1 Introduction

The COVID-19 pandemic has increased the use of distance learning worldwide (Bozkurt et al., 2020). However, students generally prefer face-to-face learning to online learning and consider it more effective (Aguilera-Hermida, 2020; Bojović et al., 2020; Chakraborty et al., 2021). Moreover, students with a strong preference for face-to-face learning adapt harder to online learning (Aguilera-Hermida, 2020). Reduced adaptation to online learning is linked to either inability or very limited possibility to obtain help from colleagues during online classes (Aguilera-Hermida, 2020). Nevertheless, most students appreciate online education and believe it has helped them continue their education during the pandemic (Chakraborty et al., 2021; Mishra et al., 2020).

2 Literature review

2.1 Synchronous online lessons and webcam use

During synchronous online classes, teachers and students use technology to communicate with each other but students may intentionally activate or inactivate their microphones and webcams. However, pupils and students often do not turn on the webcam during synchronous classes (Castelli & Sarvary, 2021; Händel et al., 2022; Li et al., 2022; Meishar-Tal & Forkosh-Baruch, 2022; Melgaard et al., 2022; Waluyo & Wangdi, 2023) because of technical problems or lack of access to appropriate equipment (Händel et al., 2020), insufficient internet speed (Castelli & Sarvary, 2021; Jæger & Blaabæk, 2020; Peper et al., 2021), and concerns about digital security (Lin & Gao, 2020), but also because of psychological factors. These psychological factors include passive participation in classes (Chakraborty et al., 2021), decreased motivation to learn online (Asgari et al., 2021; Chen et al., 2021; Melgaard et al., 2022; Serhan, 2020), boredom and fatigue (Morris, 2020; Peper et al., 2021), performing other activities during classes (Castelli & Sarvary, 2021), being distracted by own face on the screen (Lin & Gao, 2020), and fear of negative colleagues evaluation of body or room space (Aguilera-Hermida, 2020; Castelli & Sarvary, 2021; Lin & Gao, 2020; Melgaard et al., 2022; Yau et al., 2022).

During the COVID-19 pandemic, the majority of students believed that interactions between students and teachers are better in classrooms than via online platforms (Chakraborty et al., 2021). However, only a few students agreed that being able to see each other during a lecture made it more interactive (Chakraborty et al., 2021). Reluctance to turn on the webcam during synchronous online classes is puzzling because the lack of interaction both with the instructor and other students is the common reason for dissatisfaction with asynchronous courses (Cole et al., 2014). However, some students report willingness to turn on the webcam, but only when classes are in a small group of well-known colleagues (Li et al., 2022). Moreover, students are also more likely to turn on their webcams during discussions than during lectures or multimedia presentations (Li et al., 2022). On the other hand, if most students do not turn on their webcams, others will likely turn off their webcams as well (Li et al., 2022; Melgaard et al., 2022).

When students avoid turning on the webcam during synchronous classes, teachers cannot use non-verbal cues to help adjust teaching or assess the level of mutual communication (Castelli & Sarvary, 2021; Melgaard et al., 2022; Peper et al., 2021). Teachers often feel as if they are “talking to themselves” when they do not see students’ faces on the screen (Castelli & Sarvary, 2021). Moreover, the lack of face-to-face contact and a lower sense of community may also reduce students’ involvement in the learning process (Chen et al., 2021; Lin & Gao, 2020; Melgaard et al., 2022).

2.2 Self-compassion

Self-compassion means kindness to oneself and being able to have a compassionate understanding of one’s suffering, limitations, failures, and difficult emotions (Neff, 2003a). Self-compassion consists of three elements: self-kindness (versus self-judgment); common humanity (versus isolation); and mindfulness (versus overidentification). Self-kindness refers to being gentle and understanding toward oneself, rather than harshly critical. Common humanity relates to the belief that bad or difficult events happen to many people and are typical of most people’s experiences. Mindfulness manifests by being aware of the importance of one’s experiences, rather than exaggerating or ignoring them.

Higher self-compassion is associated with higher well-being (Zessin et al., 2015), lower risk of depression (Wilson et al., 2019), and better coping with stress (Brion et al., 2014). Moreover, self-compassion improves many aspects of students’ everyday lives. In students, higher self-compassion correlates with better mental health (Kroshus et al., 2021), more positive body esteem, and fewer body comparisons (Murn & Steele, 2020). Among students, self-compassion also reduces the risk of depression and anxiety (Luo et al., 2019), and suicide (Hirsch et al., 2021). Moreover, self-compassion helps to enhance students’ college adjustment (Aini & Widyasari, 2021) and correlates with better academic performance, greater motivation to learn, and greater commitment (Egan et al., 2022). From a different perspective, among online teachers, self-compassion helps maintain well-being (Postareff et al., 2021). On the other hand, during COVID-19 pandemic, among PhD students, self-compassion predicted lower depression, anxiety, and stress and higher well-being (Paucsik et al., 2022).

