Closing the Wearable Gap—Part V: Development of a Pressure-Sensitive Sock Utilizing Soft Sensors
<p>Testing platform consisting of: (<b>a</b>) ten C-SRSs, (<b>b</b>) BodiTrak<sup>TM</sup> Vector Plate, (<b>c</b>) rubber flooring, (<b>d</b>) Kistler<sup>TM</sup> Force Plates, and (<b>e</b>) foam force plate surround.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Sensor orientation on the gridded BodiTrak<sup>TM</sup> Vector Plate. Anterior–posterior (A/P) relates to the anterior and posterior direction of the sensors. Medial–lateral (M/L) relates to the medial-lateral direction of the sensors.</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Pictures of the three movements, (<b>a</b>) squats, (<b>b</b>) shifting right to left, and (<b>c</b>) shifting toes to heels. Visual heat map of the individual pressure cells and center-of-pressure output (red dot with trail) from BodiTrak<sup>TM</sup> Pro 6.0. White cells indicate 5 mmHg (1 kPa) increasing pressures to red indicating 2068.8 mmHg (276 kPa).</p> "> Figure 4
<p>Sample data graphed to show percentage change comparisons of BodiTrak<sup>TM</sup> Vector Plate cells and left heel C-SRSs in the A/P orientation during (<b>a</b>) shifting right to left, (<b>b</b>) shifting toe to heel, and (<b>c</b>) squatting. The vertical axis represents percentage of change from minimum and maximum over horizontal axis of time. The blue line represents the left lateral heel sensor; the orange line represents the left medial sensor. The grey line represents the individual BodiTrak<sup>TM</sup> Vector Plate cell (D11) which correlates to the lateral left heel sensor. The yellow line represents the individual BodiTrak<sup>TM</sup> Vector Plate cell (D12) which correlates to the left medial sensor.</p> "> Figure 4 Cont.
<p>Sample data graphed to show percentage change comparisons of BodiTrak<sup>TM</sup> Vector Plate cells and left heel C-SRSs in the A/P orientation during (<b>a</b>) shifting right to left, (<b>b</b>) shifting toe to heel, and (<b>c</b>) squatting. The vertical axis represents percentage of change from minimum and maximum over horizontal axis of time. The blue line represents the left lateral heel sensor; the orange line represents the left medial sensor. The grey line represents the individual BodiTrak<sup>TM</sup> Vector Plate cell (D11) which correlates to the lateral left heel sensor. The yellow line represents the individual BodiTrak<sup>TM</sup> Vector Plate cell (D12) which correlates to the left medial sensor.</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Comparison of C-SRSs to ground reaction forces during shifting of right to left with sensors in M/L orientation. The vertical axis represents percentage of change over horizontal axis of time. The blue line represents the sum of pressures percentage changes in the left foot C-SRSs. The grey line represents the vertical (Z-axis) GRFs from the left Kistler<sup>TN</sup> Force Plate. The orange line represents the sum of pressures percentage changes in the right foot C-SRSs. The yellow line represents the vertical (Z-axis) GRFs from the right Kistler<sup>TM</sup> Force Plate.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Study Design
