Nothing Special   »   [go: up one dir, main page]
Skip to main content
Springer Nature Link
Log in

Conductivities of Three-Layer Live Human Skull

  • Published:
Brain Topography Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Electrical conductivities of compact, spongiosum, and bulk layers of the live human skull were determined at varying frequencies and electric fields at room temperature using the four-electrode method. Current, at higher densities that occur in human cranium, was applied and withdrawn over the top and bottom surfaces of each sample and potential drop across different layers was measured. We used a model that considers variations in skull thicknesses to determine the conductivity of the tri-layer skull and its individual anatomical structures. The results indicate that the conductivities of the spongiform (16.2-41.1 milliS/m), the top compact (5.4-7.2 milliS/m) and lower compact (2.8-10.2 milliS/m) layers of the skull have significantly different and inhomogeneous conductivities. The conductivities of the skull layers are frequency dependent in the 10-90 Hz region and are non-ohmic in the 0.45-2.07 A/m2 region. These current densities are much higher than those occurring in human brain.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Akhtari, M., Bryant, H.C., Mamelak, A.N., Heller, L., Shih, J.J., Mandelkern, M., Matlachov, A., Ranken, D.M., Best, E.D. and Sutherling, W.W. Conductivities of three-layer human skull. Brain Topography, 2000, 13: 10-14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Akhtari, M., McNay, D., Mandelkern, M., Teeter, B., Cline, H.E., Malik, J., Clark, G., Tatar, R., Lufkin, R., Rogers, R.L. and Sutherling, W.W. Somatosensory evoked response source localization using actual cortical surface as the spatial constraint. Brain Topography, 1994, 7: 63-69.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alberstone, C.D., Skirboll, S.L., Benzel, E.C., Sanders, J.A., Hart, B.L., Baldwin, N.G., Tessman, C.L., Davis, J.T. and Lee, R.R. Magnetic source imaging and brain surgery: presurgical and intraoperative planning in 26 patients. J. Neurosurg., 2000 Jan, 92(1): 79-90.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barnard, A.C.L., Duck, I.M. and Lynn, M.S. Biophys. J., 1967, vol. 7, 443: 462.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumgartner, U., Vogel, H., Ellrich, J., Gawehn, J., Stoeter, P. and Treede, R.D. Brain electrical source analysis of primary cortical components of the tibial nerve somatosensory evoked potential using regional sources. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol., 1998 Nov: 108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beers, Y. Introduction to the theory of error. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company Inc. Cambridge 42, Mass., 1953.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berendse, H.W., Verbunt, J.P., Scheltens, P., van Dijk, B.W. and Jonkman, E.J. Magenetoencephalographic analysis of cortical activity in Alzheimer's disease: a pilot study. Clin. Neurophysiol., 2000 Apr 1, 111(4): 604-612.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Breier, J.I., Simos, P.G., Zouridakis, G. and Papanicolaou, A.C. Lateralization of cerebral activation in auditory verbal and non-verbal memory tasks using magnetoencephalography. Brain Topogr., 1999a Winter, 12(2): 89-97.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Breier, J.I., Simos, P.G., Zouridakis, G., Wheless, J.W., Willmore, L.J., Constantinou, J.E.C., Maggio, W.W. and Papanicolaou, A.C. Language dominance determined by magnetic source imaging. A comparison with the Wada procedure. Neurology, 1999b Sept., 53(2): 938-945.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Buchner, H., Kauert, C. and Radermacher, I. Short-term changes of finger representation at the somatosensory cortex in humans. Neurosci. Lett., 1995 Sep 22, 198(1): 57-59.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Buchner, H., Knoll, G., Fuchs, M., Rienacker, A., Beckmann, R., Wagner, M., Silny, J. and Pesch, J. Inverse localization of electric dipole current source in finite element models of the human head. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol., 1997 Apr: 102.