2.3 Self-esteem

Self-esteem refers to a relatively stable attitude toward oneself, which can be either positive or negative (Rosenberg, 1965). Higher self-esteem is associated with more adaptive skills (Pyszczynski et al., 2004), so it may affect coping with novel situations, such as switching from face-to-face learning to online learning. On the other hand, one’s self-esteem is partially determined by how other people perceive a person and how other people behave toward them (Leary & Baumeister, 2000). The study conducted by Bleidorn et al. (2016) demonstrates age-related increases in self-esteem from late adolescence to middle adulthood. Furthermore, it reveals gender gaps, with men consistently reporting higher self-esteem than women (Bleidorn et al., 2016).

Many studies point to the generally beneficial effects of high self-compassion rather than high self-esteem (e.g. Neff, 2011). However, both of these variables are beneficial to students. Self-compassion and self-esteem counteract, among others, self-handicapping, procrastination, and anxiety (Barutçu Yıldırım et al., 2020). Other studies confirm the importance of both self-esteem and self-compassion for students’ mental health, pointing to the need to provide appropriate interventions (Wasylkiw et al., 2020). Self-esteem and self-compassion are often linked to grades in academia (Cid-Sillero et al., 2020; Egan et al., 2022). Moreover, self-esteem plays a moderating role between cognitive skills and academic performance (Cid-Sillero et al., 2020).

2.4 Body image

Body image is a mental schema that represents individual experience and positive or negative feelings toward one’s body (Cash & Pruzinsky, 2002). The contexts of body esteem formation are different in men and women (Franzoi & Shields, 1984). In men, body esteem results mainly from their perception of their physical attractiveness, upper body strength, and physical condition. In women, body esteem results mainly from their perception of their sexual attractiveness, weight concerns, and physical condition. The factors influencing body esteem in men are more correlated than those in women, resulting in greater body esteem differentiation in women than in men (Franzoi & Shields, 1984).

Body image and body esteem are related to self-compassion. Higher self-compassion is associated with less body shame, less body dissatisfaction, and a lower tendency to display an objectified body consciousness (Mosewich et al., 2011). In women, higher self-compassion is a predictor of a lower tendency to have body concerns, weight worries, and body preoccupation (Wasylkiw et al., 2012). Self-compassion also correlates negatively with comparisons with other people related to their appearance, eating, and exercising (Siegel et al., 2020). Men with low self-compassion demonstrate higher associations between masculine gender role stress and self-stigma; therefore, higher self-compassion may be a factor that reduces the connections between rigid masculinities and men’s stigma of seeking help (Booth et al., 2019).

Research also indicates a relationship between body image and online face presentation. Students’ perception of taking and posting selfies correlates positively with their body image satisfaction (Digamon et al., 2020). On the other hand, a higher frequency of selfie editing before online sharing is associated with lower self-esteem (Lau & Idang, 2022). Body image disturbance attributes such as feeling displeasure with one’s perceived appearance while using video streaming platforms, self-surveillance of one’s appearance, upward comparisons of one’s appearance with others, and experiencing feelings of inadequacy are common among female adolescents using online learning platforms (Lee & Ziegler, 2022). Furthermore, perceived facial attractiveness influences the decision to use a webcam; however, men are driven more by their self-evaluation of facial attractiveness and women are driven more by their beliefs about what others think of their facial attractiveness (Luse et al., 2023).

