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Undid revision 619508449 by Faustian (talk) This article is not Encyclopedia Judaica, and will not be written from a Jewish perspective. There is a Undue Weight in the section.
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===Civilian casualties===
===Civilian casualties===
{{Undue|section|date=June 2014}}
{{Undue|section|date=June 2014}}
The antagonism exhibited towards non-Polish ethnicities by some of Haller's troops directly stemmed from earlier events of the [[Greater Poland Uprising (1918–19)|Greater Poland Uprising]] when Poles rose up against German rule only to find out that the Jews in the region sided with the German authorities, a decision primarily based on economic factors.<ref name="Prusin 2005 pg. 103">{{cite book |author=Alexander Victor Prusin |title=Nationalizing a Borderland: War, Ethnicity, and Anti-Jewish Violence in East Galicia, 1914-1920 |url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=jb5tAAAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=Haller |year=2005 |location=Tuscaloosa, AL |publisher=University of Alabama Press |isbn=0817314598 |page=103 |quote=''Note:'' the exact phrase 'Blue Army' is [http://books.google.ca/books?id=jb5tAAAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=%22Blue+Army%22 not being used] inside this book. It refers to it as Haller's Army}}</ref> As a result, Jews perceived Haller's Army as particularly harmful to their interests.<ref name="bare_url"/><ref name="HeikoHaumann"/><ref name="web"/> Soldiers and officers who targeted local Jewish and Ukrainian civilians believed that they were acting in Poland's defense assuming that the victims were collaborating with their enemies, either the [[Ukrainian Galician Army]] or Bolshevik Russia.<ref name="threatening"/> In some areas, local Jews openly sided with the Ukrainians; Jewish civic committees actively recruited able-bodied men to fight in the [[Ukrainian Galician Army]], and Jewish youth served as scouts for the Ukrainian military.<ref name="Alexander Victor Prusin 2005 pg. 100">Alexander Victor Prusin (2005). ''Nationalizing a Borderland: War, Ethnicity, and Anti-Jewish Violence in East Galicia, 1914-1920''. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, pg. 100."</ref> But, many of the civilians targeted were not hostile to the Polish military in any way.<ref name="binghamton"/> Some of the more significant incidents of abuse were inflicted by the Polish-American volunteers. It is likely that the cultural shock of finding themselves confronted by a multitude of unfamiliar ethnic, political and religious groups that inhabited Western Ukraine led to a feeling of vulnerability, that in turn provoked the violent outbursts.<ref name="Eichenberg"/> The Blue Army enjoyed independence from the main Polish command and exploited this when engaging in undisciplined action against Jewish communities in Galicia. <ref> Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 9. (2007) Entry ''Haller's Army (Blue Army).'' Entry written by Moshe Landau. Editted by Fred Skolnik, Michael Berenbaum. Granite Hill. </ref>
The antagonism exhibited towards non-Polish ethnicities by some of Haller's troops directly stemmed from earlier events of the [[Greater Poland Uprising (1918–19)|Greater Poland Uprising]] when Poles rose up against German rule only to find out that the Jews in the region sided with the German authorities, a decision primarily based on economic factors.<ref name="Prusin 2005 pg. 103">{{cite book |author=Alexander Victor Prusin |title=Nationalizing a Borderland: War, Ethnicity, and Anti-Jewish Violence in East Galicia, 1914-1920 |url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=jb5tAAAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=Haller |year=2005 |location=Tuscaloosa, AL |publisher=University of Alabama Press |isbn=0817314598 |page=103 |quote=''Note:'' the exact phrase 'Blue Army' is [http://books.google.ca/books?id=jb5tAAAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=%22Blue+Army%22 not being used] inside this book. It refers to it as Haller's Army}}</ref> As a result, Jews perceived Haller's Army as particularly harmful to their interests.<ref name="bare_url"/><ref name="HeikoHaumann"/><ref name="web"/> Soldiers and officers who targeted local Jewish and Ukrainian civilians believed that they were acting in Poland's defense assuming that the victims were collaborating with their enemies, either the [[Ukrainian Galician Army]] or Bolshevik Russia.<ref name="threatening"/> In some areas, local Jews openly sided with the Ukrainians; Jewish civic committees actively recruited able-bodied men to fight in the [[Ukrainian Galician Army]], and Jewish youth served as scouts for the Ukrainian military.<ref name="Alexander Victor Prusin 2005 pg. 100">Alexander Victor Prusin (2005). ''Nationalizing a Borderland: War, Ethnicity, and Anti-Jewish Violence in East Galicia, 1914-1920''. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, pg. 100."</ref> But, many of the civilians targeted were not hostile to the Polish military in any way.<ref name="binghamton"/> Some of the more significant incidents of abuse were inflicted by the Polish-American volunteers. It is likely that the cultural shock of finding themselves confronted by a multitude of unfamiliar ethnic, political and religious groups that inhabited Western Ukraine led to a feeling of vulnerability, that in turn provoked the violent outbursts.<ref name="Eichenberg"/>


