Abstract
In the foreseeable future there is little likelihood of achieving consensus on the number of Asian primate genera and species, and their subspecific composition. There is a more realistic hope of reaching agreement on the number of recognizable subspecies. The latter objective is more urgent because in order to reliably assess generic and specific numbers, it is essential that effective conservation measures are implemented for as many subspecies as possible. This cannot be comprehensively accomplished until their validity is assessed and they are satisfactorily established and defined. The Asian primate classification that we present is the outcome of electronic communication among the co-authors after a workshop, which was especially convened to attempt to determine the number of recognizable primate subspecies and to identify potentially recognizable subspecies. The generic and specific arrangement is a compromise that does not necessarily reflect the individual views of the co-authors: 183 subspecies in 77 species in 16 genera. The 31 subspecies allotted a low credibility rating are almost balanced by the 22 scientifically unnamed populations that may warrant subspecific status.
Similar content being viewed by others
Reference
Aimi, M., and Bakar, A. (1992). Taxonomy and distribution of Presbytis melalophos group in Sumatera, Indonesia. Primates 33: 191-206.
Allen, G. M., and Coolidge, H. J., Jr. (1940). Mammal and bird collections of the Asiatic Primate Expedition. Mammals. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harv. 87: 131-166.
Andayani, N., Morales, J. C., Forstner, M. R. J., Supriatna, J., and Melnick, D. J. (2001). Genetic variability in mitochondrial DNA of the Javan gibbon (Hylobates moloch): Implications for the conservation of a critically endangered species. Conserv. Biol. 15: 770-775.
Anderson, J. (1879). Anatomical and Zoological Researches: Comprising an Account of the Zoological Results of the Two Expeditions to Western Yunnan in 1868 and 1875; and a Monograph of the Cetacean Genera, Platanista and Orcella, Vol. 1—Text, Bernard Quaritch, London.
Bernstein, I. S. (1970). Some behavioral elements of the Cercopithecoidea. In Napier, J. R. and Napier, P. H. (eds.), Old World Monkeys: Evolution, Systematics, and Behavior, Academic Press, New York, pp. 263-295.
Blyth, E. (1843). Revision of previous report to the Society, Vol. 10, page 839.J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 12: 166-176.
Boestani, A. N., and Smits, W. (1994). Dermatoglyphics of the Bornean and Sumatran orangutan. In XVth Congress of the International Primatological Society, 3–8 August 1994, Kuta-Bali, Indonesia: Handbook and Abstracts, p. 335.
Brandon-Jones, D. (1984). Colobus and leaf monkeys. In Macdonald, D. (ed.), The Encyclopaedia of Mammals, Vol. 1, Allen and Unwin, London, pp. 398-408.
Brandon-Jones, D. (1993). The taxonomic affinities of the Mentawai Islands sureli, Presbytis potenziani (Bonaparte, 1856) (Mammalia: Primates: Cercopithecidae). Raffles Bull. Zool. 41: 331-357.
Brandon-Jones, D. (1995a). A revision of the Asian pied leaf monkeys (Mammalia: Cercopithecidae: Superspecies Semnopithecus auratus), with a description of a new subspecies. Raffles Bull. Zool. 43: 3-43.
Brandon-Jones, D. (1995b). Type localities of the gibbon, Hylobates pileatus Gray, 1861, and the leaf monkey, Presbytis crepuscula wroughtoni Elliot, 1909, collected by A. H. Mouhot. Int. J. Primatol. 16: 537-543.
Brandon-Jones, D. (1996). The Asian Colobinae (Mammalia: Cercopithecidae) as indicators of Quaternary climatic change. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 59: 327-350.
Brandon-Jones, D. (1997). The zoogeography of sexual dichromatism in the Bornean grizzled sureli, Presbytis comata (Desmarest, 1822). Sarawak Mus. J. 50(71): 177-200.
Brandon-Jones, D. (1999). A revision of the Surelis, Genus Presbytis Eschscholtz, 1821 (sensu stricto) (Mammalia: Cercopithecidae), PhD Dissertation, University of London, England.
Brisson, M. J. (1762). Regnum Animale in Classes IX Distributum, Sive Synopsis Methodica..., Haak, Leiden, Ed. 2, 296pp.
