Nothing Special   »   [go: up one dir, main page]
Skip to main content
Springer Nature Link
Log in

Does executive function capacity moderate the outcome of executive function training in children with ADHD?

  • Original Article
  • Published:
ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders

A Correction to this article was published on 21 June 2019

This article has been updated

Abstract

Executive functioning (EF) training interventions aimed at ADHD-symptom reduction have limited results. However, EF training might only be effective for children with relatively poor EF capacity. This randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study examined whether pre-training EF capacity moderates the outcome of an EF-training intervention on measures of near transfer (EF performance) and far transfer (ADHD symptoms and parent-rated EF behavior) immediately after treatment and at 3-month follow-up. Sixty-one children with ADHD (aged 8–12) were randomized either to an EF-training condition where working memory, inhibition and cognitive flexibility were trained, or to a placebo condition. Single moderation models were used. All significant moderation outcomes had small effect sizes. After Bonferroni correction, there were no significant moderators of treatment outcome. Children with poor EF capacity do not benefit more from EF training than from placebo training. Training only EF-impaired children will probably not improve outcomes of EF training studies.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6

Similar content being viewed by others

Change history

  • 21 June 2019

    The original version of this article unfortunately contained a mistake. The captions of Figures 1 and 2 were swapped.

References

  • Altman DG, Bland JM (2005) Treatment allocation by minimisation. BMJ 330:843

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association (2000) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th revised edition (DSM-IV-TR). American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley RA (2006) Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. A handbook for diagnosis and treatment, 3rd edn. Guilford Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Chacko A, Feirsen N, Bedard A-C, Marks D, Uderman JZ, Chimiklis A (2013) Cogmed working memory training for youth with ADHD: a closer examination of efficacy utilizing evidence-based criteria. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 42:769–783

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chacko A, Bedard AC, Marks DJ, Feirsen N, Uderman JZ, Chimiklis A, Ramon M (2014a) A randomized clinical trial of cogmed working memory training in school-age children with ADHD: a replication in a diverse sample using a control condition. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 55:247–255

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chacko A, Kofler M, Jarrett M (2014b) Improving outcomes for youth with ADHD: a conceptual framework for combined neurocognitive and skill-based treatment approaches. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 17(4):368–384. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-014-0171-5

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Corsi PM (1972) Human memory and the medial temporal region of the brain. Diss Abstr Int 34:819B

    Google Scholar 

  • Cortese S, Ferrin M, Brandeis D, Buitelaar J, Daley D, Dittmann RW, Sonuga-Barke EJS (2014) Cognitive training for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: meta-analysis of clinical and neuropsychological outcomes from randomized controlled trials. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 54:164–174

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crawford JR, Sutherland D, Garthwaite PH (2008) On the reliability and standard errors of measurement of contrast measures from the D-KEFS. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 14:1069–1073

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crosbie J, Arnold P, Paterson A, Swanson JM, Dupuis A, Li X, Schachar RJ (2013) Response inhibition and ADHD traits: correlates and heritability in a community sample. J Abnorm Child Psychol 41:497–507

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Delis DC, Kaplan E, Kramer JH (2001) Delis-Kaplan executive function system (D-KEFS) examiner’s manual. The Psychological Corporation, San Antonio, Texas, USA

    Google Scholar 

  • Delis DC, Kaplan E, Kramer JH (2007) Delis-Kaplan executive function system: examiner’s manual, trial making test. Harcourt Assessment, San Antonio, TX

    Google Scholar 

  • Diamond A (2012) Activities and programs that improve children’s executive functions. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 21:335–341

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond A, Lee K (2011) Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4–12 years old. Science (New York, N.Y.) 333(6045):959–964

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dovis S (2014) Cognitive control and motivation in children with ADHD: How reinforcement interacts with the assessment and training of executive functioning. Doctoral thesis, University of Amsterdam