3 Methods

3.1 Research purpose and hypotheses

The inspiration for our research was the prevalence of students’ avoidance of turning on the webcam during synchronous online lessons (Castelli & Sarvary, 2021; Li et al., 2022; Melgaard et al., 2022). First, we wanted to check whether students’ readiness to use the webcam during synchronous online classes is affected by their self-compassion (question 1), self-esteem (question 2), and body esteem (question 3). We hypothesized that students with lower self-esteem would feel more discomfort when turning on the webcam during synchronous online classes (hypothesis 1.1), would turn on the webcam less often (hypothesis 1.2), and would be less active during synchronous online classes (hypothesis 1.3). We also hypothesized that students with lower body esteem would feel more discomfort when turning on the webcam during synchronous online classes (hypothesis 2.2), would turn on the webcam less often (hypothesis 2.2), and would be less active during synchronous online classes (hypothesis 2.3). Moreover, we hypothesized that students with higher self-compassion would feel less discomfort when the webcam is turned on during synchronous online classes (hypothesis 3.1). Thus, our next two hypotheses were that self-compassion would be linked to students’ activity during synchronous online classes (hypothesis 3.2) and their frequency of turning on the webcam (hypothesis 3.3). We also wanted to check whether discomfort related to using the webcam translates into students’ behavior during synchronous online classes (question 4). We hypothesized that discomfort related to using the webcam would correlate negatively both with the frequency of turning on the webcam (hypothesis 4.1) and students’ online activity (hypothesis 4.2).

Subsequently, we planned to analyze the relationships among the studied variables in the path model. Based on the predicted relationships among the variables indicated in our hypotheses, we constructed the model shown in Fig. 1. Research conducted to date shows that men and women differ in self-compassion, self-esteem, and body esteem (e.g. Bleidorn et al., 2016; Mellor et al., 2010; Yarnell et al., 2015); therefore, we decided to check for gender differences in observed correlations and path effects.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Path model of links between the variables included in the study

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3.2 Measures

To measure students’ habits and feelings related to using the webcam during online classes, we prepared our own ad hoc single-item scales. Participants reported their discomfort when using the webcam in online classes answering the question “How often does turning on the webcam during online classes cause you discomfort?”, they reported how often they turned on the camera in online classes answering the question “How often do you turn the webcam on during online classes?”, and they reported their activity during online classes answering the question “How often do you present your opinions during online classes?” Participants responded to these questions on a 5-point scale (1 = Never/Very low; 5 = Always/Very high).

We measured self-compassion using the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS; Neff, 2003b; description of the Polish adaptation and full scale in Kocur et al., 2022). This SCS consists of 26 items referring to the components of self-compassion: self-kindness (e.g. “I try to be loving toward myself when I’m feeling emotional pain”), self-judgment (e.g. “I’m disapproving and judgmental about my own flaws and inadequacies”; item with reversed scale); common humanity (e.g. “When things are going badly for me, I see the difficulties as part of life that everyone goes through”); isolation (e.g. “When I think about my inadequacies, it tends to make me feel more separate and cut off from the rest of the world”; item with reversed scale); mindfulness (e.g. “When something upsets me I try to keep my emotions in balance”); and overidentification (e.g. “When I’m feeling down I tend to obsess and fixate on everything that’s wrong”; item with reversed scale). Participants responded on a scale from 1 (almost never) to 5 (almost always). The Cronbach’s α of the SCS in the current study was 0.92.

To measure participants’ self-esteem we used the Self-Esteem Scale (SES; Rosenberg, 1989; description of the Polish adaptation and full scale in Łaguna et al., 2007). The scale consists of ten items (e.g. “I feel I have a number of good qualities”) and participants responded on a 4-point scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). The Cronbach’s α of the SES in our study was α = 0.88.

We measured body esteem using the Body Esteem Scale (BES; Franzoi & Shields, 1984; description of the Polish adaptation and full scale in Lipowska & Lipowski, 2013). This tool consists of 35 items measuring individual feelings about such aspects of the body as weight, physical condition, and body parts. The participants responded on a scale from 1 (I have a strong negative feeling) to 5 (I have a strong positive feeling). The BES reliability was Cronbach’s α = 0.94.

We averaged the general scores of the SCS, SES, and BES so that the SCS and BES scores could range from 1 to 5, and the SES scores from 1 to 4. We used the Jamovi 2.3.16. program to perform statistical analyses.

3.3 Participants & procedure

A sample of 450 Polish students attending synchronous online classes (132 men and 318 women) aged 18 to 28 (M = 21.16, SD = 1.99) consented to participate in an anonymous, online study. The participants were informed of the nature of the study. If they consented via a tick box, they provided information about their habits and feelings related to using a webcam during online classes, self-compassion, self-esteem, and body esteem. A G-power analysis indicated that the sample size was large enough to detect relatively small effects in correlation analyses (|ρ| = 0.13) with an appropriate power level (1-β = 0.80) given a Cronbach’s α equal to 0.05 (Faul et al., 2007).