Bynum, E. L., Bynum, D. Z., Froehlich, J., and Supriatna, J. (1997). Revised geographic ranges and hybridization in Macaca tonkeana and Macaca hecki. Trop. Biodiversity 4(3): 275-283.
Chasen, F. N. (1935). On mammals from Siam. J. Siam Soc., Nat. Hist. Suppl. 10: 31-57.
Chasen, F. N. (1940). A handlist of Malaysian mammals. Bull. Raffles Mus. 15: i–xx, 1-209.
Chemnick, L. G., and Ryder, O. A. (1994). Cytological and molecular divergence of orangutan subspecies. In Ogden, J. J., Perkins, L. A., and Sheeran, L. K. (eds.), Proceedings of the International Conference on Orangutans: The Neglected Ape, Zoological Society of San Diego, San Diego, pp. 74-78.
Chivers, D. J., and Burton, K. M. (1991). Some observations on the primates of Kalimantan Tengah, Indonesia. Primate Conserv. 9: 138-146. [For date of publication, see Asian Primates, 1991, 1: 1.]
Corbet, G. B., and Hill, J. E. (1992). The Mammals of the Indomalayan Region: A Systematic Review, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Courtenay, J., Groves, C., and Andrews, P. (1988). Inter-or intra-island variation? An assessment of the differences between Bornean and Sumatran orang-utans. In Schwartz, J. H. (ed.), Orang-Utan Biology, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 19-29.
Cracraft, J. (1983). Species concepts and speciation analysis. Curr. Ornithol. 1: 159-187.
Cracraft, J. (1989). Speciation and its ontology: The empirical consequences of alternative species concepts for understanding patterns and processes of differentiation. In Otte, D., and Endler, J. A. (eds.), Speciation and Its Consequences, Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, pp. 28-59.
Dagosto, M., and Gebo, D. L. (1998). A preliminary study of the Philippine tarsier in Leyte. Asian Primates 6(3–4): 4-8.
D[esmarest], E. (1846). Lasiopyga. In d'Orbigny, C. (ed.), Dictionnaire universel d'Histoire Naturelle, Renard, Paris. Martinet, 7: 249. [For date of publication, see Sherborn and Palmer (1899).]
Desmarest, E. (1848). Semnopithèque. In d'Orbigny, C. (ed.), Dictionnaire universel d'Histoire Naturelle, Renard, Paris. Martinet 11: 543-547. [For date of publication, see Sherborn and Palmer (1899).]
Duckworth, J. W., Salter, R. E., and Khounboline, K. (compilers). (1999). Wildlife in Lao PDR: 1999 Status Report, IUCN-The World Conservation Union/Wildlife Conservation Society/Centre for Protected Areas and Watershed Management, Vientiane.
Elliot, D. G. (1910). Descriptions of some new species of monkeys of the genera Pithecus and Pygathrix collected by Dr. W. L. Abbott and presented to the United States National Museum. Proc. U. S. Natn. Mus. 38: 343-352.
Elliot, D. G. (1913). A Review of the Primates (Monograph Series). American Museum of Natural History, New York.
Eudey, A. A. (1998). Asian primate conservation—the species and the IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group network. Primate Conserv. 17: 101-110. [Date of publication from A. B. Rylands, in litt. to D. B.-J.]
Evans, B. J., Morales, J. C., Supriatna, J., and Melnick, D. J. (1999). Origins of the Sulawesi macaques as suggested by mitochondrial DNA phylogeny. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 66: 539-560.
Evans, B. J., Supriatna, J., Andayani, N., and Melnick, D. J. (2003). Diversification of Sulawesi macaque monkeys: Decoupled evolution of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA. Evolution 57: 1931-1946.
Evans, B. J., Supriatna, J., and Melnick, D. J. (2001). Hybridization and population genetics of two macaque species in Sulawesi, Indonesia. Evolution 55: 1686-1702.
Feiler, A. (1990). Ueber die Säugetiere der Sangihe-und Talaud-Inseln-der Beitrag A. B. Meyers für ihre Erforschung (Mammalia). Zool. Abh. St. Mus. Tierk. Dresden, 46: 75-94.
Fooden, J. (1969). Taxonomy and evolution of the monkeys of Celebes (Primates: Cercopithecidae). Biblthca Primatol. 10: 1-148.
Fooden, J. (1979). Taxonomy and evolution of the sinica group of macaques: 1. Species and subspecies accounts of Macaca sinica. Primates 20: 109-140.