After arriving in [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]], individual soldiers engaged in acts of violence against the local Jewish populations.<ref name="international"/> In [[Częstochowa]] on 27 May 1919 a soldier by the name of Stanislaw Dziadecki who served in one of the Blue Army's rifle divisions was shot and wounded while on patrol in an apparent sniper attack, a local Jewish tailor who sympathized with the Bolshevik cause was suspected of committing the attack.<ref name="Wakounig2012">{{cite book|author=Marija Wakounig|title=From Collective Memories to Intercultural Exchanges|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5e5w8T1DNWwC&pg=PA196|date=28 November 2012|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|isbn=978-3-643-90287-0|page=196}}</ref> In an effort to apprehend the suspect, Haller's troops aided by local Polish civilians conducted a three hour assault on the town's Jewish quarter that left 5 Jews dead and 45 wounded.<ref name="Carole Finke 2006 pg. 230">Carole Finke. (2006). Defending the Rights of Others The Great Powers, the Jews, and International Minority Protection, 1878–1938. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pg. 230</ref> As the army traveled further east, some of Haller's soldiers as a way to exact retribution — according to historian Pavel Korzec; looted Jewish houses, pushed local Jews off moving trains and with their bayonets cut off the beards of Orthodox Jews. Also, historian Alexander Victor Prusin stated that Haller's troops along with the Poznań regiments committed [[pogroms]] in [[Sambir]], the area around [[Lviv]] and Grodek Jagiellonski.<ref name="Prusin 2005 pg. 103"/> However, those locations were not named by the joint Anglo-American Investigating Commission in the [[Morgenthau Report]], as sites where significant "excesses" occurred during the war.<ref>David Engel. Poles, Jews, and Historical Objectivity. Slavic Review, Vol. 46, No. 3/4 (Autumn - Winter, 1987), pp. 568-580. See also Mission of The United States to Poland, Henry Morgenthau, Sr. Report</ref>
After arriving in [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]], individual soldiers engaged in acts of violence against the local Jewish populations.<ref name="international"/> In [[Częstochowa]] on 27 May 1919 a soldier by the name of Stanislaw Dziadecki who served in one of the Blue Army's rifle divisions was shot and wounded while on patrol in an apparent sniper attack, a local Jewish tailor who sympathized with the Bolshevik cause was suspected of committing the attack.<ref name="Wakounig2012">{{cite book|author=Marija Wakounig|title=From Collective Memories to Intercultural Exchanges|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5e5w8T1DNWwC&pg=PA196|date=28 November 2012|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|isbn=978-3-643-90287-0|page=196}}</ref> In an effort to apprehend the suspect, Haller's troops aided by local Polish civilians conducted a three hour assault on the town's Jewish quarter that left 5 Jews dead and 45 wounded.<ref name="Carole Finke 2006 pg. 230">Carole Finke. (2006). Defending the Rights of Others The Great Powers, the Jews, and International Minority Protection, 1878–1938. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pg. 230</ref> As the army traveled further east, some of Haller's soldiers as a way to exact retribution — according to historian Pavel Korzec; looted Jewish houses, pushed local Jews off moving trains and with their bayonets cut off the beards of Orthodox Jews. Also, historian Alexander Victor Prusin stated that Haller's troops along with the Poznań regiments committed [[pogroms]] in [[Sambir]], the area around [[Lviv]] and Grodek Jagiellonski.<ref name="Prusin 2005 pg. 103"/> However, those locations were not named by the joint Anglo-American Investigating Commission in the [[Morgenthau Report]], as sites where significant "excesses" occurred during the war.<ref>David Engel. Poles, Jews, and Historical Objectivity. Slavic Review, Vol. 46, No. 3/4 (Autumn - Winter, 1987), pp. 568-580. See also Mission of The United States to Poland, Henry Morgenthau, Sr. Report</ref>

