Abstract
Several factors (including slope morphology, geological and structural settings, the mechanical properties of soils, weathering, hydrological and hydrogeological conditions and land use changes) can affect the origin and development of shallow landslides induced by rainfall. On 25 October 2011, an intense rainfall occurred in a wide area of Italy between eastern Liguria and northern Tuscany, triggering thousands of shallow landslides and causing widespread flooding. Floods and landslides caused severe damage to villages and infrastructure and caused 13 fatalities. This study was conducted to investigate the shallow landslides triggered by the rainfall in the Vernazza basin (Cinque Terre in eastern Liguria), where landslides and debris floods caused 3 fatalities and damage of approximately €130 million. The Vernazza basin, which is characterised by steep slopes, geological heterogeneity and unusual land use settings (approximately 50 % of the slopes have been terraced for centuries), was chosen as the focus of this study, conducted to assess the influences of several factors on landslide occurrence. Field surveys and engineering geological investigations, including laboratory and in situ tests, were carried out at various sites to assess the stratigraphic and geotechnical features of the soil slope covers. A basic engineering geological zoning was carried out, taking into account the bedrock lithology, the geotechnical properties of the soils and the land use settings. On the basis of a detailed inventory of the shallow landslides that occurred, the distribution of the landslides was analysed with respect to the slopes, the bedrock lithology, the land uses and the engineering geological setting. Terraced areas on impermeable bedrock were identified as the main landslide-prone areas. The results of the study also showed that the time since abandonment of terraces plays an important role in the occurrence of shallow landslides induced by rainfall.
Similar content being viewed by others
Explore related subjects
Discover the latest articles, news and stories from top researchers in related subjects.References
Ardizzone F, Basile G, Cardinali M, Casagli N, Del Conte S, Del Ventisette C, Terranova O (2012) Landslide inventory map for the Briga and the Giampilieri catchments, NE Sicily, Italy. J Maps 8(2):176–180. doi:10.1080/17445647.2012.694271
A.R.P.A.L.-C.F.M.I.-P.C. (Agenzia Regionale per la Protezione dell’Ambiente Ligure-Centro Funzionale Meteoidrologico di Protezione Civile della Regione Liguria) (2011) Alluvioni in Liguria, i fattori meteo e gli effetti. Ecoscienza 5(6):6–9
A.R.P.A.L.-C.F.M.I.-P.C. (Agenzia Regionale per la Protezione dell’Ambiente Ligure-Centro Funzionale Meteoidrologico di Protezione Civile della Regione Liguria) (2012) Uno tsunami venuto dai monti—Provincia della Spezia 25 ottobre 2011 rapporto di evento meteo-idrologico. Quaderni ARPAL 1:1–96
Beguerìa S (2006) Changes in land cover and shallow landslide activity: a case study in the Spanish Pyrenees. Geomorphology 74:196–206. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2005.07.018
Brandolini P, Cevasco A, Firpo M, Robbiano A, Sacchini A (2012) Geo-hydrological risk management for civil protection purposes in the urban area of Genoa (Liguria, NW Italy). Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 12:943–959. doi:10.5194/nhess-12-943-2012
Brardinoni F, Hassan MA, Rollerson T, Maynard D (2009) Colluvial sediment dynamics in mountain drainage basins. Earth Planet Sci Lett 284(3):310–319. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.05.002
Caine N (1980) The rainfall intensity duration control of shallow landslides and debris flow. Geogr Ann 62A(1–2):23–27
Calcaterra D, Parise M (2005) Landslide types and their relationships with weathering in a Calabrian basin, southern Italy. Bull Eng Geol Environ 64(2):193–207
Calcaterra D, Coppin D, De Vita S, Di Vito MA, Orsi G, Palma B, Parise M (2007) Slope processes in weathered volcaniclastic deposits within the city of Naples: The Camaldoli Hill case. Geomorphology 87(3):132–157. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.03.040
Camera CA, Apuani T, Masetti, M (2012a) Mechanisms of failure on terraced slopes: the Valtellina case (northern Italy). Landslides, online first. doi:10.1007/s10346-012-0371-3
Camera C, Masetti M, Apuani T (2012) Rainfall, infiltration, and groundwater flow in a terraced slope of Valtellina (Northern Italy): field data and modelling. Environ Earth Sci 65(4):1191–1202. doi:10.1007/s12665-011-1367-3
Campbell RH (1974) Debris flows originating from soil slips during rainstorms in Southern California. Q J Eng Geol Hydrogeol 7(4):339–349
Canuti P, Casagli N, Ermini L, Fanti R, Farina P (2004) Landslide activity as a geoindicator in Italy: significance and new perspectives from remote sensing. Environ Geol 45(7):907–919. doi:10.1007/s00254-003-0952-5
Cao S, Chen L, Feng Q, Liu Z (2007) Soft-riser bench terrace design for the hilly loess region of Shaanxi Province, China. Landsc Urban Plan 80(1–2):184–191. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2006.07.004
Carl T, Richter M (1989) Geoecological and morphological processes on abandoned vine-terraces in the Cinque Terre (Liguria). Geoökodynamic 10:125–158