2.3. Instrumentation and Participant Preparation
2.4. Movements
2.5. Experimental Procedures
2.6. Data Processing
2.7. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Comparison of C-SRS to the BodiTrakTM Vector Plate
3.2. Comparison of C-SRS to Force Plates
3.3. Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average
3.4. Sensor Orientation
4. Discussion
4.1. Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average Model (ARIMA)
4.2. Mean R2
4.3. Mean RMSE
4.4. GRPS Applications and Configurations
4.5. Limitations
4.6. Future Research
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Left Foot | Right Foot | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Squat C-SRSs in A/P Orientation | Squat C-SRSs in M/L Orientation | Squat C-SRSs in A/P Orientation | Squat C-SRSs in M/L Orientation | |||||
Mean R | SD | Mean R | SD | Mean R | SD | Mean R | SD | |
Lateral Heel | 0.796 | 0.129 | 0.789 | 0.118 | 0.6839 | 0.312 | 0.526 | 0.468 |
Medial Heel | 0.692 | 0.253 | 0.659 | 0.168 | 0.68 | 0.336 | 0.964 | 0.274 |
Fifth Metatarsal | 0.699 | 0.258 | 0.704 | 0.158 | 0.69 | 0.207 | 0.614 | 0.255 |
Mid-Metatarsal | 0.681 | 0.326 | 0.685 | 0.224 | 0.682 | 0.188 | 0.753 | 0.129 |
First Metatarsal | 0.755 | 0.192 | 0.652 | 0.296 | 0.725 | 0.195 | 0.741 | 0.139 |
Right to Left C-SRSs in A/P Orientation | Right to Left C-SRSs in M/L Orientation | Right to Left C-SRSs in A/P Orientation | Right to Left C-SRSs in M/L Orientation | |||||
Mean R | SD | Mean R | SD | Mean R | SD | Mean R | SD | |
Lateral Heel | 0.922 | 0.076 | 0.892 | 0.785 | 0.785 | 0.247 | 0.854 | 0.252 |
Medial Heel | 0.927 | 0.100 | 0.826 | 0.216 | 0.932 | 0.026 | 0.837 | 0.212 |
Fifth Metatarsal | 0.895 | 0.080 | 0.866 | 0.122 | 0.843 | 0.107 | 0.819 | 0.233 |
Mid-Metatarsal | 0.835 | 0.111 | 0.775 | 0.178 | 0.759 | 0.122 | 682.000 | 0.250 |
First Metatarsal | 0.814 | 0.078 | 0.653 | 0.257 | 0.761 | 0.170 | 0.705 | 0.236 |
Toe to Heel C-SRSs in A/P Orientation | Toe to Heel C-SRSs in M/L Orientation | Toe to Heel C-SRSs in A/P Orientation | Toe to Heel C-SRSs in M/L Orientation | |||||
Mean R | SD | Mean R | SD | Mean R | SD | Mean R | SD | |
Lateral Heel | 0.932 | 0.087 | 0.942 | 0.058 | 0.758 | 0.362 | 0.810 | 0.320 |
Medial Heel | 0.911 | 0.113 | 0.947 | 0.031 | 0.918 | 0.101 | 0.945 | 0.030 |
Fifth Metatarsal | 0.863 | 0.112 | 0.859 | 0.068 | 0.792 | 0.086 | 0.874 | 0.097 |
Mid-Metatarsal | 0.916 | 0.075 | 0.821 | 0.247 | 0.874 | 0.097 | 0.861 | 0.159 |
First Metatarsal | 0.861 | 0.085 | 0.885 | 0.092 | 0.757 | 0.157 | 0.826 | 0.158 |
Stretchsense Sensor Correlation to GRFs—Shifting Right to Left | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A/P Sensor Orientation | A/P Sensor Orientation | |||||||
ID | Foot | Left GRF Z | Left GRF X | Left GRF Y | Foot | Right GRF Z | Right GRF X | Right GRF Y |
1 | Left C-SRS | 0.988 ** | 0.894 ** | 0.51 ** | Right C-SRS | 0.986 ** | 0.898 ** | 0.535 ** |
2 | Left C-SRS | 0.968 ** | 0.851 ** | 0.255 ** | Right C-SRS | 0.93 ** | 0.816 ** | 0.298 ** |
3 | Left C-SRS | 0.910 ** | 0.577 ** | 0.894 ** | Right C-SRS | 0.972 ** | 0.663 ** | 0.944 ** |
4 | Left C-SRS | 0.959 ** | 0.944 ** | 0.927 ** | Right C-SRS | 0.947 ** | 0.94 ** | 0.835 ** |