Revision as of 08:52, 2 August 2014

For other uses, see Blue Army (disambiguation).
Blue Army or Haller's Army
Blue Army troops and General Józef Haller, c.1918
Active1917 - 1921
Country France, Third Republic  Poland, Second Republic
BranchPolish Legions
Size68,500
EngagementsWorld War I, Polish–Ukrainian War, Polish–Soviet War
Commanders
GeneralJózef Haller de Hallenburg

The Blue Army (Polish: Błękitna Armia), or Haller's Army was a Polish military contingent created in France during the latter stages of World War I. The name comes from the blue army uniforms worn by the soldiers. The symbolic term used to describe the troops was subsequently adopted by General Józef Haller de Hallenburg to represent all newly organized Polish Legions fighting in western Europe.

The army was formed on 4 June 1917, composed of Polish volunteers serving alongside the allied forces in France. After fighting on the Western Front during World War I, the army was transferred to Poland where it joined other Polish military formations battling in the east. During the Polish-Ukrainian War, the Blue Army helped to break a stalemate in Poland's favor. Also, during the Polish-Bolshevik War Haller's troops played a critical role in the country's successful defense against the advancing Bolshevik forces.

During the fighting on the Ukrainian front elements of the Blue Army were involved in acts of violence directed against segments of the local Jewish population,[1][2][3] where political Jewish organizations found themselves sharing ideological platforms with Bolshevik Russia, as well as with socialist elements in Western Ukraine and post-war revolutionary Germany.[4][neutrality is disputed]

History

Background

Komitet Narodowy Polski (Polish National Committee) sanctioned by France and other Western Allies as a provisional Polish government in Paris, 1918

The emergence of the Blue Army was closely associated with the American entry into World War I in April, 1917. A month earlier, Ignacy Paderewski submitted a proposal in the House[clarification needed] to accept Polish-American volunteers for service on the Western Front in the name of Poland's independence. Some 24,000 Poles were taken in (out of 38,000 who applied)[5] and after a brief military training, they were sent to France to join General Haller,[6] including many women volunteers (PSK). Polish-Americans were eager to fight for freedom and the American-style democracy because they themselves escaped persecution by the empires who partitioned Poland a century earlier.[7] When the war erupted, the American Polonia created the Polish Central Relief Committee to help with the war effort, although ethnically Polish volunteers arrived in France from all Polish diasporas at the same time numbering over 90,000 soldiers eventually.[5] The Entente responded in kind by recognizing the Polish National Committee formed in France (led by Dmowski) as Poland's interim government, with Wilson's written promise (issued on 8 January 1918) to recreate sovereign Polish state after their victory. Poland's long-term occupier, the Tsarist Russia, got out of the war as first, overrun by the Bolsheviks who signed a treaty in Brest-Litovsk on 3 March 1918. The imperial Germany surrendered in the 11 November 1918 armistice.[6]