  • Chakkalakal, D.A. and Jouhnson, M.W. Electrical properties of compact bone. Clin. Ortho. Rel. Res., 1981, 161: 133-145.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chakkalakal, D.A., Jouhnson, M.W., Harper, R.A. and Katz, J.L. Dielectric properties of fluid-saturated bone. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 1980 27(2): 95-100.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, D., Cuffin, B.N., Yunokuchi, K., Maniewski, R., Purcell, C., Cosgrove, G.R., Ives, J., Kennedy, J.G. and Schomer, D.L. MEG versus EEG localization test using implanted sources in the human brain. Ann. Neurol., 1990, 28: 811-817.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Crouzeix, A., Yvert, B., Bertrand, O. and Pernier, J. An evaluation of dipole reconstruction accuracy with spherical and realistic head models in MEG. Clin. Neurophysiol., 1999 Dec., 110(12): 2176-2188.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cuffin, B.N., Cohen, D., Yanokuchi, K., Maniewski, R., Purcell, C., Cosgrove, M., Ives, J., Kennedy, J. and Schomer, D. Tests of EEG localization accuracy using implanted sources in the human brain. Ann. Neurol., 1991, 29: 132-138.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Diekmann, V., Becker, W., Jurgens, R., Grozinger, B., Kleiser, B., Richter, H.P. and Wollinsky, K.H. Localization of epileptic foci with electric, magnetic and combined electromagnetic models. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol., 1998 Apr: 106.

  • Ebersole, J.S. Non-invasive pre-surgical evaluation with EEG/MEG source analysis. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. Suppl., 1999, 50: 167-174.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ebersole, J. and Wade, P. Spike voltage topography and equivalent dipole localization in complex partial epilepsy. Brain Topography, 1990, (3): 21-34.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ebersole, J. and Wade, P. Spike voltage topography identifies two types of frontotemporal epileptic foci. Neurology, 1991, (41): 1425-1433.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ebersole, J., Squires, K. and Gamelin, J. Simultaneous MEG and EEG provide complementary dipole models of temporal lobe spikes. Epilepsia, 1993, 34: 143 (Abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuchs, M., Drenckhahn, R., Wischmann, H.A. and Wagner, M. An improved boundary element method for realistic volume-conductor modeling. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 1998 Aug, 45(8): 980-997.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fuchs, M., Wagner, M., Wischmann, H.A., Kohler, T., Theissen, A., Drenckhahn, R. and Buchner, H. Improving source reconstruction by combining bioelectric and biomagnetic data. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol., 1998 Aug., 107(2): 93-111.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gabriel, C., Gabriel, S. and Corthout, E. The dielectric properties of biological tissues: I. Literature survey. Phys. Med. Biol., 1996, 41: 2231-2249.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gallen, C.C., Sobel, D.F., Waltz, T., Aung, M., Copeland, B., Schwartz, B.J., Hirschkoff, E.C. and Bloom, F.E. Noninvasive presurgical neuromagnetic mapping of somatosensory cortex. Neurosurg., 1993 Aug., 33(2): 260-268.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gallen, C.C., Tecoma, E., Iragui, V., Sobel, D.F., Schwartz, B.J. and Bloom, F.E. Magnetic source imaging of abnormal low-frequency magnetic activity in presurgical evaluations of epilepsy. Epilepsia, 1997 Apr., 38(4): 452-460.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Geddes, L.A. and Baker, L.E. The specific resistance of biological material — a compendium of data for the biomedical engineer and physiologist. Med. and Biol. Eng., 1967, 5: 271-293.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Geneser, F. Histologi. Munksgaard, København, 1981.

  • Grynszpan, F. and Gezelowitz, D.B. Model studies of magnetocardiogram. Biophys. J., 1973 Sep., 13(9): 911-925.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hämäläinen, M.S. and Sarvas J. Realistic conductivity geometry model of the human head for interpretation of neuromagnetic data. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 1989, 36(2): 165-171.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hari, R. and Forss, N. Magnetoencephalography in study of human somatosensory cortical processing. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci., 1999 Jul 29, 354(1387): 1145-1154.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hauesien, J., Bottner, A., Nowak, H., Brauer, H. and Weiller, C. The influence of conductivity changes in boundary element compartments on the forward and inverse problem in electroencephalography and magnetoencephalography. Biomed. Tech. (Berl)., Jun, 44(6): 150-157.

  • Haueisen, J., Ramon, C., Eiselt, M., Brauer, H. and Nowak, H. Influence of tissue resistivities on neuromagnetic fields and electric potentials studied with a finite element model of the head. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 1997, 44(8).

  • Hayes, W.L. Statistics. 4th Ed. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Chicago, 1988: 1,029.