  • Dovis S, Ponsioen A, Geurts H, Ten Brink E, Van der Oord S, Prins PJM (2008a) Executive function training tasks: working memory. Theoretical background and parameters. In: Task force ADHD & computer. University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam

  • Dovis S, Geurts H, Ponsioen A, Ten Brink E, Van der Oord S, Prins PJM (2008b) Executive function training tasks: inhibition and cognitive flexibility. Theoretical background and parameters. In: Task force ADHD & computer. University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam

  • Dovis S, Van der Oord S, Wiers RW, Prins PJM (2013) What part of working memory is not working in ADHD? Short-term memory, the central executive and effects of reinforcement. J Abnorm Child Psychol 41(6):901–917. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9729-9

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dovis S, Agelink van Rentergem J, Huizenga HM (2015a) Does cogmed working memory training really improve inattention in daily life? A reanalysis [letter to the editor]. PLoS ONE 10:e85992

    Google Scholar 

  • Dovis S, Van der Oord S, Huizenga HM, Wiers RW, Prins PJM (2015b) Prevalence and diagnostic validity of motivational impairments and deficits in visuospatial short-term memory and working memory in ADHD subtypes. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 24(5):575–590. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-014-0612-1

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dovis S, Van der Oord S, Wiers RW, Prins PJM (2015c) Improving executive functioning in children with ADHD: training multiple executive functions within the context of a computer game. A randomized double-blind placebo controlled trial. PLOS ONE 10:e0121651

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Durston S, van Belle J, de Zeeuw P (2011) Differentiating frontostriatal and fronto-cerebellar circuits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 69:1178–1184

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fair DA, Bathula D, Nikolas MA, Nigg JT (2012) Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD. Proc Natl Acad Sci 109:6769–6774

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Field A (2013) Discovering statistics using SPSS, 4th edn. SAGE Publications, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Gathercole SE (2014) Commentary: working memory training and ADHD—Where does its potential lie? reflections on Chacko et al. (2014). J Child Psychol Psychiatry 55:256–257

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Geurts HM, Verté S, Oosterlaan J, Roeyers H, Sergeant JA (2004) How specific are executive functioning deficits in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and autism? J Child Psychol Psychiatry 45:836–854

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gioia GA, Isquith PK, Guy SC, Kenworthy L (2000) Behavior rating inventory of executive function. Psychological Assessment Resources, Odessa

    Google Scholar 

  • Green CT, Long DL, Green D, Iosif A-M, Dixon JF, Miller MR, Schweitzer JB (2012) Will working memory training generalize to improve off-task behavior in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder? Neurotherapeutics 9:639–648

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Greenhill LL (1998) Childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: pharmacological treatments. In: Nathan PE, Gorman J (eds) A guide to treatments that work. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 42–64

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayes AF (2012) PROCESS: a versatile computational tool for observed variable mediation, moderation, and conditional process modeling [White paper]. Retrieved from http://www.afhayes.com/public/process2012.pdf

  • Hinshaw SP (2007) Moderators and mediators of treatment outcome for youth with ADHD: understanding for whom and how interventions work. J Pediatr Psychol 32:664–675

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hodgson K, Hutchinson AD, Denson L (2014) Nonpharmacological treatments for ADHD: a meta-analytic review. J Atten Disord 18:275–282

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hunt AD, Kronenberger WG, Dunn DW, Gibson BS, Gondoli DM (2014) Predictors of change in short-term memory span following working memory training. Acta Neuropsychologica 12:445–458

    Google Scholar 

  • Isquith PK, Roth RM, Gioia G (2013) Contribution of rating scales to the assessment of executive functions. Appl Neuropsychol Child 2:125–132

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobson NS, Truax P (1991) Clinical significance: a statistical approach to defining meaningful change in psychotherapy research. J Consult Clin Psychol 59:12–19

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kane MJ, Conway ARA, Miura TK, Colflesh GJH (2007) working memory, attention control, and the N-back task: a question of construct validity. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cognit 33(3):615–622. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.33.3.615