After the survey, participants were thanked, debriefed, and informed about the opportunity to contact the first author via e-mail in case of questions or concerns. All data were collected using the snowball sampling method among Polish students, mostly from the psychology, pedagogy, and philology faculties. No incentive was offered for participation in the online study. The participants were volunteers and were informed about the purpose of the study. The planned procedure was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Silesia in Katowice (approval no. KEUS.77/01.2021).

4 Results

First, we checked gender differences among the measured variables. Descriptive statistics and gender comparisons are presented in Table 1. Men scored higher than women on self-compassion, self-esteem, and body esteem. However, women scored higher than men on discomfort when using the webcam.

Table 1 Descriptive statistics and gender differences among measured variables
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Then we tested the hypotheses regarding the relationships among the measured variables. Correlation coefficients are shown in Table 2. As we predicted, the higher the self-esteem and body esteem students had, the less discomfort they felt while using the webcam. However, higher self-esteem and body esteem correlated with a higher frequency of turning on the webcam only in women. Moreover, activity during synchronous online classes correlated with body esteem in men, but with self-esteem in women. In line with our hypothesis, discomfort while using the webcam negatively correlated with activity during synchronous online classes. However, we observed a negative relationship between discomfort when using the webcam and the frequency of turning on the webcam only in women. In addition, the relationship between discomfort when using the webcam and the frequency of turning on the webcam was stronger in women than in men. As we predicted, higher self-compassion was associated with higher self-esteem and body esteem. Also in line with our hypothesis, higher self-compassion was associated with lower discomfort when using the webcam, higher self-esteem, and higher body esteem. However, the association between self-compassion and body esteem was stronger in women than in men. On the other hand, we observed positive links between self-compassion and the frequency of using the webcam and online activity only in women.

Table 2 Correlations between measured variables – Pearson r coefficients
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In the next step, we checked the relationships among the studied variables using path analysis. In our model, self-compassion was an exogenous variable that predicted self-esteem, body esteem, and discomfort while using the webcam, and these variables were predictors of activity during online classes and the frequency of turning on the webcam during them. Since SES and BES are both esteem measures, we introduced these variables to the model as covaried. Because we observed gender differences in correlations and their strength (see Table 2), we introduced gender as a multigroup analysis factor. To estimate the model parameters, we used the maximum likelihood (ML) method.

The model had very good fit indices: χ2/df = 1.143, RMSEA = 0.025 (95% C.I.: 0.000 – 0.085), SRMR = 0.025, CFI = 0.998. Among men, the model explained 8% of the variance related to the activity during online classes and 1% of the variance related to the activation of the camera during online classes. However, among women, the model explained 10% of the variance related to the activity during online classes and 19% of the variance related to the inclusion of the camera. All direct and indirect parameter estimates are shown in Table 3. Significant direct and indirect effects among men and women are shown in Fig. 2.

Table 3 Parameter estimates of the path model
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Fig. 2
figure 2

Significant effects in the path model. Note: The blue arrows show significant effects among men. The red arrows show significant effects among women. Solid lines show direct effects. The dotted lines show indirect effects

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Among men, self-compassion had a positive effect on self-esteem and body esteem and a negative effect on discomfort during the use of the webcam. There was also a negative effect of discomfort on activity when using the webcam during online classes. Moreover, we observed an indirect positive effect of self-compassion on activity during online classes and that effect was mediated by discomfort when using the webcam.

Among women, we observed direct positive effects of self-compassion on self-esteem and body esteem as well as a negative effect of self-compassion on discomfort during the use of the webcam. Moreover, women’s activity during online classes was positively affected by their self-esteem and negatively affected by discomfort during the use of the webcam. Women’s frequency of turning on the webcam was also negatively affected by discomfort during its use. In addition, we observed positive indirect effects of self-compassion on activity during online classes and turning on the webcam. Discomfort during online classes was a mediator of both effects, while self-esteem mediated the effect of self-compassion on activity during online classes.

5 Discussion

In our study, we checked the relationship between students’ self-compassion, self-esteem, and body esteem and their discomfort when using the webcam. We also checked relationships between these variables and students’ frequency of turning on the webcam and their activity during synchronous online classes. In our sample, men scored higher than women on self-compassion, self-esteem, and body esteem. The observed gender differences were in line with previous research (e.g. Bleidorn et al., 2016; Mellor et al., 2010; Yarnell et al., 2015). However, observed gender differences motivated us to run separate analyses in groups of men and women.