The Blue Army was formally merged into the Polish Army after the Armistice between the Allies and Germany.[5] Meanwhile, three interim Polish governments emerged independently of each other. A socialist government led by Daszyński was formed in Lublin. The National Committee emerged in Kraków. Daszyński (lacking support)[8] decided to join forces with Piłsudski who was just released by the Germans from Magdeburg. On 16 November 1918 Poland declared independence.[6] A decree defining the new republic was issued in Warsaw on 22 November 1918. A month later Paderewski joined in from France. At about the same time, heavily armed Ukrainians from the Sitchovi Stril'ci (Sitch Riflemen) seized the city of Lwów, and the battle for the control of the city erupted against the Piłsudski's legionaries.[8] It was a high stakes gamble with all sides attempting to set a new reality on the ground ahead of the European peace conference in Versailles of January, 1919. Similar Polish uprisings erupted in Poznań on 27 December 1918,[8] Upper Silesia in August, 1919 than again in 1920 and May, 1921 — separated by the ad-hoc (or outright illegitimate) plebiscites with trainloads of German agents acting as local inhabitants.[6] In the spring of 1919, the Blue Army (no longer needed in the West) was transported to Poland by train. The German forces were very slow to withdraw.[8] In all, some 2,100 soldiers of the Blue Army who enlisted in France from the Polish diasporas died in the fighting including over 50 officers serving with Haller. Over 1,600 men were wounded.[5] The Haller's army included 25,000 ethnic Poles drafted against their will by the German and Austrian armies, out of 50,000 conscripts from across the partitioned Poland. They joined Haller from the POW camps in Italy in 1919.[8] The final borders of Poland were set only in October, 1921 by the League of Nations.[6]

Western Front

Soldiers of the 5th Rifle Division in Siberia, c.1919

The first divisions were formed after the official signing of a 1917 alliance by French President Raymond Poincaré and the Polish statesman Ignacy Jan Paderewski. The majority of the recruits approximately 35,000 of them were either Poles serving in the French Army or former captured Polish prisoners of war, who were conscripted and forced to serve in the German Heer and Austrian Imperial-Royal Landwehr armies. Many other Poles also joined from all over the world—these units included recruits from the United States with an additional 23,000 Polish-American volunteers, and former troops of the Russian Expeditionary Force in France. Also, Polish diaspora form Brazil joined the army with more than 300 men volunteering.

The Blue Army was initially placed under direct French military control and commanded by General Louis Archinard. However, on 23 February 1918 political and military sovereignty was granted to the Polish National Committee and soon thereafter the army was directly commanded by independent Polish authorities. Also, more units were formed, most notably the 4th and 5th Rifle Divisions in Russia. On 28 September 1919 Russian government officials formally signed an agreement with the Entente that officially recognized the Polish military units in France as "the only independent, allied and co-belligerent Polish army". On 4 October 1918 the National Committee appointed General Józef Haller de Hallenburg as chief commander of the Polish Legions in France.

The first unit to enter combat on the Western Front was the 1st Rifle Regiment (1 Pułk Strzelców Polskich) fighting from July, 1918 in Champagne and the Vosges mountains. By October the entire 1st Rifle Division had joined the campaign around the area of Rambervillers and Raon-l'Étape.

Transfer to Poland

American recruitment poster for the Polish Army in France by W.T. Benda

The army continued to gather new recruits after the end of World War I. Many of these new volunteers were ethnic Poles who were conscripted into the German, Austrian and Russian armies, and later discharged following the signing of the armistice agreement on 11 November 1918 . By early 1919, the Blue Army numbered 68,500 men and was fully equipped by the French government. After being denied permission by German officials to enter Poland via the Baltic port city of Danzig (Gdańsk) transportation was arranged via rail. Between April and June of that year, all the army units were moved to a newly independent Poland, across Germany in sealed train cars. Weapons were secured in separate compartments and kept under guard to appease German concerns about a foreign army traversing its territory. Immediately after its arrival, the divisions were integrated into the regular Polish Army and sent to the front lines to fight in the Polish-Ukrainian War, which was being contested in eastern Galicia.

