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[[File:Baptism - Marcellinus and Peter.jpg|thumb|left|120px|Baptism in early Christian art.]]
[[File:Baptism - Marcellinus and Peter.jpg|thumb|left|120px|Baptism in early Christian art.]]
[[File:Baptism - Saint Calixte.jpg|thumb|120px|right|[[Catacombs of Rome#Catacombs of San Callisto|Catacombs of San Callisto]]: Baptism in a 3rd-century painting]]
[[File:Baptism - Saint Calixte.jpg|thumb|120px|right|[[Catacombs of Rome#Catacombs of San Callisto|Catacombs of San Callisto]]: Baptism in a 3rd-century painting]]

Evidence for modes of baptism in the Early Church consists of both archaeological and literary evidence. Ferguson notes that those who study each form of evidence largely independent of the other, reach opposing conclusions.<ref>"Those who approach the study of baptism from the standpoint of archaeology tend to find greater probability that affusion, or perfusion, was a normal practice; those who come from the literary evidence see a greater likelihood of immersion, or submersion, being the normal practice" [http://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks%3A1&tbo=1&q=Ferguson+%22immersion+with+exceptions%22&btnG=Search+Books Everett Ferguson, ''Baptism in the early church: history, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries'' (Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-2748-7), p. 891]</ref> Ferguson's point is demonstrated by certain earlier studies of the evidence, which was debated intensely in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. In 1881 anti-immersionist McKay wrote a polemic work against immersion baptism, arguing that it was a theological invention of the Roman Catholic Church.<ref>[http://ia341307.us.archive.org/0/items/cihm_26338/cihm_26338.pdf W.A. McKay, Immersion proved not to be a Scriptural Mode of Baptism but a Romish Invention (Toronto: The Canada Publishing Company, 1881)]</ref> Differentiating between immersion and affusion,<ref>"When a servant washes the floor she does not immerse it in water, but pours water on it" [http://ia341307.us.archive.org/0/items/cihm_26338/cihm_26338.pdf W.A. McKay, Immersion proved not to be a Scriptural Mode of Baptism but a Romish Invention (Toronto: The Canada Publishing Company, 1881)], p. 21</ref> McKay argued on the basis of Christian imagery in the catacombs that Early Church baptism was by affusion (which McKay understood as standing in water and having water poured over the head), as opposed to immersion.<ref>'Rev. W. H. Withrow, in his recent and excellent work on the Catacombs, gives a number of these figures, and on page 535 he says : "The testimony of the Catacombs respecting the mode of baptism, as far as it extends, is strongly in favour of aspersion or affusion. All their pictured representations of the rite indicate this mode, for which alone the early fonts seem adapted ; nor is there early early art evidence of baptismal immersion. " No picture in the world older than the sixteenth century represents our Lord as being baptized by "dipping." (See pp. 44-47.)', [http://ia341307.us.archive.org/0/items/cihm_26338/cihm_26338.pdf W.A. McKay, Immersion proved not to be a Scriptural Mode of Baptism but a Romish Invention (Toronto: The Canada Publishing Company, 1881)], page preceding preface</ref><ref>'Dr. Ditzler, in his recent work on Baptism, after a most thorough examination of no less than thirty-one of the best Greek lexicons and authors, says (p. 161), "every one of the thirty-one authorities sustains affusion as baptism."', ibid., p. 22</ref><ref>'It was through the influence of these pure Apostolic churches that Rome, during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, was compelled to abandon her heathenish dipping, and come back to the scriptural mode of baptism, by affusion or sprinkling.', ibid., p. 58</ref> Conversely, [[Louis Duchesne]]'s work "Churches Separated from Rome" (1907), defended the Catholic tradition of baptism by affusion against claims that the Catholic Church had corrupted original Christian teaching and practice,<ref>"Corrupted? Under this head come the accusations enumerated above, the Filioque, baptism by affusion, unleavened bread, &c.", Duchesne, "The Churches Separated From Rome", p. 49 (1907)</ref> arguing like McKay that the archaeological imagery of the Early Church never displayed immersion, and only displayed affusion.<ref>"We constantly see representations of the celebration of baptism on monuments the Gospel scene of the baptism of our Lord, or even ordinary baptisms. But do we ever see total immersion, the neophyte plunged into the water so as to disappear completely? Such a thing is never seen. This immersion, which is the Greek form, is never to be met with, either in the mosaics of ancient churches, or in the paintings of the Catacombs, nor in ordinary pictures or domestic objects, glasses, spoons, &c, nor sculptured, nor engraved on marble. In all such ancient monuments the neophyte appears standing, his feet in the water, but the greater part of his body out of the water, while water is poured on his head with the hand or with a vase.", Duchesne, "The Churches Separated From Rome", pp. 62-63 (1907)</ref>

A study of baptism before the end of the fourth century published in 1903 by Rogers, "Baptism and Christian Archeology", took a more cautious approach to the archaeological evidence, which Rogers recognized was subject to ambiguities of interpretation,<ref>"In favour of immersion is the fact that the figure is represented and standing in water in all examples that certainly refer to baptism (Exx. 1, 2, 4 & 4). Against is the fact that in no case is there any attempt to represent immersion, and in two cases the actual affusion is represented, once directly (Ex. 3), and once symbolically (Ex.6).", Rogers, "Baptism and Christian Archaeology", Studia Biblica Et Ecclesiastica, volume 5, p. 257 (1903)</ref> recognizing the difficulty of representing immersion artistically.<ref>"The obvious difficulty of representing immersion must be given its full weight. We have no evidence to show how it would have been attempted in pre-Constantinian times, but the frequent representations in the fourth-century sarcophagi of the drowning of the Egyptians suggest a very different treatment.", Rogers, "Baptism and Christian Archaeology", Studia Biblica Et Ecclesiastica, volume 5, p. 257 (1903)</ref> Examining the only five pictorial baptismal representations of which he could be certain,<ref>"To sum up the evidence from archaeology for and against the practice of baptism by immersion in pre-Constantinian times. We have four actual representations of the act, one from the first or early second century, one two from the late second or early third, one from the middle of the third. We have one certain symbolical representation from the third, one possible one from the second or third. Two that are more than doubtful date from the third. Of the five certain representations four come from the cemetery of S. Callistus, though only two from the same region, one from that of SS. Petrus and Marcellinus.", Rogers, "Baptism and Christian Archaeology", Studia Biblica Et Ecclesiastica, volume 5, pp. 256-257 (1903)</ref> Rogers judged that the archaeological evidence indicated affusion as the usual method of baptism in the Early Church,<ref>"This, taken in connexion with the known customs of later ages, make it more than probable that the usual method of administration was by affusion only.", Rogers, "Baptism and Christian Archaeology", Studia Biblica Et Ecclesiastica, volume 5, pp. 258 (1903)</ref> though he acknowledged reliance on the archaeological evidence alone may not be conclusive.<ref>"To conclude, the direct evidence from archaeology alone may not be conclusive to show that in pre-Constantinian times baptism by affusion only was practiced generally or indeed in any one single case; but it does show that there was nothing repugnant in it to the general mind, that no stress was laid on total immersion, that the most important moments were held to be those when water was poured over the catchumen, and when the minister laid his hand on his head.", Rogers, "Baptism and Christian Archaeology", Studia Biblica Et Ecclesiastica, volume 5, pp. 258 (1903)</ref> Rogers' study was replaced by later studies which added a more complete knowledge of the subject.<ref>"Claiming that the literature and the church orders represent the ideal and archaeology the average, Rogers examines the artistic representations in various media and baptismal fonts. His work is now quite dated ,especially in dates assigned to the items examined, is replaced by later, more complete knowledge, and includes many items later than the period of my study.", Ferguson, ''Baptism in the early church: history, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries'' (Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-2748-7), p. 892</ref>

