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To what extent do DNN-based image classification models make unreliable inferences?

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Abstract

Deep Neural Network (DNN) models are widely used for image classification. While they offer high performance in terms of accuracy, researchers are concerned about if these models inappropriately make inferences using features irrelevant to the target object in a given image. To address this concern, we propose a metamorphic testing approach that assesses if a given inference is made based on irrelevant features. Specifically, we propose two metamorphic relations (MRs) to detect such unreliable inferences. These relations expect (a) the classification results with different labels or the same labels but less certainty from models after corrupting the relevant features of images, and (b) the classification results with the same labels after corrupting irrelevant features. The inferences that violate the metamorphic relations are regarded as unreliable inferences. Our evaluation demonstrated that our approach can effectively identify unreliable inferences for single-label classification models with an average precision of 64.1% and 96.4% for the two MRs, respectively. As for multi-label classification models, the corresponding precision for MR-1 and MR-2 is 78.2% and 86.5%, respectively. Further, we conducted an empirical study to understand the problem of unreliable inferences in practice. Specifically, we applied our approach to 18 pre-trained single-label image classification models and 3 multi-label classification models, and then examined their inferences on the ImageNet and COCO datasets. We found that unreliable inferences are pervasive. Specifically, for each model, more than thousands of correct classifications are actually made using irrelevant features. Next, we investigated the effect of such pervasive unreliable inferences, and found that they can cause significant degradation of a model’s overall accuracy. After including these unreliable inferences from the test set, the model’s accuracy can be significantly changed. Therefore, we recommend that developers should pay more attention to these unreliable inferences during the model evaluations. We also explored the correlation between model accuracy and the size of unreliable inferences. We found the inferences of the input with smaller objects are easier to be unreliable. Lastly, we found that the current model training methodologies can guide the models to learn object-relevant features to certain extent, but may not necessarily prevent the model from making unreliable inferences. We encourage the community to propose more effective training methodologies to address this issue.

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Notes

  1. The latter study refers this concept as “prediction confidence”

  2. https://github.com/yqtianust/PaperUnreliableInference

  3. in the Chi-square test, it is usually referred to as Cramér’s V (Cramer 1946)

  4. TResNet-L: https://github.com/Alibaba-MIIL/ASL, ResNet-50: https://github.com/ARiSE-Lab/DeepInspect

  5. https://github.com/pytorch/examples

  6. https://pytorch.org/docs/stable/torchvision/models.html

  7. The MR-3/4/5/6 are just our initial proposals. The detailed definition should be polished and their effectiveness should be thoroughly evaluated.

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Acknowledgement

We want to thank all reviewers for their constructive comments and suggestions for the manuscript. We would also like to thank the editors’ coordination. We would like to express our deep gratitude to Miss Yao Feng for her significant contribution to the manual check. Besides, we appreciate the proofreading by our labmates, Mr. Wuqi Zhang, Mr. Meiziniu Li, Mr. Hao Guan and Miss Lei Liu.

Funding

This work was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (Grant No. 2019YFE0198100), National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 61932021, 62002125 and 61802164), Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory (Grant No. 2020B121201001), Hong Kong RGC/RIF (Grant No. R5034-18), Hong Kong ITF (Grant No: MHP/055/19), Hong Kong PhD Fellowship Scheme, MSRA Collaborative Research Grant, Microsoft Cloud Research Software Fellow Award 2019, NSF 1901242, NSF 1910300, and IARPA TrojAI W911NF19S0012. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions in this paper are those of the authors only and do not necessarily reflect the views of our sponsors.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Computer Science and Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China

    Yongqiang Tian & Shing-Chi Cheung

  2. Department of Computer Science, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, USA

    Shiqing Ma

  3. School of Cyber Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China

    Ming Wen

  4. Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China

    Yepang Liu

  5. Department of Computer Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

    Xiangyu Zhang

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Tian, Y., Ma, S., Wen, M. et al. To what extent do DNN-based image classification models make unreliable inferences?. Empir Software Eng 26, 84 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10664-021-09985-1

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