As we hypothesized, students with lower self-esteem felt more discomfort when using the webcam; moreover, among women, we observed positive correlations between self-esteem and activity during synchronous online classes and turning on the webcam. These results suggest that higher self-esteem helps women overcome the discomfort of using the camera, which translates into turning on the camera more often. Despite experiencing more discomfort, women turned on the camera and actively participated in the activities as often as men. Our observations are consistent with other studies where young women with higher self-esteem were more willing to post selfies (Wang et al., 2020). The observed correlation between self-esteem and activity during synchronous online classes in women and the lack of such correlation in men may be linked to different kinds of motivation for online learning: women have more participative intrinsic motivation, while men display more participative interpersonal motivation (Liu & Young, 2017).

We partially confirmed our hypotheses regarding relationships between body esteem and discomfort when using the webcam, activity during synchronous online classes, and turning on the webcam. In both genders, body esteem correlated negatively with discomfort when using the webcam; however, it correlated positively with turning on the webcam only in women and correlated positively with activity during online classes only in men. This result indicates that students with higher body esteem were more able to overcome discomfort while using the webcam, which resulted in turning on the camera. However, higher body esteem was associated with more activity in synchronous online classes only among men. This result suggests that men’s higher body esteem may translate into their greater courage which leads to higher activity during classes.

In women, discomfort when using the webcam correlated negatively with turning on the webcam during synchronous online classes; however, we did not observe such a correlation in men. Moreover, the relationship between discomfort when using the webcam and turning on the webcam during synchronous online classes in women was higher than in men. This suggests that psychological discomfort associated with using a webcam is more likely to translate into avoidance behavior in women than in men. Women with social phobia report greater fear than men while undertaking social activities such as acting, performing, and giving a talk in front of an audience, working while being observed, entering a room when others are already seated, being the center of attention, and speaking up at a meeting (Turk et al., 1998). On the other hand, in line with our hypothesis, discomfort when using the webcam correlated negatively with activity during synchronous online classes in both genders. This may be a consequence of the fact that students experiencing discomfort do not want to reveal their image during online classes because they fear a negative evaluation of their body or their room space by others (Aguilera-Hermida, 2020; Castelli & Sarvary, 2021; Lin & Gao, 2020; Melgaard et al., 2022; Yau et al., 2022).

As we hypothesized, in both genders self-compassion correlated positively with self-esteem and body esteem; however, this relationship was stronger in women than in men. These results are in line with previous studies where men showed a weaker negative link between self-compassion and body image concerns (Turk et al., 2021). Moreover, in women, higher self-compassion was linked to lower discomfort when using the webcam and both higher activity and frequency of turning on the webcam during synchronous online classes. Similarly, among men, self-compassion correlated negatively with discomfort when using the webcam. Thus, higher self-compassion may help to alleviate discomfort when turning on the webcam and facilitate acceptance of one’s appearance and the understanding that other people also struggle with similar difficulties. Moreover, self-compassion predicts better feedback perception, even if it is negative (Laudel & Narciss, 2023). However, among men, higher self-compassion did not correlate with more activity during synchronous online classes and more frequent activation of the webcam. Perhaps men’s decisions to turn on the webcam were related to other factors, such as lower involvement in classes or parallel engagement in activities not related to the subject of the class (Asgari et al., 2021; Castelli & Sarvary, 2021; Chen et al., 2021; Serhan, 2020).

In our path model, in both genders, self-compassion positively affected self-esteem and body esteem. Moreover, in men and women, self-compassion negatively affected discomfort when using the webcam. Higher self-compassion allows students to overcome fears about being judged by others (Mosewich et al., 2011; Murn & Steele, 2020; Wasylkiw et al., 2012). However, indirect effects of self-compassion on activity during synchronous online classes and turning on the webcam differed between genders. Among men, self-compassion positively affected activity during synchronous online classes but did not affect turning on the webcam. Among women, self-compassion positively affected activity during online classes as well as turning on the webcam. The observed indirect relationships indicate that self-compassion may be an important psychological resource that translates not only into better psychological functioning but also more effective participation in synchronous online classes. This direction is consistent with other results that indicate the positive influence of self-compassion on physical activity through reduced psychological distress and subsequently increased self-efficacy in overcoming engagement barriers (Zhang et al., 2023).