The study of early baptisteries and fonts has been an equally contested field. A 1958 study of baptism with a focus on liturgy<ref>"Stenzel's introduction identifies his interest as liturgy, not theology or parallels from the history of religions, and primarily the Latin development leading to the medieval Roman liturgy", Ferguson, ''Baptism in the early church: history, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries'' (Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-2748-7), p. 5</ref> by Alois Stenzel argued that both immersion and affusion were practiced by the Early Church, but that Christian baptismal pools which have been uncovered were too shallow for baptism and that pictorial evidence indicates affusion instead,<ref name=Kunzler>"Stenzel is of the opinion that both immersion and affusion were practised. He bases his opinion on archeological findings which show a lack of depth in baptismal 'pools' ('piscinae'), making a total immersion of an adult impossible. Pictorial representations which reflect baptismal procedures of the time strengthen his opinion: 'The person being baptized stands in water which reaches only half way up his body and water is poured from above. If the flow of water is sufficient then he is wholly covered at least for an instant with water and so 'buried', 'immersed', as the Fathers say" – [http://books.google.com/books?id=5ZcAJHpwA_IC&pg=PA262&dq=archeology+baptism+immersion&hl=en&ei=5mzRTP2SMYWTswaWvPmhCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CFgQ6AEwCTgK#v=onepage&q&f=false Michael Kunzler, ''The Liturgy of the Church'' (LIT Verlag 2001 ISBN 3-8258-4854-X), p. 262.]</ref><ref name=Kunzler/> though almost all the archaeological evidence to which Stenzel appealed dated later than the Early Church period.<ref>"Discoveries of early baptisteries shows that they were incapable of being used for immersion. With the exception of the find at Dura Europos the evidence is admittedly not very early (that given by Emminghaus is from the fifth to the seventh centuries). But it is corroborated by the reference in ''Did.'' 7.3 to sprinkling with water as an acceptable substitute where a fuller supply of water is not available; G. Theissen argues that sprinkling is better explained as a derivative of affusion rather than of immersion. There is, of course, indubitable early evidence for a form of baptism in which the candidates were either immersed in water or perhaps stood in water while they were affused with water; this is to be found in the use of the terms 'go down' and 'come up' with reference to baptism (''Barn.'' 11.11; Hermas, ''Sim.'' 9.16)" ([http://books.google.com/books?id=lUgZeuOhIg4C&pg=PA18&dq=archeology+baptism&hl=en&ei=qeLOTLj-OJH6sgaCjpmnAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCwQ6AEwADgK#v=onepage&q&f=false Howard Marshall, "The Meaning of the Verb "Baptize", in Porter, Cross (editors), ''Dimensions of Baptism: Biblical and Theological Studies'' (Sheffield Academic Press 2002 ISBN 0-8264-6203-0), p. 18).]</ref>

Earlier than the studies of Stenzel, Duchesne, and Rogers, Wolfrid Cote's "The Archaeology of Baptism" (1876), conducted a systematic examination of the archaeological evidence and the literary evidence together. Like Rogers after him Cote recognized difficulties in the dating of the evidence,<ref>"It should be remarked that it is impossible to ascertain the precise age of the pictures in the Catacombs of Rome", Cote "The Archaeology of Baptism", p. 35 (1876)</ref> but concluded that the combination of archaeological and literary evidence indicated complete immersion was the common practice of the Early Church.<ref>"The primitive mode appears to have been this : The administrator and candidate both standing in the water * the former placed his right hand on the head of the candidate, and, pronouncing the baptismal words, gently bowed him forward, till he was completely immersed in the water.", Cote "The Archaeology of Baptism", p. 31 (1876)</ref> Cote listed a number of fourth century baptisteries which were sufficiently large for the complete immersion of adults,<ref>Cote "The Archaeology of Baptism", pp. 160-161 (1876)</ref> and a larger number of similarly sized baptisteries from the fourth to the fourteenth centuries.<ref>"Cote lists the locations of sixty-five baptistries in Italy alone, giving the approximate dates of construction (from the fourth through the fourteenth centuries) and the shapes of the fonts (circular, octagonal, square, twelve-sided, Greek cross, et cetera). Regardless of other differences, all sixty-five were constructed for baptism by immersion.", Rice, 'Baptism in the Early Church', Bible and Spade (1981), 10.2.125</ref>

An article by George Rice (1981), in "[[Bible and Spade]]" agrees with the conclusions Cote reached as a result of combining the archaeological and literary evidence.<ref>"Among the ruins of early Christian structures, and also in ancient churches still in use, the history of Christian baptism can be traced. Paintings in catacombs and churches, mosaics on floors, walls, and ceilings, sculptured reliefs, and drawings in ancient New Testament manuscripts add details to this history, as well as raising interesting questions that need further investigation. The record left by these various witnesses overwhelmingly testifies to immersion as the normal mode of baptism in the Christian church during the first ten to fourteen centuries. This is in addition to the evidence found throughout the writings of the church fathers that immersion was the early church’s common mode of baptism.", Rice, 'Baptism in the Early Church', Bible and Spade (1981), 10.2.121</ref> Rice cites in particular imagery in the Catacomb of San Ponziano and a crypt in the catacomb of Santa Lucina (Rice, p.126), as well as a fresco in the post-Constantinian basilica of San Clemente (Rice, p. 127); he also notes "pictures of Jesus standing in water while John ''pours'' water over His head are of a much later date than those depicting immersion and they demonstrate the change in the mode of baptism that came into the church".<ref>Rice, 'Baptism in the Early Church', Bible and Spade (1981), 10.2.126</ref> Noting a fourth century baptistery sufficiently large for immersion,<ref>"One such baptistry in the catacomb of San Ponziano is four and a half feet long, three and a half feet wide, and three and a half feet deep. A channel diverted water from a nearby stream to fill this font. Wolfred Cote believes it was in use from the first to the fourth century. Neophytes either stood or knelt in the water and were immersed by 'bending forward under the hand of the administrator'", Rice, 'Baptism in the Early Church', Bible and Spade (1981), 10.2.124</ref> Rice observes that archaeological evidence demonstrates some early baptismal fonts large enough for adult immersion were later made smaller or replaced, to accommodate the affusion of infants,<ref>"The font of the Basilica of Saint John Lateran is an excellent example. The original font is below floor level, twenty-five feet in diameter and three feet deep. Lined and paved with marble, it was once used for adult immersion. Falling into disuse, it was filled in and a bath for infant baptism was erected in its place. This, in turn, was no longer used, and a smaller font was placed above it for the pouring of children.", Rice, 'Baptism in the Early Church', Bible and Spade (1981), 10.2.125</ref> leading to mistakes in their interpretation by twentieth century studies.<ref>"Yet it is of interest to note that directly below this dome is a font for immersion that has been subsequently altered for sprinkling! This fact would tend to place a question on Brown’s date for the mosaic, especially since it appears over a baptistry that is inside a church. Baptistries were only beginning to be moved into churches in the sixth century.", Rice, 'Baptism in the Early Church', Bible and Spade (1981), 10.2.126</ref> Ferguson (2007), notes a similar pattern,<ref>"The progressive reduction in size from an exterior diameter of nearly 3 meters and interior diameter of over 2.40 meters to an interior dimension of 1.80 meters may reflected increased use of affusion or the decline of adult baptism", Ferguson, ''Baptism in the early church: history, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries'' (Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-2748-7), p. 870</ref><ref>"At Noli in Liguria beneath the Romanesque church of San Paragorio there is a fifth-century font, octagonal on the exterior and a circle on the interior with a diameter of 1.26 meters and a depth of about 1.60 meters. It shows successive reduction in size.", Ferguson, ''Baptism in the early church: history, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries'' (Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-2748-7), p. 837</ref><ref>"A late baptistery may be noted for its indication of changes prompted by the general practice of infant baptism.", Ferguson, ''Baptism in the early church: history, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries'' (Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-2748-7), p. 838</ref> but also states "The predominant number of baptismal fonts permitted immersion, and many were so large as to defy any reason for their existence other than immersion".<ref>Ferguson, ''Baptism in the early church: history, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries'' (Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-2748-7), p. 834</ref>