The perilous journey from France (through revolutionary Germany) to Poland in the spring of 1919 has been documented by those who lived through it.

Captain Stanislaw I. Nastal: Preparations for the departure lasted for some time. The question of transit became a difficult and complicated problem. Finally after a long wait a decision was made and officially agreed upon between the Allies and Germany.

The first transports with the Blue Army set out in the first half of April, 1919. Train after train tore along though Germany to the homeland, to Poland.[9]

Major Stefan Wyczolkowski: On 15 April 1919 the regiment began its trip to Poland from the Bayon railroad station in four transports, via Mainz, Erfurt, Leipzig, Kalisz, and Warsaw, and arrived in Poland, where it was quartered in individual battalions; in Chełm 1st Battalion, supernumerary company and command of the regiment; 3rd Battalion in Kowel; and the 2nd Battalion in Wlodzimierz.[10]

Major Stanislaw Bobrowski: On 13 April 1919 the regiment set out across Germany for Poland, to reinforce other units of the Polish army being created in the homeland amid battle, shielding with their youthful breasts the resurrected Poland.[11]

Major Jerzy Dabrowski: Finally on 18 April 1919 the regiment’s first transport set out for Poland. On 23 April 1919 the leading divisions of the 3rd Regiment of Polish Riflemen set foot on Polish soil, now free thanks to their own efforts.[12]

Lt. Wincenty Skarzynski: Weeks passed. April, 1919 arrived – then plans were changed: it was decided irrevocably to transport our army to Gdańsk instead by trains, through Germany. Many officers came from Poland, among them Major Gorecki, to coordinate technical details with General Haller.[13]

After World War I

Blue Army's FT-17 tanks near the city of Lwów (Lviv); Polish–Ukrainian War, c.1919

Haller's troops changed the balance of power in Galicia and Volhynia. Their arrival allowed the Poles to repel the Ukrainians and establish a demarcation line at the river Zbruch on 14 May 1919. The Blue Army was equipped by the Western Allies, and supported by experienced French officers specifically ordered to fight against the Bolsheviks, but not the forces of the Western Ukrainian People's Republic. Despite the diplomatic conditions, the Poles dispatched Haller's Army against the Ukrainians first, instead of the Bolsheviks. The tactical initiative was done in order to break the stalemate in eastern Galicia. In response, the allies sent several telegrams ordering the Polish government to halt its offensive, as using the allied-equipped army against the Western Ukrainian People's Republic specifically contradicted the status of the French military advisors, but the demands were ignored,[14] with Poles remarking that "all Ukrainians were Bolsheviks".[15]

In July, 1919 the Blue Army was transferred to the border with Germany in Silesia, where it prepared defensive positions against a possible German invasion of Poland from the west.

Haller's well trained and highly motivated troops — as well as their British build Bristol F.2 reconnaissance planes, Italian made Ansaldo A.1 Balilla fighters and excellent French FT-17 tanks — formed the core of Poland's armed forces during the ensuing Polish-Bolshevik War, and turned the tide of the battle in favor of Poland.

Polish-Americans who fought in the Blue Army. Image taken in Detroit, Michigan (1955) and featured in Life Magazine

Postwar

The Blue Army's 15th Infantry Rifle Regiment formed a basis for the 49th Hutsul Rifle Regiment (part of the 11th Carpathian Infantry Division) after the end of World War I.

During the Communist crackdown in Poland after World War II, most of the history related to the Polish-Soviet War and the Blue Army was censored, distorted and repressed by the Soviet authorities.