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kessels RPC, van Zandvoort MJ, Postma A, Kappelle LJ, de Haan EH (2000) The Corsi block-tapping task: standardization and normative data. Appl Neuropsychol 7:252–258

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kessels RPC, van den Berg E, Ruis C, Brands AMA (2008) The backward span of the corsi block-tapping task and its association with the WAIS-III digit span. Assessment 15(4):426–434. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191108315611

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klingberg T (2010) Training and plasticity of working memory. Trends Cognit Sci 14:317–324

    Google Scholar 

  • Klingberg T, Forssberg H, Westerberg H (2002) Training of working memory in children with ADHD. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 24:781–791

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klingberg T, Fernell E, Olesen PJ, Johnson M, Gustafsson P, Dahlström K, Westerberg H (2005) Computerized training of working memory in children with ADHD—a randomized, controlled trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 44:177–186

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kofler MJ, Harmon SL, Aduen PA, Day TN, Austin KE, Spiegel JA, Sarver DE (2018a) Neurocognitive and behavioral predictors of social problems in ADHD: a Bayesian framework. Neuropsychology 32(3):344–355. https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000416

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kofler MJ, Sarver DE, Austin KE, Schaefer HS, Holland E, Aduen PA, Lonigan CJ (2018b) Can working memory training work for ADHD? Development of central executive training and comparison with behavioral parent training. J Consult Clin Psychol 86(12):964–979. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000308

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kofler MJ, Spiegel JA, Soto EF, Irwin LN, Wells EL, Austin KE (2018c) Do working memory deficits underlie reading problems in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)? J Abnorm Child Psychol 8:8–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-018-0447-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kort W, Compaan EL, Bleichrodt N, Resing WCM, Schittekatte M, Bosmans M, Vermeir G, Verhaeghe P (2002) WISC-III NL Handleiding (Dutch Manual). NIP, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  • Kraemer HC, Frank E, Kupfer DJ (2006) Moderators of treatment outcomes. JAMA 296:1286

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kray J, Karbach J, Haenig S, Freitag C (2012) Can task-switching training enhance executive control functioning in children with attention deficit/-hyperactivity disorder? Front Hum Neurosci 5:180

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Logan GD, Schachar RJ, Tannock R (1997) Impulsivity and inhibitory control. Psychol Sci 8:60–64

    Google Scholar 

  • Maric M, Prins PJM, Ollendick TH (eds) (2015) Moderators and mediators of youth treatment outcomes. Oxford University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Martinussen R, Hayden J, Hogg-Johnson S, Tannock R (2005) A meta-analysis of working memory impairments in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 44(4):377–384. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000153228.72591.73

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matos M, Bauermeister JJ, Bernal G (2009) Parent-child interaction therapy for Puerto Rican preschool children with ADHD and behavior problems: a pilot efficacy study. Fam Process 48:232–252

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McNab F, Leroux G, Strand F, Thorell LB, Bergman S, Klingberg T (2008) Common and unique components of inhibition and working memory: an fMRI, within-subjects investigation. Neuropsychologia 46:2668–2682

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miyake A, Friedman NP (2012) The nature and organization of individual differences in executive functions: four general conclusions. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 21:8–14

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nigg JT (2006) What causes ADHD? Understanding what goes wrong and why. Guilford Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Nigg JT, Willcutt EG, Doyle AE, Sonuga-Barke EJS (2005) Causal heterogeneity in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Do we need neuropsychologically impaired subtypes? Biol Psychiatry 57:1224–1230

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oosterlaan J, Scheres A, Antrop I, Roeyers H, Sergeant JA (2000) Vragenlijst voor Gedragsproblemen bij Kinderen (VvGK) (Dutch translation of the DBD Rating Scale). Swets & Zeitlinger, Lisse, The Netherlands

    Google Scholar 

  • Pelham WE, Gnagy EM, Greenslade KE, Milich R (1992) Teacher rating of DSM-III-R symptoms for disruptive behavior disorders. J Clin Child Psychol 8:259–262