The five most commonly cited professional archaeological studies carried out in the last twenty five years agree on the same conclusions on the archaeological and literary evidence. On the basis of archaeological and textual evidence, Sanford La Sor (1987), considers it likely that the archaeological evidence favours total immersion.<ref>"The philological evidence is technical and inconclusive. But the archaeological and Mishnaic evidence seems to support the argument for immersion. That is clearly what occurred in the contemporaneous Jewish miqva’ot, so that is probably what happened in early Jewish Christian baptism", Sanford La Sor, 'Discovering What Jewish Miqva’ot Can Tell Us About Christian Baptism', Biblical Archaeology Review, (1987), 13.01</ref> Lothar Heiser (1986),<ref>Die Taufe in der orthdoxen Kirche: Geschicte, Spendung, und Symbolik nach der Lehre der Vater (Trier, Paulinus, 1987), pp. 101-102</ref> likewise understands the literary and pictorial evidence to indicate total immersion.<ref>"The conclusions of Lothar Heiser on the administration of baptism after examining the literary and pictorial evidence accord with mine: the water customarily reached the hips of the baptizand; after calling on the triune God, the priest bent the baptizand under so as to dip him in water over the head; in the cases of pouring in the Didache and in sickbed baptism the baptized did not stand in the font.", Ferguson, ''Baptism in the early church: history, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries'' (Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-2748-7), p. 860</ref> Jean-Charles Picard (1989),<ref>Actes du Xie Congres International d'Archeologie Chretienne, Lyone, Vienne, Grenoble, Geneve et Aoste, 21-28 septembre 1986 (Vatican, 1989), Vol. 2, pp. 1451-68 (1455, 1457, 1459, 1462-63)</ref> reaches the same conclusion,<ref>"Jean-Charles Picard, working with the literary texts but correlating them with archaeological sources for southern France and northern Italy, concludes that the authors who furnish details of the baptismal rite speak only of immersion. Tinguere, merreger, and submergere seem to imply a total immersion, and he notes that there is no ancient representation where the celebrant pours water on the head of the baptized.", Ferguson, ''Baptism in the early church: history, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries'' (Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-2748-7), p. 852</ref> and so does Malka Ben Pechat (1989).<ref>""Consequently I have come to the conclusion that an adult of average height should have adapted himself, helped by the priest, to the dimensions of the font and to its internal design by taking an appropriate position which would have enabled him to dip and rise [sic] his head without losing his balance. Either bending his knees, kneeling, or sitting, an adult could have been totally immersed as required in fonts from 1.30m to 60cm deep."", Ferguson, ''Baptism in the early church: history, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries'' (Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-2748-7), p. 852</ref> The latest comprehensive survey of previous studies and examination of the archaeological and literary evidence in combination, a study by Everett Ferguson (2009), confirms the findings of La Sor, Heiser, Picard, and Pechat.<ref>"The Christian literary sources, backed by secular word usage and Jewish religious immersions, give an overwhelming support for full immersion as the normal action. Exceptions in cases of lack of water and especially of sickbed baptism were made. Submersion was undoubtedly the case for the fourth and fifth centuries in the Greek East, and only slightly less certain for the Latin West.", Ferguson, ''Baptism in the early church: history, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries'' (Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-2748-7), p. 891</ref><ref>"The express statements in the literary sources, supported by other hints, the depictions in art, and the very presence of specially built baptismal fonts, along with their size and shape, indicate that the normal procedure was for the administrator with his head on the baptizand's head to bend the upper part of the body forward and dip the head under the water.", Ferguson, ''Baptism in the early church: history, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries'' (Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-2748-7), pp. 857-858</ref>
The five most commonly cited professional archaeological studies carried out in the last twenty five years agree on the same conclusions on the archaeological and literary evidence. On the basis of archaeological and textual evidence, Sanford La Sor (1987), considers it likely that the archaeological evidence favours total immersion.<ref>"The philological evidence is technical and inconclusive. But the archaeological and Mishnaic evidence seems to support the argument for immersion. That is clearly what occurred in the contemporaneous Jewish miqva’ot, so that is probably what happened in early Jewish Christian baptism", Sanford La Sor, 'Discovering What Jewish Miqva’ot Can Tell Us About Christian Baptism', Biblical Archaeology Review, (1987), 13.01</ref> Lothar Heiser (1986),<ref>Die Taufe in der orthdoxen Kirche: Geschicte, Spendung, und Symbolik nach der Lehre der Vater (Trier, Paulinus, 1987), pp. 101-102</ref> likewise understands the literary and pictorial evidence to indicate total immersion.<ref>"The conclusions of Lothar Heiser on the administration of baptism after examining the literary and pictorial evidence accord with mine: the water customarily reached the hips of the baptizand; after calling on the triune God, the priest bent the baptizand under so as to dip him in water over the head; in the cases of pouring in the Didache and in sickbed baptism the baptized did not stand in the font.", Ferguson, ''Baptism in the early church: history, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries'' (Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-2748-7), p. 860</ref> Jean-Charles Picard (1989),<ref>Actes du Xie Congres International d'Archeologie Chretienne, Lyone, Vienne, Grenoble, Geneve et Aoste, 21-28 septembre 1986 (Vatican, 1989), Vol. 2, pp. 1451-68 (1455, 1457, 1459, 1462-63)</ref> reaches the same conclusion,<ref>"Jean-Charles Picard, working with the literary texts but correlating them with archaeological sources for southern France and northern Italy, concludes that the authors who furnish details of the baptismal rite speak only of immersion. Tinguere, merreger, and submergere seem to imply a total immersion, and he notes that there is no ancient representation where the celebrant pours water on the head of the baptized.", Ferguson, ''Baptism in the early church: history, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries'' (Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-2748-7), p. 852</ref> and so does Malka Ben Pechat (1989).<ref>""Consequently I have come to the conclusion that an adult of average height should have adapted himself, helped by the priest, to the dimensions of the font and to its internal design by taking an appropriate position which would have enabled him to dip and rise [sic] his head without losing his balance. Either bending his knees, kneeling, or sitting, an adult could have been totally immersed as required in fonts from 1.30m to 60cm deep."", Ferguson, ''Baptism in the early church: history, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries'' (Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-2748-7), p. 852</ref> The latest comprehensive survey of previous studies and examination of the archaeological and literary evidence in combination, a study by Everett Ferguson (2009), confirms the findings of La Sor, Heiser, Picard, and Pechat.<ref>"The Christian literary sources, backed by secular word usage and Jewish religious immersions, give an overwhelming support for full immersion as the normal action. Exceptions in cases of lack of water and especially of sickbed baptism were made. Submersion was undoubtedly the case for the fourth and fifth centuries in the Greek East, and only slightly less certain for the Latin West.", Ferguson, ''Baptism in the early church: history, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries'' (Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-2748-7), p. 891</ref><ref>"The express statements in the literary sources, supported by other hints, the depictions in art, and the very presence of specially built baptismal fonts, along with their size and shape, indicate that the normal procedure was for the administrator with his head on the baptizand's head to bend the upper part of the body forward and dip the head under the water.", Ferguson, ''Baptism in the early church: history, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries'' (Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-2748-7), pp. 857-858</ref>