    Google Scholar 

  • Helmholtz, H. "Ueber einige Gesetze der Vertheilung elektrischer Stroeme im koerperlichen Leitern, mit Anwendung auf die thierischelektrischen Versuche." Ann. Phys. Chem., 1853, 89: 211-233, 353-377.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herrmann, C.S., Oertel, U., Wang, Y., Maess, B. and Friederici, A.D. Noise affects auditory and linguistic processing differently: an MEG study. Neuroreport, 2000 Feb 7, 11(2): 227-229.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hisada, K., Morioka, T., Nishio, S., Muraishi, M., Yamamoto, T. and Yoshida, T. Magnetoencephalographic analysis of periodic lateralized epileptiform discharges (PLEDs). Clin. Neurophysiol., 2000 Jan, 111(1): 122-127.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Huotilainen, M., Winkler, I., Alho, K., Escera, C., Virtanen, J., Ilmoniemi, R.J., Jaaskelainen I.P., Pekkonen E. and Naatannen, R. Combined mapping of human auditory EEG and MEG responses. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 1998 Jul, 108(4): 370-379.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hurley, R.A., Lewine, J.D., Jones, G.M., Orrison, W.W. Jr. and Taber, K.H. Application of magnetoencephalography to the study of autism. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci., 2000 Winter, 12(1): 1-3.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jorgenson, D.B., Schimpf, P.H., Shen, I., Johnson, G., Bardy, G.H., Haynor, D. and Kim, Y. Predicting cardiothoracic voltage during high nergy shocks: Methodology and comparison of experimental to finite element model data. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 1995 Jun, 42(6): 559-571.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kincses, W.E., Braun, C., Kaiser, S. and Elbert, T. Modeling extended sources of event-related potentials using anatomical and physiological constraints. Hum. Brain Map+p., 1999, 8(4): 182-193.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Law, S. Thickness and resistivity variations over the upper surface of the human skull. Brain Topography, 1993, 6: 99-109.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marin, G., Guerin, C., Baillet, S., Garnero, L. and Meunier, G. Influence of skull anisotropy for the forward and inverse problem in EEG: simulation studies using FEM on realistic head models. Hum. Brain Mapp., 1998, 6(4): 250-269.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mejis, J.W.H., Peters, M.J. and Oosterom, A. van. Computation of MEG's and EEG's using a realistically shaped multicompartment model of the head. Med. Biol. Engng. Comput., 1985, 23 (Suppl. Part 1): 36-37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Michel, C.M., Grave de Peralta, R., Lantz, G., Gonzalez Andino, S., Spinelli, L., blanke, O., Landis, T. and Seeck, M. Spaciotemporal EEG analysis and distributed source estimation in presurgical epilepsy evaluation. J. Clin. Neurophysiol., 1999 May, 1693: 239-266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mosher, J.C. and Leahy, R.M. Recursive MUSIC: a framework for EEG and MEG source localization. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 1998 Nov, 45(11): 1342-1354.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nakaura, A., Yamada, T., Goto, A., Kato, T., Ito, K., Abe, Y., Kachi, T. and Kakigi, R. Somatosensory Homunculus as drawn by MEG. Neuroimage, 1998 May, 7(4): 377-386.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nunez, P.L. and Pilgreen, K.L. The spline-Laplacian in clinical neurophysiology: a method to improve EEG spatial resolution. J. Clin. Neurophysiol., 1991 Oct, 8(4): 397-413.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Okada, Y.C., Lahteenmaki, A. and Xu, C. Experimental analysis of distortion of magnetoencephalography signals by skull. Clin. Neurophysiol., 1999 Feb, 110(2): 230-238.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ollikainen, J.O., Vauhkonen, M., Karjalainen, P.A. and Kaipio, J.P. Effects of local skull inhomogeneities on EEG source estimation. Med. Eng. Phys., 1999 Apr, 21(3): 143-154.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oostendorp, T.F., Delbeke, J. and Stegeman, D.F. The conductivity of the Human Skull: Results of In Vivo and In Vitro Measurements. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 2000, 47(11):.

  • Pantev, C., Hoke, M., Lutkenhoner, B. and Lehnertz, K. Tonotopic organization of the auditory cortex: pitch versus frequency representation. Science, 1989 Oct 27, 246(4929): 486-488.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pantev, C., Wollbrink, A., Roberts, L.E., Engelien, A. and Lutkenhoner, B. Short-term plasticity of the human auditory cortex. Brain Res., 1999 Sep 18, 842(1): 192-199.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Papanicolaou, A.C., Simos, P.G., Brier, J.I., Zouridakis, G., Willmore, L.J., Wheless, J.W., Constantinou, J.E., Maggio, W.W. and Gormley, W.B. J. Neurosurg., 1999 Jan, 90(1): 85-93.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pohlmeier, R., Buchner, H., Knoll, G., Rienäcker, A., Beckmann, R. and Pesch, J. The influence of skull — conductivity misspecification on inverse source localization in realistically shaped finite element head models. Brain Topogr., 1997 Spring, 9(3): 157-162.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reite, M., Teale, P. and Rojas, D.C. Magnetoencephalography: applications in psychiatry. Biol. Psychiatry, 1999 Jun 15, 45(12): 1553-1563.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ribary, U., Cappell, J., Mogilner, A., Hund-Georgiadis, M., Kronberg, E. and Llinas, R. Functional imaging of plastic changes in the humanbrain. Adv. Neurol., 1999, 81: 49-56.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ricci, G.B., Leoni, R., Romani, G.L., Campitelli, F., Buonomo, S. and Modena, I. 3-D Neuromagnetic localization of sources of interictal activity in cases of focal epilepsy. In: H. Weinberg, G. Stroink, T. Katila (Eds.), Biomagnetism: Applications and Theory. New York: Pergamon Press, 1985: 304-310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Romani, G.L., Williamson, S.J. and Kaufman, L. Tonotopic organization of the human auditory cortex. Science, 1982, 216: 1339-1340.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rose, D.F., Smith, P.D. and Sato, S. Magnetoencephalography and epilepsy research. Science, 1987, 238: 329-335.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rush, S. and Driscoll, D.A. Current distribution in the brain from surface electrodes. Anesth. Analg. Nov.-Dec. 1968, 47(6): 717-723.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sarvas, J. Basic mathematical and electromagnetic concepts of the biomagnetic inverse problem. Phys. Med. Biol., 1987, 32(1): 11-22.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Silva, C., Almeida, R., Oostendorp, T., Ducla-Soares, E., Foreid, J.P. and Pimentel, T. Interictal spike localization using a standard realistic head model: simulations and analysis of clinical data. Clin. Neurophysiol., 1999 May, 110(5): 846-855.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Simos, P.G., Breier, J.I., Maggio, W.W., Gormley, W.B., Zouridakis, G., Willmore, L.J., Wheless, J.W., Constantinou, J.E. and Papanicolaou, A.C. Atypical temporal lobe language reprentation: MEG and intraoperative stimulation mapping correlation. Neuroreport, 1999 Jan 18, 10(1): 139-142.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Simos, P.G., Papnicolaou, A.C., Breier, J.I., Wheless, J.W., Constantinou, J.E., Gomley, W.B. and Maggio, W.W. J. Neurosurg., 1999 Nov, 91(5): 787-796.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sobel, D.F., Aung, M., Otsubo, H. and Smith, M.C. Magnetoencephalography in children with Landau-Kleffner syndrome and acquired epileptic aphasia. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol., 2000 Feb, 21(2): 301-307.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sperling, W., Vieth, J., Martus, M., Demling, J. and Barocka A. Spontaneous slow and fast MEG activity in male schizophrenics treated with clozapine. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 1999 Mar, 142(4): 375-382.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stinstra, J.G. and Peters, M.J. The volume conductor may act as a temporal filter on the ECG and EEG. Med. Biol. Eng. Comput., 1998, 36: 711-716.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stock, C.J. The inverse problem in EEG and MEG with application to visual evoked responses. Thesis 1986.