Fooden, J. (1981). Taxonomy and evolution of the sinica group of macaques: 2. Species and subspecies accounts of the Indian bonnet macaque, Macaca radiata. Fieldiana Zool. (new ser.) 9: v–vii, 1-52.
Fooden, J. (1982). Taxonomy and evolution of the sinica group of macaques: 3. Species and subspecies accounts of Macaca assamensis. Fieldiana Zool. (new ser.) 10: v–vii, 1-52.
Fooden, J. (1995). Systematic review of Southeast Asian longtail macaques, Macaca fascicularis (Raffles, [1821]). Fieldiana Zool. (new ser.) 81: i–vi, 1-206.
Fooden, J. (1997). Tail length variation in Macaca fascicularis and M. mulatta. Primates 38: 221-231.
Fooden, J. (2000). Systematic review of the rhesus macaque, Macaca mulatta (Zimmermann, 1780). Fieldiana Zool. (new ser.) 96: i–vi, 1-180.
Froehlich, J. W., Babo, N., Akbar, S., and Supriatna, J. (1998). A new species of Sulawesi monkey: The Balantak macaque. Abstract s of the XVIIth Congress of the International Primatological Society, August 10-14, 1998, University of Antananarivo, Madagascar, No. 038.
Fuentes, A., and Olson, M. (1995). Preliminary observations and status of the Pagai macaque. Asian Primates 4(4): 1-4.
Gee, E. P. (1956). A new species of langur in Assam. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 252-254.
Geissmann, T. (1989). A female black gibbon, Hylobates concolor subspecies, from northeastern Vietnam. Int. J. Primatol. 10: 455-476.
Geissmann, T. (1993). Evolution of Communication in Gibbons (Hylobatidae), PhD Dissertation, Anthropological Institute, Zurich University.
Geissmann, T. (1995). Gibbon systematics and species identification. Int. Zoo News 42: 467-501.
Geissmann, T. (1997). New sounds from the crested gibbons (Hylobates concolor group): First results of a systematic revision. In Zissler, D. (ed.), Verhandlungen der Deutschen Zoologischen Gesellschaft: Kurzpublikationen—Short Communications, Gustav Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart, p. 170.
Gentry, A. (1994). Case 2928. Regnum Animale..., Ed. 2 (M. J. Brisson, 1762): Proposed rejection, with the conservation of the mammalian generic names Philander (Marsupialia), Pteropus (Chiroptera), Glis, Cuniculus and Hydrochoerus (Rodentia), Meles, Lutra and Hyaena (Carnivora), Tapirus (Perissodactyla), Tragulus and Giraffa (Artiodactyla). Bull. Zool. Nom. 51: 135-146.
Gentry, A., Groves, C. P., Hill, J. E., and Jenkins, P. D. (1994). Case 2953: Loris E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1796 (Mammalia, Primates): Proposed conservation. Bull. Zool. Nom. 51: 332-335.
Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, [é.] (1812). Tableau des quadrumanes, ou des animaux composant le premier ordere de la classe des mammifères. Annls. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris 19: 85-122.
Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, I. (1830). Description de plusieurs espèces nouvelles de singes, appartenant aux genres Semnopithèque et Macaque. Bull. Sci. Nat. Géol. 22: 317-318.
Gippoliti, S. (2001). Notes on the taxonomy of Macaca nemestrina leonina Blyth, 1863 (Primates: Cercopithecidae). Hystrix Ital. J. Mammal. (new ser.) 8(1–2): 51-54.
Goodman, M., Porter, C. A., Czelusniak, J., Page, S. L., Schneider, H., Shoshani, J., Gunnell, G., and Groves, C. P. (1998). Toward a phylogenetic classification of primates based on DNA evidence complemented by fossil evidence. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 9: 585-598.
Gray, J. E. (1821). On the natural arrangement of vertebrose animals. Lond. Med. Repository 15(1): 296-310.
Groves, C. P. (1970). The forgotten leaf-eaters, and the phylogeny of the Colobinae. In Napier, J. R., and Napier, P. H. (eds.). Old World Monkeys: Evolution, Systematics, and Behavior. Academic Press, New York, pp. 555-587.
Groves, C. P. (1971). Systematics of the genus Nycticebus. Proc. Third Int. Congr. Primatol. (Zurich, 1970) 1: 44-53.