Revision as of 10:56, 27 November 2010

Immersion baptism (also known as baptism by immersion or, if the immersion is total, baptism by submersion) is a method of baptism that is distinguished from baptism by affusion (pouring) and by aspersion (sprinkling), sometimes without specifying whether the immersion is total or partial,[1][2][3][4][5] but very commonly with the indication that the person baptized is immersed completely.[6][7][8][9]

Less common interpretation of "immersion baptism": (15th-century painting by Masaccio, Brancacci Chapel, Florence)
More common interpretation of "immersion baptism" (baptism by submersion in a North American church)

The term is less commonly applied to some specific mode of baptism that involves partial, not total, immersion. Thus, some scholars use it of a mode of baptism by the partial immersion of a person whose head is dipped in water.[10][11][12] Others use it to refer to a mode of baptism through partial immersion of a person who stands or kneels in water, while the baptizer pours water on his or her upper body, a mode of baptism that these writers distinguish from affusion baptism.[13][14][15][16]

Word meanings

Meaning of the English word immersion

The English word immersion is derived from the late Latin noun immersionem, which is turn comes from the Latin verb immergere (in- "into" + mergere "plunge", "dip")[17] It can be qualified as "total" or "partial". Standard general English dictionaries register its use in connection with baptism in the sense of submersion,[18] but also in the sense of partial immersion.[19][20] And thesauri (which group together words with similar meanings, in contrast to dictionaries, which give definitions) include "submersion" among words that have a similar meaning.

Meaning of the Greek word baptizo in the New Testament

Modern professional lexicography defines βαπτίζω as dip, plunge or immerse,[21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34] but never as standing in water having water poured over the head, which standard Bible dictionaries define as affusion.[35][36][37][38][39][40][41] Although the Greek word βαπτίζω does not exclusively mean dip, plunge or immerse (outside the New Testament it is used with literal and figurative meanings such as 'sink', 'overwhelmed', 'go under', overborne'[42]), lexical sources note that this is the usual meaning of the word in both the Septuagint[43][44][45] and the New Testament.[46]

For more details concerning the meaning of the word baptizo in the Greek of the New Testament, see New Testament meaning of the word.

Baptism in the New Testament

A river baptism, by submersion, in North Carolina at the turn of the 20th century

Christian theologians such as John Piper use several parts of the New Testament to support full immersion (submersion) as the intended form of baptism:

1) The meaning of the word baptizo in Greek is essentially "dip" or "immerse," not sprinkle, 2) The descriptions of baptisms in the New Testament suggest that people went down into the water to be immersed rather than having water brought to them in a container to be poured or sprinkled (Matthew 3:6, "in the Jordan;" 3:16, "he went up out of the water;" (John 3:23, "much water there;" (Acts 8:38, "went down into the water"). 3) Immersion fits the symbolism of being buried with Christ (Romans 6:1–4; Colossians 2:12).[47]

Baptism by submersion in a river

R. T. France uses similar arguments:

The fact that he chose a permanent and deep river suggests that more than a token quantity of water was needed, and both the preposition "in" (the Jordan) and the basic meaning of the verb "baptize" probably indicate immersion. In v. 16 Matthew will speak of Jesus "coming up out of the water".[48]

The question of the precise meaning of the word βαπτίζω, as used in the New Testament, is dealt with above.

On Piper's assertions about "going down into" and "coming up out of" water and John's baptizing in a certain place because there was "much water there", and on the symbolism in the writings of Paul, Eerdmans Bible Dictionary, which uses "immersion" in the sense of "total immersion", says

The baptism of 3000 in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:41), a city without a river, casts doubt on the usual assumption that all NT baptisms were by immersion. Indeed, it can be questioned whether the NT proves that immersion was used at all (though almost certainly it was). Ancient iconography persistently shows Jesus standing in water to his waist (hence the going down and the coming up of the Synoptics and of the story of the eunuch in Act 8:36-38, as well as the need for abundant water in John 3:23), with the Baptizer pouring water over Jesus' head. When churches began to build baptisteries, some were deep enough to stand in but not broad enough to lie down in – a strange fact if immersion was the invariable mode handed down from the apostles. Rom 6:4 may refer to mode as well as meaning; but that is not certain; it could also refer to timing, if baptism in Rome during Paul's time was administered primarily at Easter, as certainly it was there in subsequent centuries.[49]

With regard to the two Pauline metaphors regarding baptism, Howard Marshall agrees with this analysis: "There are only two passages relating to Christian baptism in the New Testament which might be taken to demand as their background the practice of immersion. These are Rom 6.4 and Col 2.12 where the plunging of the baptized beneath the water and their return to the surface has often been thought to symbolize their death, burial and resurrection with Christ. The analogy between baptism and dying and rising with Christ is not uncommon at the sermonic level, but there is less unanimity among the more recent commentators. But it is important to note that the source of Paul's language would appear to lie not so much in an interpretation of the rite of immersion as in the historical facts of Christ's death and resurrection. The theological point which Paul is making is thus not drawn from baptism as such but from the historical fact of what happened to Christ, and hence it is not tied to a particular mode of baptism."[50]

With regard to the going down into water for baptism, mentioned by Piper and France, the same Greek preposition εἰς is used when immersion in the sense of submersion is clearly not implied, as when Peter is told to go to the sea and take the first fish that came up (Matthew 17:27). In chapter 8 of the Acts of the Apostles, in which Philip and the Ethiopian eunuch are said to have both gone down "into the water", the preposition εἰς appears 11 times, but only once is it commonly translated as "into"; in the other verses in which it appears it is best translated as "to".[51] The same ambiguity pertains to the preposition ἐκ.[52]

Members of some modern churches thus claim different interpretations of what is supposed to be implicit in the Biblical descriptions and metaphors concerning baptism.[53][54]

Earliest description of Christian baptism outside the New Testament

The Didache or Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, an anonymous book of 16 short chapters, is probably the earliest known written instructions, outside of the Bible, for administering baptism. The first version of it was written c. 60–80 AD.[55] The second, with insertions and additions, was written c. 100–150 AD.[55] This work, rediscovered in the 19th century, provides a unique look at Christianity in the Apostolic Age. Its instructions on baptism are as follows:

Now about baptism: this is how to baptize. Give public instruction on all these points, and then baptize in running water, in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit.. If you do not have running water, baptize in some other. If you cannot in cold, then in warm. If you have neither, then pour water on the head three times in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Before the baptism, moreover, the one who baptizes and the one being baptized must fast, and any others who can. And you must tell the one being baptized to fast for one or two days beforehand.[56][57]

This text did not prescribe whether the immersion in the water should be total or not.[58]

Archaeological evidence

Baptism in early Christian art.
Catacombs of San Callisto: Baptism in a 3rd-century painting

The five most commonly cited professional archaeological studies carried out in the last twenty five years agree on the same conclusions on the archaeological and literary evidence. On the basis of archaeological and textual evidence, Sanford La Sor (1987), considers it likely that the archaeological evidence favours total immersion.[59] Lothar Heiser (1986),[60] likewise understands the literary and pictorial evidence to indicate total immersion.[61] Jean-Charles Picard (1989),[62] reaches the same conclusion,[63] and so does Malka Ben Pechat (1989).[64] The latest comprehensive survey of previous studies and examination of the archaeological and literary evidence in combination, a study by Everett Ferguson (2009), confirms the findings of La Sor, Heiser, Picard, and Pechat.[65][66]


The same view is found in various reference works commenting on early church practice. A recent Bible encyclopedia speaks of the "consensus of scholarly opinion" that the baptismal practice of John the Baptist and the apostles was by immersion.[67] Another encyclopedia notes that the preference of the Early Church was total immersion in a stream or the sea or, if these were not available, in a fountain or bath-sized tank,[68] and a standard Bible dictionary says that baptism was normally by immersion.[69] Among other sources, Old says that immersion (though not the only form), was normally used,[70] Grimes says "There is little doubt that early Christian baptism was adult baptism by immersion.",[71] Marshall says "it is clear that immersion was the general rule",[72] Guy says "immersion was probably the norm",[73] Tischler says that total immersion "seems to have been most commonly used",[74] and Stander and Louw argue that immersion was the prevailing practice of the Early Church.[75][76]

Later use

Immersion baptism, understood as required total submersion of the body is required by Baptists, as enunciated in the 1689 Baptist Catechism: "Baptism is rightly administered by immersion, or dipping the whole body of the person in water, in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit",[77] indicating that the whole body must be immersed, not just the head.