  • Sutherling, W.W., Crandall, P.H., Engel, J. Jr., Darcey, T.M., Cahan, L.D., Barth, D.S. The magnetic field of complex partial seizures agrees with intracranial localizations. Ann. Neurol., 1987 Jun, 21(6): 548-558.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sutherling, W.W., Crandal, P.H., Darcey, D.P., Becker, M.F., Levesque, M.F. and Barth, D.S. The magnetic and electric fields agree with intracranial localizations of somatosensory cortex. Neurology, 1988a Nov, 38(11): 1705-1714.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sutherling, W.W., Crandall, P.H., Cahan, L.D., Barth, D.S. The magnetic field of epileptic spikes agrees with intracranial localizations in complex partial epilepsy. Neurology, 1988b May, 38(5): 778-786.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sutherling, W.W., Risinger, M.W., Crandall, P.H., Becker, D.P., Baumgartner, C., Cahan, L.D., Wilson, C. and Levesque, M.F. Focal functional anatomy of dorsolateral frontocentral seizures. Neurology, 1990 Jan, 40(1): 87-98.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sutherling, W.W., Levesque, M.F., Crandall, P.H. and Barth, D.S. Localization of partial epilepsy using magnetic and electric measurements. Epilepsia, 1991, 32 Suppl 5: S29-40.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sutherling, W.W., Levesque, M.F. and Baumgartner, C. Cortical sensory representation of the human hand: size of finger regions and nonoverlapping digit somatotopy. Neurology, 1992 May, 42(5): 1020-1028.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tendolkar, I., Rugg, M., Fell, J., Vogt, H., Scholz, M., Hinrichs, H. and Heinze, H.J. A magnetoencephalographic study of brain activity related to recognition memory in healthy young human subjects. Neurosci. Lett., 2000 Feb 11, 280(1): 69-72.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tesche, C.D. and Karhu, J. Theta oscillations index human hippocampal activation during a working memory task. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2000 Jan 18, 97(2): 919-924.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • van den Broek, S.P., Reiders, F., Donderwinkel, M. and Peters, M.J. Volume conduction effects in EEG and MEG. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol., 1998 Jun: 106.

  • Volkmann, J. Oscillations of the human sensorimotor system as revealed by magnetoencephalography. Mov. Disord., 1998, 13 Suppl. 3: 73-76.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wheless, J.W., Willmore, L.J., Breier, J.I., Kataki, M., Smith, J.R., King, D.W., Meador, K.J., Park, Y.D., Loring, D.W., Clifton, G.L., Baumgartner, J., Thomas, A.B., Constantinou, J.E. and Papanicolaou, A.C. A comparison of magnetoencephalography, MRI, and V-EEG in patients evaluated for epilepsy surgery. Epilepsia, 1999 Jul, 40(7): 931-941.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wood, C.C., Cohen, D., Cuffin, B.N., Yarita, M. and Allison, T. Electrical sources in the human somatosensory cortex: Identification by combined magnetic and electric potential recordings. Science, 1985, 227: 1051-1053.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wood, C.C., Spencer, D.D., Allison, T., McCarthy, G., Williamson, P.D. and Goff, W.R. Localization of human sensorimotor cortex during surgery by cortical surface recording of somatosensory evoked potentials. J. Neurosurgery, 1988 Jan, 68(1): 99-111.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yan, Y., Nunez, P.L. and Hart, R.T. Finite-element model of the human head: scalp potentials due to dipole sources. Med. Biol. Eng. Comput., 1991, 29: 475-481.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Huntington Medical Research Institutes, Pasadena, CA, USA

    M. Akhtari, H.C. Bryant & M.A. DiMauro

  2. Department of Physics and Astronomy, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA

    M. Akhtari, A.N. Mamelak & W.W. Sutherling

  3. Senior Scientific, Albuquerque, NM, USA

    E.R. Flynn

  4. Physics Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, USA

    L. Heller

  5. Department of Neurology, The University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM, USA

    J.J. Shih

  6. The University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Department of Neurosciences, Albuquerque, NM, USA

    J.J. Shih

  7. Department of Physics, University of California at Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA

    M. Mandelkem

  8. Physics Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, USA

    A. Matlachov

  9. Scientific Software Engineering, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, USA

    D.M. Ranken & E.D. Best

  10. Department of Radiology, VA Medical Center, Albuquerque, NM, USA

    R.R. Lee

  11. Epilepsy and Brain Mapping Program, Huntington Memorial Hospital, Pasadena, CA, USA

    A.N. Mamelak & W.W. Sutherling

Authors
  1. M. Akhtari
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. H.C. Bryant
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. A.N. Mamelak
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. E.R. Flynn
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. L. Heller
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. J.J. Shih
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. M. Mandelkem
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. A. Matlachov
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. D.M. Ranken
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  10. E.D. Best
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  11. M.A. DiMauro
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  12. R.R. Lee
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  13. W.W. Sutherling
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Akhtari, M., Bryant, H., Mamelak, A. et al. Conductivities of Three-Layer Live Human Skull. Brain Topogr 14, 151–167 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014590923185

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014590923185

Search

Navigation