    Google Scholar 

  • Prins PJM, Brink E Ten, Dovis S, Ponsioen A, Geurts HM, de Vries M, Van der Oord S (2013) “Braingame brian”: toward an executive function training program with game elements for children with ADHD and cognitive control problems. Games Health J 2:44–49

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rapport MD, Chung KM, Shore G, Isaacs P (2001) A conceptual model of child psychopathology: implications for understanding attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and treatment efficacy. J Clin Child Psychol 30:48–58

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rapport MD, Orban SA, Kofler MJ, Friedman LM (2013) Do programs designed to train working memory, other executive functions, and attention benefit children with ADHD? A meta-analytic review of cognitive, academic, and behavioral outcomes. Clin Psychol Rev 33(8):1237–1252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.08.005

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sánchez-Cubillo I, Periáñez JA, Adrover-Roig D, Rodríguez-Sánchez JM, Ríos-Lago M, Tirapu J, Barceló F (2009) Construct validity of the trail making test: role of task-switching, working memory, inhibition/interference control, and visuomotor abilities. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 15(3):438–450

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sarver DE, Rapport MD, Kofler MJ, Raiker JS, Friedman LM (2015) Hyperactivity in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): Impairing deficit or compensatory behavior? J Abnorm Child Psychol 43:1219–1232

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sattler JM (2001) Assessment of children: cognitive applications, 4th edn. Author, San Diego

    Google Scholar 

  • Schecklmann M, Ehlis A-C, Plichta MM, Dresler T, Heine M, Boreatti-Hümmer A, Fallgatter AJ (2013) Working memory and response inhibition as one integral phenotype of adult ADHD? A behavioral and imaging correlational investigation. J Atten Disord 17:470–482

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schellig D (1997) Block-tapping-test. Swets and Zeitlinger, Lisse

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaffer D, Fisher P, Lucas CP, Dulcan MK, Schwab-Stone ME (2000) NIMH diagnostic interview schedule for children version IV (NIMH DISC-IV): description, differences from previous versions, and reliability of some common diagnoses. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 39:28–38

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smidts DP, Huizinga M (2009) BRIEF executieve functies gedragsvragenlijst: Handleiding (BRIEF Dutch manual). Hogrefe Uitgevers, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith AB, Taylor E, Brammer M, Toone B, Rubia K (2006) Task-specific hypoactivation in prefrontal and temporoparietal brain regions during motor inhibition and task switching in medication-naive children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry 163:1044–1051

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sonuga-Barke EJS, Brandeis D, Cortese S, Daley D, Ferrin M, Holtmann M, Sergeant JA (2013) Nonpharmacological interventions for ADHD: systematic review and meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials of dietary and psychological treatments. Am J Psychiatry 170:275–289

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Soreni N, Crosbie J, Ickowicz A, Schachar RJ (2009) Stop signal and Conners’ continuous performance tasks: test–retest reliability of two inhibition measures in ADHD children. J Atten Disord 13:137–143

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson TW, Waskom ML, Garel K-LA, Cardenas-Iniguez C, Reynolds GO, Winter R, Gabrieli JDE (2013) Failure of working memory training to enhance cognition or intelligence. PLoS ONE 8:e63614

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tillman CM, Eninger L, Forssman L, Bohlin G (2011) The relation between working memory components and ADHD symptoms from a developmental perspective. Dev Neuropsychol 36(2):181–198

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Titz C, Karbach J (2014) Working memory and executive functions: effects of training on academic achievement. Psychol Res 78:852–868

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van der Donk MLA, Hiemstra-Beernink AC, Tjeenk-Kalff AC, Van der Leij A, Lindauer RJL (2016) Predictors and moderators of treatment outcome in cognitive training for children with ADHD. J Atten Disord

  • Van der Oord S, Daley D (2015) Moderators and mediators of treatments for youth with ADHD. In: Maric M, Prins PJM, Ollendick TH (eds) Moderators and mediators of youth treatment outcomes. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 123–145