Immersion baptism as some define it on the basis of archeological evidence, was generally employed at least from the 2nd century, yielding to the affusion method in the West from about the 8th century, but still in use in the East.[15] It is also the form presented in the Key of Truth, the text described as the manual of the old Armenian Baptists,[78] which lays down that the person to be baptized "shall come on his knees into the midst of the water" and there make a profession of faith to "the elect one", who "instantly takes the water into his hands, and ... shall directly or indirectly empty out the water over the head",[79]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Baptism (Gr. baptizein, 'to dip in water') Initiation into the Christian faith through a worship ceremony in which water is applied by sprinkling (aspersion), pouring (affusion), or immersion while the Trinitarian formula is spoken … Main modes of baptism are immersion (dipping or plunging), pouring (affusion), and sprinkling (aspersion)." – Donald K. McKim, Westminster Dictionary of Theological Terms (Westminster John Knox Press 1996), p. 25
  2. ^ "Baptism. The practice of sprinkling with, pouring on or immersing in water as an act of Christian initiation and obedience to Christ’s own command." – Grenz, Guretzki & Nordling (eds.), Pocket dictionary of theological terms (Intervarsity Press 1999), p. 18
  3. ^ "In Christianity, baptism—either by plunging in water or by sprinkling with it—represents the first act of incorporation 'into Christ' and into the fellowship of the church." – Fahlbusch & Bromiley (eds.), The Encyclopedia of Christianity, volume 1, (Eerdmans,1999-2003), p. 183
  4. ^ "The word baptism is a transliteration of the Greek word baptizo which means to plunge, to dip, or to immerse. … In New Testament times baptism was by a single immersion, with triple immersions appearing only later; occasionally, in cases of sickness or lack of water, affusion was practiced" – Myers, A. C., The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary (Eerdmans 1987), p. 123
  5. ^ "Some form of immersion is envisaged, although affusion is allowed if running or standing water is lacking: 'If you do not have either, pour water three times on the head'." – Martin, R. P., & Davids, P. H. (2000). Dictionary of the later New Testament and its developments (electronic ed.).
  6. ^ "Immersion, Baptism by (BAP-tih-zuhm bai ih-MER-shuhn): A method of baptizing whereby the whole person is submerged in water three times while the Trinitarian formula is pronounced. In the Rite of Baptism, immersion is indicated as the first way to baptize. For immersion, the candidate steps down or into a pool of water at waist height." – Stravinskas, Catholic Dictionary (Our Sunday Visitor 1993, 2002), p. 402
  7. ^ ""While much debate has focused on the varying interpretations of the forms of baptism, each form (immersion, sprinkling, or pouring) is clearly associated with the concept of cleansing and identification, which are the two integral parts of Spirit baptism. Immersion, however, depicts more clearly the symbolic aspect of baptism since its three steps—immersion (going into the water), submersion (going under the water), and emersion (coming out of the water)—more closely parallel the concept of entering into the death of Christ, experiencing the forgiveness of sins, and rising to walk in the newness of Christ’s resurrected life (Rom 6:4)." – Douglas, & Tenney (eds.), New International Bible Dictionary (Zondervan 1987), p. 124
  8. ^ "According to the rules of by far the largest portion of the Christian Church the water may be used in any one of three ways: immersion, where the recipient enters bodily into the water, and where, during the action, the head is plunged either once or three times beneath the surface; affusion, where water is poured upon the head of the recipient who stands either in water or on dry ground; and aspersion, where water is sprinkled on the head or on the face.
    1. Immersion It has frequently been argued that the word baptízein invariably means 'to dip' or 'immerse' and that therefore Christian baptism must have been performed originally by immersion only, and that the other two forms, infusion and aspersion, are invalid – that there can be no real baptism unless the method of immersion be used. But the word that invariably means 'to dip' is not baptízein but báptein; baptízein has a wider signification; and its use to denote the Jewish ceremonial of pouring water on the hands (Lk. 11:38; Mk. 7:4), as has already been said, shows that it is impossible to conclude from the word itself that immersion is the only valid method of performing the rite. ... When immersion was used the head of the recipient was plunged thrice beneath the surface at the mention of each name of the trinity; when the mode was by affusion the same reference to the trinity was kept by pouring water thrice upon the head. The two usages that were recognized and prescribed by the beginning of the 2nd cent. may have been in use throughout the apostolic period, although definitive information is lacking." T.M. Lindsay, Baptism. Reformed View, in Bromiley (ed.) 'The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Revised', volume 1, page 419 (1988; 2002)
  9. ^ 'One of their strongest arguments revolves around the Greek word for baptism in the New Testament. Its predominant meaning is “to immerse” or “to dip,” implying that the candidate was plunged beneath the water.', Youngblood, R. F., Bruce, F. F., Harrison, R. K., & Thomas Nelson Publishers. (1995). Nelson's new illustrated Bible dictionary
  10. ^ "There are four principal methods of baptizing: (1) submersion (or total immersion) ; (2) immersion, when the head is dipped with or without the candidate standing in the water; (3) affusion, when water is poured over the head and (4) …" (John Gordon Davies, The Architectural Setting of Baptism. Barrie and Rockliff 1962. p. 23).
  11. ^ "The four principal modes are: 1. Submersion; or total immersion, where the candidate goes briefly but entirely below the water, on the model of those baptised by John in the River Jordan; 2. Immersion; where the head, as the prime seat of Man's rational and spiritual being, is in some way submerged, with or without the candidate having to stand in the same container of water; 3. Affusion; …" (Charles Thomas, Christianity in Roman Britain to A.D. 500. University of California Press 1981 ISBN 0-520-04392-8. p, 204
  12. ^ "In the early Church baptism was by one of four methods: complete submersion of the entire body, immersion of the head, affusion or pouring, or aspersion or sprinkling" (Steven J. Schloeder, Architecture in Communion. Ignatius Press 1998 ISBN 0-89870-631-9. p. 113).
  13. ^ "There have been four different modes of conferring baptism throughout history: (1) submersion, also called dipping, in which the candidate is completely submerged under the baptismal waters; (2) immersion, in which the candidate stands or kneels in rather shallow water, and the water is either poured over the head of the candidate or the candidate's head itself is pushed partially into the water; (3) affusion, in which water is poured over the head of the candidate; and (4) aspersion …" (S. Anita Stauffer, On Baptismal Fonts: Ancient and Modern. Grove Books 1994, pp. 9-10).
  14. ^ "In the early centuries baptism was usually by immersion. However, this need not have meant full submersion in the water. Early Christian mosaics portray persons kneeling or standing in the baptismal pool with water being poured over them" (Peter C. Bower, 'The Companion to the Book of Common Worship. Geneva Press 2003 ISBN 0-664-50232-6, p. 163).
  15. ^ a b "A method of Baptism, employed at least from the 2nd cent., whereby part of the candidate's body was submerged in the baptismal water which was poured over the remainder. The rite is still found in the E. Church. In the W. it began to be replaced from c. the 8th cent. By the method of affusion, though its use was still being encouraged in the 16th cent., as it still is in the Anglican and RC Churches" (Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3, art. immersion).
  16. ^ "Immersion (Latin – past participle of immergere = immersum) A method of baptism whereby part of the candidate's body is submerged, whilst the baptismal water is poured over the remainder. To be distinguished from submersion or total immersion" (Tony Meakin, A Basic Church Dictionary. Canterbury Press 2001 ISBN 1-85311-420-0, p. 18).
  17. ^ Online Etymology Dictionary
  18. ^ "im•mer•sion \i-ˈmər-zhən, -shən\ noun - 15th century : the act of immersing or the state of being immersed: as a : baptism by complete submersion of the person in water; b: ...", Merriam-Webster, I. (2003). Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary. (Eleventh ed.)
  19. ^ "Baptism by immersing a person bodily (but not necessarily completely) in water" (Oxford Dictionaries).
  20. ^ "A form of baptism in which part or the whole of a person's body is submerged in the water" (World English Dictionary).