Groves, C. P. (1980). Species in Macaca: The view from Sulawesi. In Lindburg, D. G. (ed.), The Macaques: Studies in Ecology, Behavior and Evolution, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, pp. 84-124.
Groves, C. P. (1996). The nomenclature of the Tanzanian mangabey and the Siberut macaque. Aust. Primatol. 10(4): 2-5.
Groves, C. P. (1998). Systematics of tarsiers and lorises. Primates 39: 13-27.
Groves, C. P. (2001a). Primate Taxonomy, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.
Groves, C. P. (2001b). Getting to know the tarsiers: Yesterday, today and tomorrow. Presented at the XVIIth Congress of the International Primatological Society, Adelaide, Australia, 7-12 January 2001.
Groves, C. P., Westwood, C., and Shea, B. T. (1992). Unfinished business: Mahalanobis and a clockwork orang. J. Hum. Evol. 22: 327-340.
Hill, J. E. (1960). The Robinson collection of Malaysian mammals. Bull. Raffles Mus. 29: 1-112.
Hill, W. C. O. (1955). Primates: Comparative Anatomy and Taxonomy. II. Haplorhini: Tarsioidea, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh.
Hoelzer, G. A., Hoelzer, M. A., and Melnick, D. J. (1993). The evolutionary history of the sinica-group of macaque monkeys as revealed by mtDNA restriction site analysis. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 1: 215-222.
Hohmann, G. (1988). Analysis of loud calls provides new evidence for hybridisation between two Asian leaf monkeys (Presbytis johnii, P. entellus). Folia Primatol. 51: 209-213.
Hose, C. (1893). A Descriptive Account of the Mammals of Borneo, Edward Sbott, London.
Hutton, A. F. (1949). Notes on the snakes and mammals of the High Wavy Mountains, Madura District, S. India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 454–460, 681-694.
Illiger, C. (1811).Prodromus systematis mammalium et avium, Sumptibus C. Saldfeld, Berlin.
Jablonski, N. G. (1998). The evolution of the doucs and snub-nosed monkeys and the question of phyletic unity of the odd-nosed colobines. In Jablonski, N. G. (ed.), The Natural History of the Doucs and Snub-Nosed Monkeys, World Scientific, Singapore, pp. 13-52.
Jablonski, N. G., and Peng Y. Z. (1993). The phylogenetic relationships and classification of the doucs and snub-nosed langurs of China and Vietnam. Folia Primatol. 60: 36-55.
Janczewski, D. N., Goldman, D., and O'Brien, S. J. (1990). Molecular genetic divergence of orang utan (Pongo pygmaeus) subspecies based on isozyme and two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. J. Heredity 81: 375-387.
Jenkins, P. D. (1987). Catalogue of Primates in the British Museum (Natural History) and Elsewhere in the British Isles, part 4 (suborder Strepsirrhini, including the subfossil Madagascan lemurs and family Tarsiidae), British Museum (Natural History), London, x, 189pp.
Khajuria, H. (1955). Notes on the systematics of three leaf monkeys in the collection of the Indian Museum (Zool. Surv.). Rec. Indian Mus. 52: 95-99(a).
Khajuria, H. (1956a). Catalogue of mammals in the Indian Museum (Zool. Surv.). III. Primates: Colobidae. Rec. Indian Mus. 52: 195-220.
Khajuria, H. (1956b). A new langur (Primates: Colobidae) from Goalpara District, Assam. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (12)9: 86-88.
Khajuria, H., and Agrawal, V. C. (1979). On the types of Presbytis barbei Blyth. Primates 20: 317-319.
Kloss, C. B. (1919). On mammals collected in Siam. J. Nat. Hist. Soc. Siam 3: 333-407.
Kloss, C. B. (1926). A new race of monkey from Annam. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9)18: 214.
Lippold, L. K., and Vu N. T. (2000). Distribution of the grey shanked douc langur in Vietnam. Asian Primates 7: 1-3.
MacKinnon, J. R., and MacKinnon, K. S. (1980). The behaviour of wild spectral tarsiers. Int. J. Primatol. 1: 361-379.
Mallet, J. (1995). A species definition for the Modern Synthesis. Trends Ecol. Evol. 10: 294-299.
Marshall, J. T., and Sugardjito, J. (1986). Gibbon systematics. In Swindler, D. R., and Erwin, J. (eds.), Comparative Primate Biology, Vol. 1: Systematics, Evolution and Anatomy, Liss, New York, pp. 137-185.
Martin, W. C. L. (1838). A monograph of the genus Semnopithecus. Mag. Nat. Hist. (new ser.) 2: 320–326, 434-441.
Martin, W. C. L. (1840). A General Introduction to the Natural History of Mammiferous Animals, With a Particular View of The Physical History of Man, and the More Closely Allied Genera of the Order Quadrumana, or Monkeys, Wright and Co, London.
Maryanto, I., and Yani, M. (in press). Third record of pygmy tarsier (Tarsius pumilus) from Lore Lindu National Park, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Trop. Biodiversity.
Mayr, E. (1942). Systematics and the Origin of Species, Columbia University Press, New York.
Medway, Lord. (1977). Mammals of Borneo: Field Keys and an Annotated Checklist. Monographs of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, No. 7, Kuala Lumpar.
Meijard, E., and Nijman, V. (2000). Distribution and conservation of the proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus) in Kalimantan, Indonesia. Biol. Conserv. 92: 15-24.
Melnick, D. J., Hoelzer, G. A., Absher, R., and Ashley, M. V. (1993). MtDNA diversity in rhesus monkeys reveals overestimates of divergence time and paraphyly with neighboring species. Mol. Biol. Evol. 10: 282-295.
Milne-Edwards, A. (1877). Sur quelques mammifères et crustacés nouveaux. Bull. Soc. Philomath. Paris (6)13: 8-10. [For date of publication, see wrappers of previous and succeeding volumes.]
Morales, J. C., and Melnick, D. J. (1998). Phylogenetic relationships of the macaques (Cercopithecidae: Macaca), as revealed by high resolution restriction site mapping of mitochondrial ribosomal genes. J. Hum. Evol. 34: 1-23.
Muir, C., Galdikas, B. M. F., and Beckenbach, A. T. (1995). Genetic variability in orang utans. In Nadler, R. D., Galdikas, B. M. F., Sheeran, L. K., and Rosen, N. (eds.), The Neglected Ape, Plenum, New York, pp. 267-272.
Musser, G. G., and Dagosto M. (1987). The identity of Tarsius pumilus, a pygmy species endemic to the montane mossy forests of Central Sulawesi. Am. Mus. Novit. 2867: 1-53.
Nadler, T. (1997). A new subspecies of douc langur, Pygathrix nemaeus cinereus ssp. nov. Zool. Garten (new ser.) 67(4): 165-174.
Nadler, T. (1998). Black langur rediscovered! Newsletter of the Endangered Primate Rescue Center, Cuc Phuong National Park, Vietnam, 3: Appendix.
Napier, P. H. (1985). Catalogue of Primates in the British Museum (Natural History) and Elsewhere in the British Isles, part 3: Family Cercopithecidae, Subfamily Colobinae, British Museum (Natural History), London, pp. i–x, 1-111.
Nguyen X. D., and Pham N. (1998). New Geographic Record of Black Langur in Vietnam. Unpublished report.
Niemitz, C. (1984). Taxonomy and distribution of the genus Tarsius Storr, 1780. In Niemitz, C. (ed.), The Biology of Tarsiers, Gustav Fischer Verlag, New York, pp. 1-16.
Niemitz, C., Nietsch, A., Warter, S., and Rumpler, Y. (1991). Tarsius dianae: a new primate species from Central Sulawesi (Indonesia). Folia Primatol. 56: 105-116.
Nietsch, A., and Burton, J. (2002). Tarsier species in southwest and southeast Sulawesi. In The XIXth Congress of the International Primatological Society, Beijing, August 2002, Abstracts, pp. 20-21.
Nietsch, A., and Niemitz, C. (1993). Diversity of Sulawesi Tarsiers. (Diversität der Sulawesi Tarsier). Z. Säugetierk. 58: 45.
Nijman, V. (1997). Geographical variation in pelage characteristics in Presbytis comata (Desmarest, 1822) (Mammalia, Primates, Cercopithecidae). Z. Säugetierk. 62: 257-264.
Nijman, V. (2001). Geographical variation in pelage characteristics in grizzled leaf monkey Presbytis comata (Desmarest, 1822) (Mammalia, Primates, Cercopithecidae). Tropenbos-Kalimantan Ser. 5: 61-69.