    Google Scholar 

  • Van der Oord S, Ponsioen AJGB, Geurts HM, Ten Brink EL, Prins PJM (2014) A pilot study of the efficacy of a computerized executive functioning remediation training with game elements for children with ADHD in an outpatient setting: outcome on parent- and teacher-rated executive functioning and ADHD behavior. J Atten Disord 18:699–712

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van Dongen-Boomsma M, Vollebregt MA, Buitelaar JK, Slaats-Willemse D (2014) Working memory training in young children with ADHD: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 55:886–896

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Westerberg H, Hirvikoski T, Forssberg H, Klingberg T (2004) Visuo-spatial working memory span: a sensitive measure of cognitive deficits in children with ADHD. Child Neuropsychol J Norm Abnorm Dev Child Adolesc 10:155–161

    Google Scholar 

  • Willcutt EG, Doyle AE, Nigg JT, Faraone SV, Pennington BF (2005) Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Biol Psychiatry 57(11):1336–1346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.02.006

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Willcutt EG, Nigg JT, Pennington BF, Solanto MV, Rohde LA, Tannock R et al (2012) Validity of DSM–IV attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptom dimensions and subtypes. J Abnorm Psychol 121:991–1010

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wise EA (2004) Methods for analyzing psychotherapy outcomes: a review of clinical significance, reliable change, and recommendations for future directions. J Pers Assess 82(1):50–59

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wong CG, Stevens MC (2012) The effects of stimulant medication on working memory functional connectivity in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 71:458–466

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Jeugdriagg Noord Holland Zuid, GGz Noord Holland Noord (Centrum voor Kinder- en Jeugdpsychiatrie), Regionaal Centrum voor Kinder en Jeugdpsychiatrie Gooi en Vechtstreek (RCKJP), Bosman GGz, Stichting De Praktijk, Stichting Kram, PuntP, Academisch Behandelcentrum UvA Minds, and Kinderpraktijk VIS, to multimedia company ShoSho for the gamification of Brian Game Brian, to Hilde Huizenga and Joost Agelink van Rentergem Zandvliet for their comments and statistical advice, to Marloes van der Arend, Tim van den Broek, Josje de Bont, Annette Brouwer, Tycho Dekkers, Lucie van den Eertwegh, Rebecca Goedee, Roza van der Heide, Lisanne Klink, Astrid Nauta, Inge Meulenberg, Muriël Musa, Pascale Riaskoff, Elise Tilma, Marije Voermans, Ida de Vries, and Pamina Warmbrunn for their help with data collection, and to all participating children and families.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Developmental Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Nieuwe Achtergracht 129B, 1001 NK, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

    Sebastiaan Dovis, Marija Maric, Pier J. M. Prins & Saskia Van der Oord

  2. Cognitive Science Center Amsterdam, University of Amsterdam, Nieuwe Achtergracht 129B, 1001 NK, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

    Sebastiaan Dovis, Marija Maric, Pier J. M. Prins & Saskia Van der Oord

  3. Clinical Psychology, KU Leuven, Tiensestraat 102, bus 3720, 3000, Leuven, Belgium

    Saskia Van der Oord

Authors
  1. Sebastiaan Dovis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Marija Maric
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Pier J. M. Prins
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Saskia Van der Oord
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Saskia Van der Oord.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

S.D., S.VDO and M.M. declare no competing interests relating to this paper. P.J.M.P. was member of Stichting Gaming & Training (until 2017), a nonprofit organization that facilitates the development and implementation of the above-mentioned EF training; “Braingame Brian.”

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

The original version of this article was revised: The captions of Figures 1 and 2 were swapped.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Dovis, S., Maric, M., Prins, P.J.M. et al. Does executive function capacity moderate the outcome of executive function training in children with ADHD?. ADHD Atten Def Hyp Disord 11, 445–460 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12402-019-00308-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12402-019-00308-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation