Claire, eds. (1995). Landmark Papers On Photorefractive Nonlinear Optics. World Scientific. p. 182. ISBN 9789814502979.
  8. ^ Volk, Tatyana; Wohlecke, Manfred (2008). Lithium Niobate: Defects, Photorefraction and Ferroelectric Switching. Springer. pp. 1–9. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-70766-0. ISBN 978-3-540-70765-3.
  9. ^ Wong, K. K. (2002). Properties of Lithium Niobate. London, United Kingdom: INSPEC. p. 8. ISBN 0-85296-799-3.
  10. ^ Levy, M.; Osgood, R. M.; Liu, R.; Cross, L. E.; Cargill, G. S.; Kumar, A.; Bakhru, H. (1998-10-19). "Fabrication of single-crystal lithium niobate films by crystal ion slicing". Applied Physics Letters. 73 (16): 2293–2295. Bibcode:1998ApPhL..73.2293L. doi:10.1063/1.121801. ISSN 0003-6951.
  11. ^ Lu, H.; Sadani, B.; Courjal, N.; Ulliac, G.; Smith, N.; Stenger, V.; Collet, M.; Baida, F. I.; Bernal, M. P. (2012). "Enhanced electro-optical lithium niobate photonic crystal wire waveguide on a smart-cut thin film". Optics Express. 20 (3): 2974–2981. doi:10.1364/oe.20.002974. PMID 22330535. Retrieved 2022-07-08.
  12. ^ Feigelson, R. S. (1996). "Epitaxial growth of lithium niobate thin films by the solid source MOCVD method". Journal of Crystal Growth. 166 (1–4): 1–16. Bibcode:1996JCrGr.166....1F. doi:10.1016/0022-0248(95)00570-6.
  13. ^ Hu, Hui; Yang, Jin; Gui, Li; Sohler, Wolfgang (2012). "Lithium niobate-on-insulator (LNOI): Status and perspectives" (PDF). Silicon Photonics and Photonic Integrated Circuits III. Vol. 8431. pp. 84311D. doi:10.1117/12.922401. S2CID 120452519.
  14. ^ Grange, R.; Choi, J.W.; Hsieh, C.L.; Pu, Y.; Magrez, A.; Smajda, R.; Forro, L.; Psaltis, D. (2009). "Lithium niobate nanowires: synthesis, optical properties and manipulation". Applied Physics Letters. 95 (14): 143105. Bibcode:2009ApPhL..95n3105G. doi:10.1063/1.3236777. Archived from the original on 2016-05-14.
  15. ^ Aufray M, Menuel S, Fort Y, Eschbach J, Rouxel D, Vincent B (2009). "New Synthesis of Nanosized Niobium Oxides and Lithium Niobate Particles and Their Characterization by XPS Analysis". Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology. 9 (8): 4780–4789. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.465.1919. doi:10.1166/jnn.2009.1087. PMID 19928149.
  16. ^ Grigas, A; Kaskel, S (2011). "Synthesis of LiNbO3 nanoparticles in a mesoporous matrix". Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology. 2: 28–33. doi:10.3762/bjnano.2.3. PMC 3045940. PMID 21977412.
  17. ^ Toney, James (2015). Lithium Niobate Photonics. Artech House. ISBN 978-1-60807-923-0.
  18. ^ Gruenke, Rachel; Hitchcock, Oliver (2024). "Surface modification and coherence in lithium niobate SAW resonators". Scientific Reports. 14: 6663. doi:10.1038/s41598-024-57168-x.
  19. ^ "CY0066 Lithium Niobate Wafers (LiNbO3 Wafers)". Stanford Advanced Materials. Retrieved Oct 18, 2024.
  20. ^ Carrascosa, M.; García-Cabañes, A.; Jubera, M.; Ramiro, J. B.; Agulló-López, F. (2015). "LiNbO3: A photovoltaic substrate for massive parallel manipulation and patterning of nano-objects". Applied Physics Reviews. 2 (4). AIP Publishing: 040605. Bibcode:2015ApPRv...2d0605C. doi:10.1063/1.4929374. hdl:10486/669584. ISSN 1931-9401.
  21. ^ García-Cabañes, Angel; Blázquez-Castro, Alfonso; Arizmendi, Luis; Agulló-López, Fernando; Carrascosa, Mercedes (2018-01-30). "Recent Achievements on Photovoltaic Optoelectronic Tweezers Based on Lithium Niobate". Crystals. 8 (2). MDPI AG: 65. doi:10.3390/cryst8020065. hdl:10486/681685. ISSN 2073-4352.
  22. ^ Blázquez-Castro, A.; García-Cabañes, A.; Carrascosa, M. (2018). "Biological applications of ferroelectric materials". Applied Physics Reviews. 5 (4). AIP Publishing: 041101. arXiv:2109.00429. Bibcode:2018ApPRv...5d1101B. doi:10.1063/1.5044472. ISSN 1931-9401. S2CID 139511670.
  23. ^ Blázquez-Castro, Alfonso; Stockert, Juan C.; López-Arias, Begoña; Juarranz, Angeles; Agulló-López, Fernando; García-Cabañes, Angel; Carrascosa, Mercedes (2011). "Tumour cell death induced by the bulk photovoltaic effect of LiNbO3:Fe under visible light irradiation". Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences. 10 (6). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 956–963. doi:10.1039/c0pp00336k. ISSN 1474-905X. PMID 21336376.
  24. ^ Meyn, J.-P.; Laue, C.; Knappe, R.; Wallenstein, R.; Fejer, M. M. (2001). "Fabrication of periodically poled lithium tantalate for UV generation with diode lasers". Applied Physics B. 73 (2): 111–114. Bibcode:2001ApPhB..73..111M. doi:10.1007/s003400100623. S2CID 119763435.
  25. ^ Grilli, Simonetta; Ferraro, Pietro; De Natale, Paolo; Tiribilli, Bruno; Vassalli, Massimo (2005). "Surface nanoscale periodic structures in congruent lithium niobate by domain reversal patterning and differential etching". Applied Physics Letters. 87 (23): 233106. Bibcode:2005ApPhL..87w3106G. doi:10.1063/1.2137877.
  26. ^ Ferraro, P.; Grilli, S. (2006). "Modulating the thickness of the resist pattern for controlling size and depth of submicron reversed domains in lithium niobate". Applied Physics Letters. 89 (13): 133111. Bibcode:2006ApPhL..89m3111F. doi:10.1063/1.2357928.
  27. ^ Jundt, Dieter H. (1997). "Temperature-dependent Sellmeier equation for the index of refraction in congruent lithium niobate". Optics Letters. 22 (20): 1553–1555. Bibcode:1997OptL...22.1553J. doi:10.1364/OL.22.001553. PMID 18188296.
  28. ^ Deng, L. H.; Gao, X. M.; Cao, Z. S.; Chen, W. D.; Yuan, Y.Q.; Zhang, W. J.; Gong, Z. B. (2006). "Improvement to Sellmeier equation for periodically poled LiNbO3 crystal using mid-infrared difference-frequency generation". Optics Communications. 268 (1): 110–114. Bibcode:2006OptCo.268..110D. doi:10.1016/j.optcom.2006.06.082.
  29. ^ Gayer, O.; Sacks, Z.; Galun, E.; Arie, A. (2008). "Temperature and wavelength dependent refractive index equations for MgO-doped congruent and stoichiometric LiNbO3". Appl. Phys. B. 91 (2): 343–348. Bibcode:2008ApPhB..91..343G. doi:10.1007/s00340-008-2998-2. S2CID 195290628.

Cited sources

[edit]
[edit]