  21. ^ 'In Gk. lit. gener. to put or go under water in a variety of senses, also fig., e.g. ‘soak’ Pla., Symp. 176b in wine) in our lit. only in ritual or ceremonial sense (as Plut.; Herm. Wr. [s. 2a below]; PGM 4, 44; 7, 441 λουσάμενος κ. βαπτισάμενος; 4 Km 5:14; Sir 34:25; Jdth 12:7; cp. Iren. 1, 21, 3 [Harv. I 183, 83]).', Arndt, W., Danker, F. W., & Bauer, W. (2000). A Greek-English lexicon of the New Testament and other early Christian literature (3rd ed.) (164)
  22. ^ 'The intens. [βαπτίζω occurs in the sense of “to immerse” (trans.) from the time of Hippocrates, in Plato and esp. in later writers, a. strictly, act. βαπτίζειν τὸ σκάφος, “to sink the ship,” Jos. Bell., 3, 368, ὁ κλύδων (τὰς ναῦς) ἐβάπτιζεν, Bell., 3, 423; pass. “to sink”: ἐν ὕλῃ (in the mud), Plot. Enn., I, 8, 13 (I, p. 112, 6, Volkmann; → 532)', Theological dictionary of the New Testament. 1964- (G. Kittel, G. W. Bromiley & G. Friedrich, Ed.) (electronic ed.), volume 1 (530)
  23. ^ 'βαπτίζω, dip, plunge, ξίφος εἰς σφαγήν J.BJ2.18.4; σπάθιον εἰς τὸ ἔμβρυον Sor.2.63', Liddell, H. G., Scott, R., Jones, H. S., & McKenzie, R. (1996). A Greek-English lexicon (Rev. and augm. throughout) (305)
  24. ^ 'βαπτίζω fut. βαπτίσω; 1aor. ἐβάπτισα, mid. ἐβαπτισάμην; pf. pass. ptc. βεβαπτισμένος; 1aor. pass. ἐβαπτίσθην; 1fut. pass. βαπτισθήσομαι; strictly dip, immerse in water;', Friberg, T., Friberg, B., & Miller, N. F. (2000). Vol. 4: Analytical lexicon of the Greek New Testament. Baker's Greek New Testament library (87)
  25. ^ 'βαπτίζω baptízō; fut. baptísō, from báptō (911), to dip. Immerse, submerge for a religious purpose, to overwhelm, saturate, baptize (John 1:25).', Zodhiates, S. (2000). The complete word study dictionary : New Testament (electronic ed.)
  26. ^ '; βαπτίζω G970 (baptizō), dip, immerse, submerge, baptize;', Brown, C. (1986). Vol. 1: New international dictionary of New Testament theology (144)
  27. ^ 'Despite assertions to the contrary, it seems that baptizō, both in Jewish and Christian contexts, normally meant “immerse”, and that even when it became a technical term for baptism, the thought of immersion remains.', Brown, C. (1986). Vol. 1: New international dictionary of New Testament theology (144)
  28. ^ 'Βάπτω dip, immerse.', Balz, H. R., & Schneider, G. (1990-). Vol. 1: Exegetical dictionary of the New Testament (196).
  29. ^ 'In the Sept.: 2 Kgs. 5:13, 14 we have loúō (3068), to bathe and baptízomai. See also Lev. 11:25, 28, 40, where plúnō (4150), to wash clothes by dipping, and loúō (3068), to bathe are used. In Num. 19:18, 19, báphō, to dip, and plúnō, to wash by dipping are used', Zodhiates, S. (2000, c1992, c1993). The Complete Word Study Dictionary : New Testament (electronic ed.) (G908). Chattanooga, TN: AMG Publishers.
  30. ^ 'In the LXX βάπτειν (βαπτίζειν occurs only at 4 Βασ. 5:14) as a rendering of טָבַל, “to dip,” is used for the dipping of the morsel in wine at Ru. 2:14, of feet in the river at Jos. 3:15, of the finger in blood in the Torah of sacrifices at Lv. 4:6, 17 etc., of the dipping of unsanctified vessels in water in the laws of purification at Lv. 11:32 (בא hiph)', Theological dictionary of the New Testament. 1964-c1976. Vols. 5-9 edited by Gerhard Friedrich. Vol. 10 compiled by Ronald Pitkin. (G. Kittel, G. W. Bromiley & G. Friedrich, Ed.) (electronic ed.) (1:535). Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.
  31. ^ 'Ex 12,22; Lv 4,6.17; 9,9; 11,32 to immerse sth in sth [פי וἴע פי] Lv 9,9; id. [פי ἔם פיםי] Dt 33,24; id. [פי ἀנ פיםןע] Ex 12,22; to plunge or to dip sb in sth [פיםב ἔם פיםי] Jb 9,31', Lust, J., Eynikel, E., & Hauspie, K. (2003). A Greek-English Lexicon of the Septuagint : Revised Edition. Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft: Stuttgart.
  32. ^ גבנפזש+ V 0-1-1-0-2=4 2 Kgs 5,14; Is 21,4; Jdt 12,7; Sir 34,25 M to dip oneself 2 Kgs 5,14; to wash Jdt 12,7', Lust, J., Eynikel, E., & Hauspie, K. (2003). A Greek-English Lexicon of the Septuagint : Revised Edition
  33. ^ '[966] גבנפזש baptizō 77x pr. to dip, immerse; to cleanse or purify by washing; to administer the rite of baptism, to baptize;', Mounce, W. D. (2006). Mounce's complete expository dictionary of Old & New Testament words (1104–1105)
  34. ^ 1. In the LXX baptō usually translates the OT Heb. ṭāḇal, dip (13 times; on 3 occasions baptō represents other vbs.). baptizō occurs only 4 times: in Isa. 21:4 it is used metaphorically of destruction, but in 2 Ki. 5:14 it is used in the mid. of Naaman’s sevenfold immersion in the Jordan (the only passages as equivalent for Heb. ṭāḇal).', Brown, C. (1986). Vol. 1: New international dictionary of New Testament theology (144).
  35. ^ 'When immersion was used the head of the recipient was plunged thrice beneath the surface at the mention of each name of the trinity; when the mode was by affusion the same reference to the trinity was kept by pouring water thrice upon the head.', Lindsay, 'Baptism', in Bromiley (ed.) 'The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Revised', volume 1, page 419 (1988; 2002)
  36. ^ 'the pictorial representations, almost without exception, display baptism performed by affusion, i.e., the recipient is seen standing in water while the minister pours water on the head.', Lindsay, 'Baptism', in Bromiley (ed.) 'The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Revised', volume 1, page 419 (1988; 2002)
  37. ^ 'During the great baptismal scene in the marketplace of the city of Mnster the ordinance was performed by the ministers pouring three cans of water on the heads of the recipients. They baptized by affusion and not by immersion.', Lindsay, 'Baptism', in Bromiley (ed.) 'The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Revised', volume 1, page 419 (1988; 2002)
  38. ^ 'Some form of immersion is envisaged, although affusion is allowed if running or standing water is lacking: “If you do not have either, pour water three times on the head.”', Martin, R. P., & Davids, P. H. (2000). Dictionary of the later New Testament and its developments (electronic ed.).
  39. ^ 'The "pouring on of water" ("affusion"), which is mentioned as early as the Didache, was another early form of baptism.', Jeffrey, 'A Dictionary of biblical tradition in English literature', page 75 (1992)
  40. ^ 'One of their strongest arguments revolves around the Greek word for baptism in the New Testament. Its predominant meaning is “to immerse” or “to dip,” implying that the candidate was plunged beneath the water.', Youngblood, R. F., Bruce, F. F., Harrison, R. K., & Thomas Nelson Publishers. (1995). Nelson's new illustrated Bible dictionary
  41. ^ 'The Gk verb for “baptize,” baptizein, is formed from baptein, “dip,” and means “dip frequently or intensively, plunge, immerse.”', Freedman, D. N. (1996). Vol. 1: The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary (583)
  42. ^ Theological dictionary of the New Testament. 1964-c1976. Vols. 5-9 edited by Gerhard Friedrich. Vol. 10 compiled by Ronald Pitkin. (G. Kittel, G. W. Bromiley & G. Friedrich, Ed.) (electronic ed.) (1:529-530). Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.
  43. ^ 'In the Sept.: 2 Kgs. 5:13, 14 we have loתפ (3068), to bathe and baptםzomai. See also Lev. 11:25, 28, 40, where plתnפ (4150), to wash clothes by dipping, and loתפ (3068), to bathe are used. In Num. 19:18, 19, bבphפ, to dip, and plתnפ, to wash by dipping are used', Zodhiates, S. (2000, c1992, c1993). The Complete Word Study Dictionary : New Testament (electronic ed.) (G908). Chattanooga, TN: AMG Publishers.
  44. ^ 'In the LXX גנפוים (גבנפזוים occurs only at 4 ֲבף. 5:14) as a rendering of טָבַל, “to dip,” is used for the dipping of the morsel in wine at Ru. 2:14, of feet in the river at Jos. 3:15, of the finger in blood in the Torah of sacrifices at Lv. 4:6, 17 etc., of the dipping of unsanctified vessels in water in the laws of purification at Lv. 11:32 (בא hiph)', Theological dictionary of the New Testament. 1964-c1976. Vols. 5-9 edited by Gerhard Friedrich. Vol. 10 compiled by Ronald Pitkin. (G. Kittel, G. W. Bromiley & G. Friedrich, Ed.) (electronic ed.) (1:535). Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.
  45. ^ 'Ex 12,22; Lv 4,6.17; 9,9; 11,32 to immerse sth in sth [פי וἴע פי] Lv 9,9; id. [פי ἔם פיםי] Dt 33,24; id. [פי ἀנ פיםןע] Ex 12,22; to plunge or to dip sb in sth [פיםב ἔם פיםי] Jb 9,31', Lust, J., Eynikel, E., & Hauspie, K. (2003). A Greek-English Lexicon of the Septuagint : Revised Edition. Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft: Stuttgart.
  46. ^ 'In Mark 7:3, the phrase “wash their hands” is the translation of nםptפ (3538), to wash part of the body such as the hands. In Mark 7:4 the verb wash in “except they wash” is baptםzomai, to immerse. This indicates that the washing of the hands was done by immersing them in collected water. See Luke 11:38 which refers to washing one’s hands before the meal, with the use of baptםzomai, to have the hands baptized.', Zodhiates, S. (2000, c1992, c1993). The Complete Word Study Dictionary : New Testament (electronic ed.) (G907). Chattanooga, TN: AMG Publishers.
  47. ^ John Piper, Sermon on May 25, 1997, "What Baptism Portrays"
  48. ^ R. T. France, 'The Gospel of Matthew', 2007), p. 109
  49. ^ David Noel Freeman (editor), Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible (Eerdmans 2000), p. 148