Nozawa, K., Shotake, T., Minezawa, M., Kawamoto, Y., Hayasaka, K., and Kawamoto, S. (1996). Population-genetic studies of the Japanese macaque, Macaca fuscata. In Shotake, T., and Wada, K. (eds.), Variations in the Asian Macaques, Tokai University Press, Tokyo, pp. 1-36.
Osgood, W. H. (1932). Mammals of the Kelley-Roosevelts and Delacour Asiatic Expeditions. Publs. Field Mus. Nat. History Soc. Zool. Ser. 18: 191-339.
Palmer, T. S. (1904). Index Generum Mammalium; a List of the Genera and Families of Mammals, North American Fauna, no. 23.
Phillips, W. W. A. (1981). Manual of the Mammals of Sri Lanka, Part II, 2nd revised edn. Wildlife and Nature Protection Society of Sri Lanka, Colombo.
Pocock, R. I. (1928). The langurs, or leaf monkeys, of British India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 32: 472–504, 660-677.
Pocock, R. I. (1935). The monkeys of the genera Pithecus (or Presbytis) and Pygathrix found to the east of the Bay of Bengal. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1934: 895-961.
Pocock, R. I. (1939). The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma. Mammalia—Vol. I, Primates and Carnivora (in part), Taylor and Francis, London.
Robinson, H. C., and Kloss, C. B. (1915). On a collection of mammals from the Siamese province of Bandon, N. E. Malay Peninsula. J. Fed. Malay St. Mus. 5: 111-127.
Roonwal, M. L., Prite, R. S., and Saha, S. S. (1984). Geographical boundary between the northern and southern tail styles in the common South Asian langur, Presbytis entellus (Primates). J. Zool. Soc. India 36: 15-26.
Roos, C. (2000). Phylogeny and genetics. In Nadler, T., and Ha, T. L. (eds.), The Cat Ba langur: Past, Present and Future—The Definitive Report on Trachypithecus poliocephalus, the World's Rarest Primate. Report of the Frankfurt Zoological Society, pp. 22-23.
Roos, C., and Geissmann, T. (2001). Molecular phylogeny of the major hylobatid divisions. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 19: 486-494.
Rosenblum, L. L., Supriatna, J., Hasan, M. N., and Melnick, D. J. (1997). High mitochondrial DNA diversity with little structure within and among leaf monkey populations (Trachypithecus cristatus and Trachypithecus auratus). Int. J. Primatol. 18: 1005-1028.
Ryder, O. A., and Chemnick, L. G. (1993). Chromosomal and mitochondrial DNA variation in orang utans. J. Heredity 84: 405-409.
Schlegel, H. (1876). Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle des Pays Bas. Revue Méthodique et critique des collections déposées dans cet établissement. Tome 7. Monographie 40: Simiae, Brill, Leiden, 356pp.
Schwartz, J. H., Shoshani, J., Tattersall, I., Simons, E. L., and Gunnell, G.F. (1998). Case 3004: Lorisidae Gray, 1821 and Galagidae Gray, 1825 (Mammalia, Primates): proposed conservation as correct original spellings. Bull. Zool. Nom. 55: 165-168.
Shekelle, M. (in press). Distribution of tarsier acoustic forms, North and Central Sulawesi: With notes on the primary taxonomy of Sulawesi's tarsiers. In Gursky, S., Wright, P. C., and Simons, E. L. (eds.), The Tarsiiformes: Origins, Taxonomy, Behavior and Conservation, Rutgers University Press.
Shekelle, M., Leksono, S. M., Ichwan, L. L. S., and Masala, Y. (1997). The natural history of the tarsiers of North and Central Sulawesi. Sulawesi Primate Newsletter 4(2): 4-11.
Shekelle, M., Morales, J. C., and Melnick, D. (2001). Genetic and acoustic evolution among Eastern tarsiers of northern and central Sulawesi. Presented at the XVIIth Congress of the International Primatological Society, Adelaide, Australia, 7-12 January 2001.
Stallman and Froehlich, J. W. (2000). Primate sexual swellings as coevolved signal systems. Primates 41(1): 1-16.
Takacs, Z., Morales, J. C., Geissmann, T., and Melnick, D. J. (in prep.). A complete species-level phylogeny of the Hylobatidae based on mitochondrial NAD3-NAD4 gene sequences.