Controversies

Civilian casualties

The antagonism exhibited towards non-Polish ethnicities by some of Haller's troops directly stemmed from earlier events of the Greater Poland Uprising when Poles rose up against German rule only to find out that the Jews in the region sided with the German authorities, a decision primarily based on economic factors.[16] As a result, Jews perceived Haller's Army as particularly harmful to their interests.[17][18][19] Soldiers and officers who targeted local Jewish and Ukrainian civilians believed that they were acting in Poland's defense assuming that the victims were collaborating with their enemies, either the Ukrainian Galician Army or Bolshevik Russia.[20] In some areas, local Jews openly sided with the Ukrainians; Jewish civic committees actively recruited able-bodied men to fight in the Ukrainian Galician Army, and Jewish youth served as scouts for the Ukrainian military.[21] But, many of the civilians targeted were not hostile to the Polish military in any way.[22] Some of the more significant incidents of abuse were inflicted by the Polish-American volunteers. It is likely that the cultural shock of finding themselves confronted by a multitude of unfamiliar ethnic, political and religious groups that inhabited Western Ukraine led to a feeling of vulnerability, that in turn provoked the violent outbursts.[2]

After arriving in Galicia, individual soldiers engaged in acts of violence against the local Jewish populations.[3] In Częstochowa on 27 May 1919 a soldier by the name of Stanislaw Dziadecki who served in one of the Blue Army's rifle divisions was shot and wounded while on patrol in an apparent sniper attack, a local Jewish tailor who sympathized with the Bolshevik cause was suspected of committing the attack.[23] In an effort to apprehend the suspect, Haller's troops aided by local Polish civilians conducted a three hour assault on the town's Jewish quarter that left 5 Jews dead and 45 wounded.[24] As the army traveled further east, some of Haller's soldiers as a way to exact retribution — according to historian Pavel Korzec; looted Jewish houses, pushed local Jews off moving trains and with their bayonets cut off the beards of Orthodox Jews. Also, historian Alexander Victor Prusin stated that Haller's troops along with the Poznań regiments committed pogroms in Sambir, the area around Lviv and Grodek Jagiellonski.[16] However, those locations were not named by the joint Anglo-American Investigating Commission in the Morgenthau Report, as sites where significant "excesses" occurred during the war.[25]

In an effort to curb the abuses, General Józef Haller himself issued a proclamation demanding that his soldiers stop cutting off beards of Orthodox Jews.[26] Also, in due course the individual soldiers involved in confirmed acts of antisemitism did receive punishment for their abusive actions. To counter some of the false or exaggerated claims of antisemitism that were reported by the press, Polish Government officials supported by their French allies, noted that many of the alleged antisemitic tracts attributed to the Blue Army were in fact a product of willful disinformation based purely on hearsay and confabulation emanating from Russian and German government sources in an effort to discredit the new Polish Government, and in the process weaken the much needed Allied support for the new Polish State.[3]

In the year and a half prior to the Blue Army's arrival, the total number of Jewish casualties in the region was no more than 400-500; Haller's troops doubled this number.[27] As a result of the Blue Army's activities, General Haller's visit to the United States was met with protests from American Jewish and Ukrainian communities.[28][29] The character of Jewish losses was described by sociologist Tadeusz Piotrowski as minimal in comparison to the number of Poles and Ukrainians killed in the region, and that in most cases it was impossible to disentangle gratuitous antisemitism from commonplace looting and brutality of the soldiery. Also, the application of the term "pogrom" in the accepted sense of the deliberate lynching of Jewish civilians could not be applied to the great majority of the incidents which occurred.[30]

Wrongful accusations

The Blue Army was wrongly accused of committing pogroms in Lida on 14 April 1919 by historian Shmuel Spector and Lviv on 21 November 1918 by historian William W. Hagen,[31] with researcher Edward Goldstein disputing the claims of involvement by pointing to the fact that it was not until April, 1919 that the army finally started to move from France to Poland, and that Haller's troops in the past have been blamed for crimes carried out by others.[32]

Also, according to historian Kay Lundgreen-Nielsen the first units of the army did not leave France until 15 April 1919[33] and the Cambridge History of Poland,[34] along with Kronika Polski [35] both list 14 April 1919 as the start of the first transfers form the Western Front to Poland.