  50. ^ Howard Marshall, "The Meaning of the Verb "Baptize", in Porter, Cross (editors), Dimensions of Baptism: Biblical and Theological Studies (Sheffield Academic Press 2002 ISBN 0-8264-6203-0), pp. 21-22.
  51. ^ William Shishko, "Is Immersion Necessary for Baptism" in IIIM Magazine Online. Volume 4, Number 28, July 17 to July 24, 2002, p. 5
  52. ^ Online Parallel Bible
  53. ^ "To restate what is absolutely clear, we know the Bible prescribes for baptism to be with water in the name of the Holy Trinity. The Church is to baptize, and Christians are to be baptized. Not so certain is the mode or manner" (David A. Banks, The Church and Baptism - Modes and Symbolism).
  54. ^ David A. Banks, The Church and Baptism - Modes and Symbolism"it is not self-evident that what is described is definitively prescribed."
  55. ^ a b Funk, Robert Walter (1993). "Stages in the Development of Early Christian Tradition". The Five Gospels: The Search for the Authentic Words of Jesus : New Translation and Commentary. New York City: Macmillan Publishers. p. 128. ISBN 0-02-541949-8. OCLC 28421734. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  56. ^ Didache, 7, translation by Cyril C. Richardson
  57. ^ A more literal translation is: "Now concerning baptism, baptize thus: Having first taught all these things, baptize ye into the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, in living water. And if thou hast not living water, baptize into other water; and if thou canst not in cold, then in warm (water). But if thou hast neither, pour [water] thrice upon the head in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. But before Baptism let the baptizer and the baptized fast, and any others who can; but thou shalt command the baptized to fast for one or two days before" (Philip Schaff's translation). Other translations are given at Early Christian Writings.
  58. ^ "The Didache does not say, however, whether immersion or pouring was recommended when using running water" (James V. Brownson, The Promise of Baptism (Eerdmans 2007 ISBN 978-0-8028-3307-5), pp. 74-75
  59. ^ "The philological evidence is technical and inconclusive. But the archaeological and Mishnaic evidence seems to support the argument for immersion. That is clearly what occurred in the contemporaneous Jewish miqva’ot, so that is probably what happened in early Jewish Christian baptism", Sanford La Sor, 'Discovering What Jewish Miqva’ot Can Tell Us About Christian Baptism', Biblical Archaeology Review, (1987), 13.01
  60. ^ Die Taufe in der orthdoxen Kirche: Geschicte, Spendung, und Symbolik nach der Lehre der Vater (Trier, Paulinus, 1987), pp. 101-102
  61. ^ "The conclusions of Lothar Heiser on the administration of baptism after examining the literary and pictorial evidence accord with mine: the water customarily reached the hips of the baptizand; after calling on the triune God, the priest bent the baptizand under so as to dip him in water over the head; in the cases of pouring in the Didache and in sickbed baptism the baptized did not stand in the font.", Ferguson, Baptism in the early church: history, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries (Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-2748-7), p. 860
  62. ^ Actes du Xie Congres International d'Archeologie Chretienne, Lyone, Vienne, Grenoble, Geneve et Aoste, 21-28 septembre 1986 (Vatican, 1989), Vol. 2, pp. 1451-68 (1455, 1457, 1459, 1462-63)
  63. ^ "Jean-Charles Picard, working with the literary texts but correlating them with archaeological sources for southern France and northern Italy, concludes that the authors who furnish details of the baptismal rite speak only of immersion. Tinguere, merreger, and submergere seem to imply a total immersion, and he notes that there is no ancient representation where the celebrant pours water on the head of the baptized.", Ferguson, Baptism in the early church: history, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries (Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-2748-7), p. 852
  64. ^ ""Consequently I have come to the conclusion that an adult of average height should have adapted himself, helped by the priest, to the dimensions of the font and to its internal design by taking an appropriate position which would have enabled him to dip and rise [sic] his head without losing his balance. Either bending his knees, kneeling, or sitting, an adult could have been totally immersed as required in fonts from 1.30m to 60cm deep."", Ferguson, Baptism in the early church: history, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries (Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-2748-7), p. 852
  65. ^ "The Christian literary sources, backed by secular word usage and Jewish religious immersions, give an overwhelming support for full immersion as the normal action. Exceptions in cases of lack of water and especially of sickbed baptism were made. Submersion was undoubtedly the case for the fourth and fifth centuries in the Greek East, and only slightly less certain for the Latin West.", Ferguson, Baptism in the early church: history, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries (Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-2748-7), p. 891
  66. ^ "The express statements in the literary sources, supported by other hints, the depictions in art, and the very presence of specially built baptismal fonts, along with their size and shape, indicate that the normal procedure was for the administrator with his head on the baptizand's head to bend the upper part of the body forward and dip the head under the water.", Ferguson, Baptism in the early church: history, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries (Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-2748-7), pp. 857-858
  67. ^ "Lexicographers universally agree that the primary meaning of baptizo G966 is 'to dip' or 'to immerse", and there is a similar consensus of scholarly opinion that both the baptism of John and of the apostles was by immersion", Jewett, "Baptism", in Murray (ed.), "Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible, volume 1, p.466 (rev. ed. 2009).
  68. ^ "The earliest preference was for baptism in running streams or in the sea (Mark 1:9; Acts 8:36; Didache 7). Next in preference was total immersion in a fountain or bath-sized tank (Tertullian, Baptism 4). Total immersion recalled the abyss of the Flood or the Red Sea, and reemergence into the light of day reenacted the death and resurrection of Jesus (Rom. 6:1-5). Here the covered and ornamented baptistery at Dura Europos takes pride of place (see ARCHAEOLOGY).’, Flinn, ‘Encyclopedia of Catholicism’, article “Baptism”, Encyclopedia of World Religions, 2007), p. 52
  69. ^ "Baptism was normally by immersion either in the river or in the bath-house of a large house", Dowley (ed.), "Eerdman's Handbook to the History of Christianity", p.10 (1977).
  70. ^ "We imagine that immersion was used normally, but on the basis of the New Testament it is hard to insist that immersion was the only form used.", Old, "The Shaping of the Reformed Baptismal Rite in the Sixteenth Century", p. 268 (1992).
  71. ^ Grimes, "Deeply Into the Bone: Re-Inventing Rites of Passage", p. 50 (2002).
  72. ^ "Our study has not attempted to demonstrate that affusion rather than immersion was the practice in New Testament times, since it is clear that immersion was the general rule;", Marshall, "The Meaning of the Verb 'Baptize'", in Porter & Cross (eds.), "Dimensions of Baptism: biblical and theological studies", Journal for the Study of the New Testament, Supplement Series, 234, p. 23 (2003).
  73. ^ "We can be fairly sure that early baptism was not normally by sprinkling. Other possible alternatives were pouring (affusion) and immersion. Probably immersion was the norm.", Guy, "Introducing Early Christianity: a Topical Survey of its Life, Beliefs, and Practices", p. 224 (2004).
  74. ^ "In the early days of the Church, total immersion, often in streams or rivers, seems to have been most commonly used (Mark 1:9; Acts 8:3). It is not clear whether all baptism was through total immersion.", Tischler, "All Things in the Bible: A-L", p. 59 (2006).
  75. ^ "Stander and Louw comment, “Obviously the phrases ‘going down’ and ‘coming up’ are used to focus on the two processes involved in immersion.”", Ware, "Believers' Baptism View", in Wright, et al. (eds.), "Baptism: Three Views", p. 22 (2009).
  76. ^ "Stander and Louw, Baptism in the Early Church, p. 25, argue similarly for understanding the prevailing practice of the early church to be that of immersion from several other citations of various church fathers and documents, included among them Aristides of Athens, Clement of Alexandria (p. 31), Tertullian (pp. 36-37), Hippolytus (p. 42) and Basil the Great (who practiced tri-immersion, p. 82).", Ware, "Believers' Baptism View", in Wright, et al. (eds.), "Baptism: Three Views", p. 22 (2009).
  77. ^ John Piper. "1689 Baptist Catechism". Retrieved 3 February 2010.
  78. ^ The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica, art. Baptism
  79. ^ The Key of Truth, a Manual of the Paulician Church of Armenia (reproduction 2009 ISBN 978-1-110-36174-8), p. 97
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