Tosi, A. J. (2000). Evolutionary Relationships Among Members of the Genus Macaca as Inferred From Paternal, Maternal, and Biparental Molecular Markers, PhD Thesis, Columbia University, New York.
Tosi, A. J., Morales, J. C., and Melnick, D. J. (2000). Comparison of Y-chromosome and mtDNA phylogenies leads to unique inferences of macaque evolutionary history. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 17: 133-144.
Tosi, A. J., Morales, J. C., and Melnick, D. J. (2002). Y-chromosome and mitochondrial markers in Macaca fascicularis indicate introgression with M. mulatta and a biogeographic barrier in the Isthmus of Kra. Int. J. Primatol. 23: 161-178.
Tosi, A. J., Morales, J. C., and Melnick, D. J. (2003). Paternal, maternal, and biparental molecular markers provide unique windows onto the evolutionary history of macaque monkeys. Evolution 57: 1419-1435.
Uchida, A. (1998). Variation in tooth morphology of Pongo pygmaeus. J. Hum. Evol. 34: 71-79.
Wang W., Forstner, M. R. J., Zhang Y. P., Liu Z. M., Wei Y., Huang H. Q., Hu H. G., Xie Y. X., Wu D. H., and Melnick, D. J. (1997). Phylogeny of Chinese leaf monkeys using mitochondrial ND3-ND4 gene sequences. Int. J. Primatol. 18: 305-320.
Wang Y. X., Jiang X. L., and Li D. W. (1994). Classification of existing subspecies of golden snub-nosed monkey, Rhinopithecus roxellana (Colobinae, Primates). In XVth Congress of the International Primatological Society, 3–8 August 1994, Kuta-Bali, Indonesia: Handbook and Abstracts, p. 277.
Wang Y. X., Jiang X. L., and Li D. W. (1998). Classification and distribution of the extant subspecies of golden snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus [Rhinopithecus] roxellana). In Jablonski, N. G. (ed.), The Natural History of the Doucs and Snub-Nosed Monkeys, World Scientific, Singapore, pp. 53-64.
Weitzel, V., Yang, C. M., and Groves, C. P. (1988). A catalogue of primates in the Singapore Zoological Reference Collection, Department of Zoology, National University of Singapore (formerly the Zoological Collection of the Raffles Museum). Raffles Bull. Zool. 36: 1-166.
Whitten, A. J., and Whitten, J. E. J. (1982). Preliminary observations of the Mentawai macaque on Siberut Island, Indonesia. Int. J. Primatol. 3: 445-459.
Wroughton, R. C. (1915). Bombay Natural History Society's Mammal Survey of India, Burma and Ceylon. Report No. 16. Dry Zone, central Burma and Mt. Popa. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 23: 460-480.
Wroughton, R. C. (1916). Bombay Natural History Society's Mammal Survey of India, Burma and Ceylon. Report No. 20. Chindwin River. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 24: 291-309.
Xu X., and Arnason, U. (1996). The mitochondrial DNA molecule of Sumatran orangutan and a molecular proposal for two (Bornean and Sumatran) species of orangutan. J. Mol. Evol. 43: 431-437.
Zain, B. M. (2000). Molecular Systematics From the Genus Presbytis, PhD Thesis, Columbia University, New York.
Zhang Y.-P. (1997). Mitochondrial DNA sequence evolution and phylogenetic relationships of gibbons. Acta Genet. Sin. 24: 231-237.
Zhang Y.-P., and Ryder, O. A. (1998). Mitochondrial cytochrome b gene sequences of Old World monkeys: with special reference on evolution of Asian colobines. Primates 39: 39-49.
Zhang Y.-P., and Shi L. M. (1993). Phylogeny of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) as revealed by mitochondrial DNA restriction enzyme analysis. Int. J. Primatol. 14: 587-605.
Zhi L., Karesh, W. B., Janczewski, D. N., Frazier-Taylor, H., Sajuthi, D., Gombek, F., Andau, M., Martenson, J. S., and O'Brien, S. J. (1996). Genomic differentiation among natural populations of orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus). Current Biol. 6(10): 1326-1336.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Brandon-Jones, D., Eudey, A.A., Geissmann, T. et al. Asian Primate Classification. International Journal of Primatology 25, 97–164 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1023/B:IJOP.0000014647.18720.32
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:IJOP.0000014647.18720.32