Personnel

Jewish volunteers

Despite examples of violence perpetrated against segments of the local Jewish population by some troops within the Blue Army,[17][18][32] thousands of Polish Jews enlisted and fought alongside ethnic Poles serving as soldiers, doctors and nurses.[36] Some even received an officer's commission and took up leadership positions. Jews serving in the Blue Army's 43rd Regiment of Eastern Frontier Riflemen were listed as combat fatalities and researcher Edward Goldstein has identified approximately five percent of the unit's battle casualties as having a Jewish background.[32]

Veteran status of Polish-American volunteers

After the war, the Polish-American volunteers who served within Haller's Army were not recognized as veterans by either the American or Polish governments. This led to friction between the Polish community in the United States and the Polish government and resulted in the subsequent refusal by Polish-Americans to again help the Polish cause militarily.[37]

Order of battle

  • I Polish Corps
  • II Polish Corps
  • III Polish Corps
    • 3rd Rifle Division
    • 6th Rifle Division
    • 3rd Heavy Artillery Regiment
  • Independent Units
    • 7th Rifle Division
    • Training Division - cadre
    • 1st Tank Regiment

See also

Bibliography

  • M. B. Biskupski, "Canada and the Creation of a Polish Army, 1914-1918," Polish Review (1999) 44#3 pp 339–380
  • Joseph T. Hapak, "Selective service and Polish Army recruitment during World War I," Journal of American Ethnic History (1991) 10#4 pp 38–60[38]
  • Paul Valasek, Haller's Polish Army in France, Chicago, 2006