5 | Left C-SRS | 0.910 ** | 0.905 ** | 0.888 ** | Right C-SRS | 0.949 ** | 0.933 ** | 0.429 ** |
6 | Left C-SRS | 0.978 ** | 0.974 ** | 0.954 ** | Right C-SRS | 0.978 ** | 0.974 ** | 0.634 ** |
7 | Left C-SRS | 0.994 ** | 0.989 ** | 0.969 ** | Right C-SRS | 0.952 ** | 0.952 ** | 0.951 ** |
8 | Left C-SRS | 0.940 ** | 0.418 ** | 0.528 ** | Right C-SRS | 0.78 ** | 0.058 | 0.779 ** |
9 | Left C-SRS | 0.918 ** | 0.858 ** | 0.527 ** | Right C-SRS | 0.943 ** | 0.644 ** | 0.872 ** |
10 | Left C-SRS | 0.865 ** | 0.77 ** | 0.545 ** | Right C-SRS | 0.873 ** | 0.638 ** | 0.69 ** |
11 | Left C-SRS | 0.966 ** | 0.886 ** | 0.872 ** | Right C-SRS | 0.967 ** | 0.935 ** | 0.886 ** |
12 | Left C-SRS | 0936 ** | 0.779 ** | 0.122 ** | Right C-SRS | 0.794 ** | 0.544 ** | 0.488 ** |
13 | Left C-SRS | 0.974 ** | 0.644 ** | 0.716 ** | Right C-SRS | 0.936 ** | 0.814 ** | 0.625 ** |
M/L Sensor Orientation | M/L Sensor Orientation | |||||||
ID | Foot | Left GRF Z | Left GRF X | Left GRF Y | Foot | Right GRF Z | Right GRF X | Right GRF Y |
1 | Left C-SRS | 0.966 ** | 0.861 ** | 0.386 ** | Right C-SRS | 0.968 ** | 0.878 ** | 0.396 ** |
2 | Left C-SRS | 0.909 ** | 0.803 ** | 0.391 ** | Right C-SRS | 0.945 ** | 0.909 ** | 0.477 ** |
3 | Left C-SRS | 0.979 ** | 0.644 ** | 0.971 ** | Right C-SRS | 0.977 ** | 0.679 ** | 0.959 ** |
4 | Left C-SRS | 0966 ** | 0.958 ** | 0.944 ** | Right C-SRS | 0.973 ** | 0.968 ** | 0.88 ** |
5 | Left C-SRS | 0.914 ** | 0.923 ** | 0.829 ** | Right C-SRS | 0.93 ** | 0.92 ** | 0.325 ** |
6 | Left C-SRS | 0.989 ** | 0.989 ** | 0.966 ** | Right C-SRS | 0.989 ** | 0.988 ** | 0.828 ** |
7 | Left C-SRS | 0.975 ** | 0.389 ** | 0.759 ** | Right C-SRS | 0.969 ** | 0.157 ** | 0.747 ** |
8 | Left C-SRS | 0.980 ** | 0.452 ** | 0.572 ** | Right C-SRS | 0.971 ** | 0.297 ** | 0.872 ** |
9 | Left C-SRS | 0.926 ** | 0.777 ** | 0.527 ** | Right C-SRS | 0.863 ** | 0.443 ** | 0.772 ** |
10 | Left C-SRS | 0.875 ** | 0.777 ** | 0.533 ** | Right C-SRS | 0.835 ** | 0.765 ** | 0.804 ** |
11 | Left C-SRS | 0.930 ** | 0.831 ** | 0.798 ** | Right C-SRS | 0.983 ** | 0.868 ** | 0.922 ** |
12 | Left C-SRS | 0.900 ** | 0.863 ** | 0.153 ** | Right C-SRS | 0.914 ** | 0.772 ** | 0.705 ** |
13 | Left C-SRS | 0.950 ** | 0.686 ** | 0.486 ** | Right C-SRS | 0.898 ** | 0.754 ** | 0.835 ** |
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Luczak, T.; Burch V, R.F.; Smith, B.K.; Carruth, D.W.; Lamberth, J.; Chander, H.; Knight, A.; Ball, J.E.; Prabhu, R.K. Closing the Wearable Gap—Part V: Development of a Pressure-Sensitive Sock Utilizing Soft Sensors. Sensors 2020, 20, 208. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20010208
Luczak T, Burch V RF, Smith BK, Carruth DW, Lamberth J, Chander H, Knight A, Ball JE, Prabhu RK. Closing the Wearable Gap—Part V: Development of a Pressure-Sensitive Sock Utilizing Soft Sensors. Sensors. 2020; 20(1):208. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20010208
Chicago/Turabian StyleLuczak, Tony, Reuben F. Burch V, Brian K. Smith, Daniel W. Carruth, John Lamberth, Harish Chander, Adam Knight, J.E. Ball, and R.K. Prabhu. 2020. "Closing the Wearable Gap—Part V: Development of a Pressure-Sensitive Sock Utilizing Soft Sensors" Sensors 20, no. 1: 208. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20010208