In men and women, discomfort when using the webcam negatively affected activity during synchronous online classes. However, only in women, turning on the webcam during synchronous online classes was negatively affected by discomfort when using the webcam. Moreover, among women, self-esteem had an effect on activity during synchronous online classes. On the other hand, body esteem did not affect either activity during synchronous online classes or turning on the webcam (cf. Waluyo & Wangdi, 2023). These results suggest that for effective participation in synchronous online classes, factors related to discomfort and self-esteem may be more crucial than factors related to body esteem. Students may be reluctant to turn on their webcams not only because of their opinions regarding their bodies but also because of concerns about the appearance of their environment, which is an indicator of economic and cultural status (Castelli & Sarvary, 2021). However, in other studies, students’ preference for turning on the camera was affected by their physical appearance.

5.1 Limitations

The present study is not without limitations. First, our sample consisted of volunteers; therefore, the characteristics of our sample may not reflect the characteristics of the general population of students participating in synchronous online classes. In future studies, samples should be collected in a way that is likely to make the profile of the participants more similar to the profile of the general population. Such research may, for example, be conducted during ongoing synchronous online classes.

Second, our study had a cross-sectional design, which may have affected the indirect effects presented in the path model (Maxwell & Cole, 2007). Therefore, future studies should consider longitudinal studies with several stages of measurements. Such a design would make it possible to check the elongated effects of self-compassion, self-esteem, body esteem, and discomfort when using webcams both on activity when using the webcam during synchronous online classes and on turning on the webcam. Longitudinal studies can also test the effectiveness of short interventions focused on developing self-compassion among students participating in synchronous online classes.

Third, our sample consisted of unequal numbers of men and women. However, there are usually more women than men in university studies, thus such a discrepancy may be generally characteristic of samples consisting of students. On the other hand, more similar numbers of men and women in future studies would increase the level of accuracy of cross-gender comparisons.

Fourth, we used single-item scales to measure aspects related to participants’ frequency of turning on the webcam during online classes, their discomfort when using the webcam, and their activity during synchronous online classes. Although single-item scales give results comparable to multi-item scales (Verster et al., 2021), longer scales with established psychometric properties are worth considering in future research.

Fifth, we conducted our study on a sample of Polish students who live in W.E.I.R.D. culture (i.e., Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic; Henrich et al., 2010), and that limits the generalizability of our conclusions to other cultures, especially the non-W.E.I.R.D. cultures. Moreover, Poland is a country with a high percentage of students among young adults: according to data from Statistics Poland, in 2021, 54.5% of the population aged 19–24 were students (https://radon.nauka.gov.pl/raporty/studenci_2022; access date: April 28, 2023) and according to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development report enrolment ratio for Polish people aged 20–24 reached 47% (OECD, 2022). The mentioned contexts could have influenced the obtained results. For example, decisions to turn on the camera during synchronous online classes among students from the individualistic W.E.I.R.D. culture may have been more dependent on individual factors (e.g., psychological) than on contextual factors (e.g., common norms and regulations). On the other hand, because of the broad and relatively easy access to higher education that characterizes Poland, Polish students may be highly heterogeneous in terms of motivation to study and the functions that education plays in their lives. These aspects should be controlled in future research on students’ behavior during classes.

Finally, future studies should examine students of more differentiated faculties since specific study profiles may be associated with specific predispositions and opportunities. Students’ professions and interests differ in contact with other people (e.g. marketing and social sciences give more opportunities for social contacts than computer science or mathematics), the development of social skills (e.g. public relations studies develop more self-presentation competencies than biology or chemistry), and even understanding of psychological processes.

6 Conclusion

Our research indicated the importance of the development of self-compassion in students participating in synchronous online classes. Nowadays, there are many online, asynchronous programs or mobile applications developing self-compassion, the effectiveness of which has been confirmed by research (Linardon, 2020). This means that interventions that increase the level of self-compassion among students and positively impact their functioning do not have to involve large financial outlays. Therefore, universities could develop programs to support the development of self-compassion among students, which may translate into their better performance during studies.

On the other hand, we should be prepared for future crises and circumstances that force people to switch to distance learning (e.g. wars, pandemics, ecological problems); therefore, proper preparing of students for remote learning is necessary. For example, including at least a few synchronous online classes in studies standard schedules may allow students to get used to synchronous online learning. Moreover, workshops showing the most common difficulties that may arise during synchronous online classes and how to deal with them may be a good solution. For example, classes in small groups conducted with elements of interpersonal training that address the most common concerns about turning on the webcam during synchronous online classes may give students a sense of greater community and mutual similarity, which may reduce fears about turning on the webcam and speaking up during classes.