References

  1. ^ Heiko Haumann. (2002). A History of East European Jews. Central European University Press. pg. 215
  2. ^ a b Julia Eichenberg (2010).The Dark Side of Independence: Paramilitary Violence in Ireland and Poland after the First World War Contemporary European history, 19, pp.231-248, Cambridge University Press
  3. ^ a b c Carole Fink. (2006).Defending the Rights of Others: The Great Powers, the Jews, and International Minority Protection, 1878-1938. Cambridge University Press, pg. 227
  4. ^ Holly Case, Cornell University (6 September 2011). "Review of Carole Fink, Defending the Rights of Others" (PDF file, direct download 146 KB). H-Diplo Review (at) H-Net: Humanities and Social Sciences Online. Cambridge University Press, 2006. p. 4. Retrieved 2013-04-11.
  5. ^ a b c d Carol R. Ember, Melvin Ember, Ian Skoggard (2005). Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World. Springer. p. 260. ISBN 0306483211.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ^ a b c d e Halik Kochanski (2012). The Eagle Unbowed. Harvard University Press. pp. 5–9.
  7. ^ Anna D. Jaroszynska-Kirchmann (2013). Polish American Press, 1902–1969. Lexington Books. pp. 464–.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  8. ^ a b c d e William Fiddian Reddaway (1971). The Cambridge History of Poland. CUP Archive. pp. 477–.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  9. ^ The Blue Division, Stanislaw I. Nastal, Polish Army Veteran’s Association in America, Cleveland, Ohio 1922 [page needed]
  10. ^ Outline of the Wartime History of the 43rd regiment of the Eastern Frontier Riflemen, Major Stefan Wyczolkowski, Warsaw 1928 [page needed]
  11. ^ Outline of the Wartime History of the 44th Regiment of Eastern Frontier Riflemen, Major Stanislaw Bobrowski, Warsaw 1929 [page needed]
  12. ^ Outline of the Wartime History of the 45th Regiment of Eastern Frontier Infantry Riflemen, Major Jerzy Dabrowski, Warsaw 1928 [page needed]
  13. ^ The Polish Army in France in Light of the Facts, Wincenty Skarzynski, Warsaw 1929 [page needed]
  14. ^ Watt, R. (1979). Bitter Glory: Poland and its fate 1918-1939. New York: Simon and Schuster. [page needed]
  15. ^ Subtelny, op. cit., p. 370
  16. ^ a b Alexander Victor Prusin (2005). Nationalizing a Borderland: War, Ethnicity, and Anti-Jewish Violence in East Galicia, 1914-1920. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press. p. 103. ISBN 0817314598. Note: the exact phrase 'Blue Army' is not being used inside this book. It refers to it as Haller's Army {{cite book}}: External link in |quote= (help)
  17. ^ a b Pavel Korzec. (1993). Polish-Jewish Relations During World War I. In Hostages of modernization: studies on modern antisemitism, 1870-1933/39, Volume 2 Herbert Strauss, Ed. Walter de Gruyter: pp.1034-1035
  18. ^ a b Heiko Haumann. (2002). A history of East European Jews Central European University Press, pg. 215
  19. ^ Justyna Wozniakowska. (2002). Master's Thesis, Central European University Nationalism Studios Program CONFRONTING HISTORY, RESHAPING MEMORY: THE DEBATE ABOUT JEDWABNE IN THE POLISH PRESS pg. 22
  20. ^ Joanna B. Michlic. (2006). Poland's threatening other: the image of the Jew from 1880 to the present . University of Nebraska Press, pg. 117
  21. ^ Alexander Victor Prusin (2005). Nationalizing a Borderland: War, Ethnicity, and Anti-Jewish Violence in East Galicia, 1914-1920. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, pg. 100."
  22. ^ Feigue Cieplinski. "Poles and Jews: The Quest For Self-Determination 1919-1934" Binghampton Journal of History, University of Binghamptom, 6 May 2012.
  23. ^ Marija Wakounig (28 November 2012). From Collective Memories to Intercultural Exchanges. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 196. ISBN 978-3-643-90287-0.
  24. ^ Carole Finke. (2006). Defending the Rights of Others The Great Powers, the Jews, and International Minority Protection, 1878–1938. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pg. 230
  25. ^ David Engel. Poles, Jews, and Historical Objectivity. Slavic Review, Vol. 46, No. 3/4 (Autumn - Winter, 1987), pp. 568-580. See also Mission of The United States to Poland, Henry Morgenthau, Sr. Report
  26. ^ American Jewish Committee.(1920). American Jewish year book, Volume 22 . Jewish Publication Society of America pg. 250
  27. ^ Howard M. Sachar. (2007). Dreamland: Europeans and Jews in the Aftermath of the Great War, Random House LLC: page 25.
  28. ^ General Haller's Visit to Boston Curtailed Jewish Telegraphic Agency. November 27, 1923
  29. ^ Bnai Brith of Boston Decry Reception to Haller Jewish Telegraphic Agency. November 13, 1923
  30. ^ Tadeusz Piotrowski. (1998). Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918-1947, McFarland: page 43.
  31. ^ William W. Hagen. Murder in the East: German-Jewish Liberal Reactions to Anti-Jewish Violence in Poland and Other East European Lands, 1918–1920. Central European History, Volume 34, Number 1, 2001 , pp. 1-30. Page 8.
  32. ^ a b c Goldstein, Edward. Jews in Haller's Army. [1] The Galitzianer, the quarterly journal of Gesher Galicia, May 2002.
  33. ^ Kay Lundgreen-Nielsen, The Polish problem at the Paris Peace Conference: a study of the policies of the Great Powers and the Poles, 1918-1919, pg. 225, Odense University Press, 1979
  34. ^ William Fiddian Reddaway, The Cambridge history of Poland, Volume 2, pg. 477, Cambridge University Press, 1971.
  35. ^ Andrzej Nowak, Kronika Polski, Kluszczynski Publishers, 1998 [page needed]
  36. ^ The New York Times. May 27, 1919. HALLER OFFICER; De Wolski Says Stories Do Injustice to Jews in the PolishArmy.
  37. ^ Martin Conway, José Gotovitch. (2001). Europe in exile: European exile communities in Britain, 1940-1945. Berghahn Books pg. 191
  38. ^ Stanley R. Pliska, "The 'Polish-American Army' 1917-1921," The Polish Review (1965) 10#1 pp 46-59.
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