Casagli N, Dapporto S, Ibsen ML, Tofani V, Vannocci P (2006) Analysis of the landslide triggering mechanism during the storm of 20th–21st November 2000, in Northern Tuscany. Landslides 3(1):13–21. doi:10.1007/s10346-005-0007-y
Cevasco A, Robbiano A, Sacchini A, Vincenzi E (2008) Hydrological thresholds for triggering shallow landslides in the area of the Municipality of Genoa: the case study of the Bisagno Valley. Rendiconti Online Società Geologica Italiana 3(1):212–213
Cevasco A, Francioli G, Robbiano A, Sacchini A, Vincenzi E (2009) Methodological procedures for landslide’s risk mitigation for civil protection purposes in the Genoa municipality area. Rendiconti Online Società Geologica Italiana 6:152–153
Cevasco A, Sacchini A, Robbiano A, Vincenzi E (2010) Evaluation of rainfall thresholds for triggering shallow landslides on the Genoa municipality area (Italy). The case study of the Bisagno valley. Italian J Eng Geol Environ 1:35–50
Cevasco A, Pepe G, Brandolini P (2012) Shallow landslides induced by heavy rainfall on terraced slopes: the case study of the October, 25, 2011 event in the Vernazza catchment (Cinque Terre, NW Italy). Rendiconti Online Società Geologica Italiana 21:384–386
Cevasco A, Brandolini P, Scopesi C, Rellini I (2013a) Relationships between geo-hydrological processes induced by heavy rainfall and land-use: the case of 25 October 2011 in the Vernazza catchment (Cinque Terre, NW Italy). J Maps 9(2):289–298. doi:10.1080/17445647.2013.780188
Cevasco A, Pepe G, Brandolini P (2013b) Geotechnical and stratigraphic aspects of shallow landslides at Cinque Terre (Liguria, Italy). Rendiconti Online Società Geologica Italiana 24:52–54
Coe JA, Michael JA, Crovelli RA, Savage WZ, Laprade WT, Nashem WD (2004) Probabilistic assessment of precipitation-triggered landslides using historical records of landslide occurrence, Seattle, Washington. Environ Eng Geosci 10(2):103–122
Crosta G (1998) Regionalization of rainfall thresholds: an aid to landslide hazard evaluation. Environ Geol 35(2/3):131–145
Crosta G, Dal Negro P, Frattini P (2003) Soil slips and debris flows on terraced slopes. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 3:943–959
Cruden DM, Varnes DJ (1996) Landslide types and processes. Landslides Investig Mitig 247:36–75
D’Amato Avanzi G, Giannecchini R, Puccinelli A (2004) The influence of the geological and geomorphological settings on shallow landslides. An example in a temperate climate environment: the June 19, 1996 event in northwestern Tuscany (Italy). Eng Geol 73(3):215–228. doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2004.01.005
De Vita P, Napolitano E, Godt JW, Baum RL (2012) Deterministic estimation of hydrological thresholds for shallow landslide initiation and slope stability models: case study from the Somma-Vesuvius area of southern Italy. Landslides, online first. doi:10.1007/s10346-012-0348-2
Del Prete M, Guadagno FM, Hawkins AB (1998) Preliminary report on the landslides of 5 May 1998, Campania, southern Italy. Bull Eng Geol Environ 57:113–129
Del Ventisette C, Garfagnoli F, Ciampalini A, Battistini A, Gigli G, Moretti S, Casagli N (2012) An integrated approach to the study of catastrophic debris-flows: geological hazard and human influence. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 12:2907–2922. doi:10.5194/nhess-12-2907-2012
Di Crescenzo G, Santo A (2005) Debris slides—rapid earth flows in the carbonate massifs of the Campania region (Southern Italy): morphological and morphometric data for evaluating triggering susceptibility. Geomorphology 66(1):255–276. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2004.09.015
Engelen GB (1967) Landslides in the metamorphic northern border of the Dolomites (north Italy). Eng Geol 2(3):135–147
Giannecchini R (2006) Relationship between rainfall and shallow landslides in the southern Apuan Alps (Italy). Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 6(3):357–364
Giannecchini R, Damilano D, Puccinelli A (2010) Critical rainfall thresholds for triggering rapid shallow landslides in the Eastern Ligurian Riviera (Italy). Rendiconti Online Società Geologica Italiana 11(2):594–595
Glade T (2003) Landslide occurrence as a response to land use change: a review of evidence from New Zealand. Catena 51(3):297–314
Grelle G, Revellino P, Donnarumma A, Guadagno FM (2011) Bedding control on landslides: a methodological approach for computer-aided mapping analysis. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 11:1395–1409. doi:10.5194/nhess-11-1395-2011
Grove AT, Rackham O (2001) The nature of Mediterranean Europe—an ecological history. Yale University Press, New Haven
Guadagno FM, Revellino P (2005) Debris avalanches and debris flows of the Campania Region (southern Italy). In: Jakob M, Hungr O (eds) Debris-flow hazards and related phenomena. Praxis-Springer, Berlin, pp 489–494
Guadagno FM, Martino S, Scarascia Mugnozza G (2003) Influence of man-made cuts on the stability of pyroclastic covers (Campania—southern Italy): a numerical modelling approach. Environ Geol 43:371–384
Guadagno FM, Forte R, Revellino P, Fiorillo F, Focareta M (2005) Geomorphology of the source areas of the flows involving the pyroclastic soils of Campania (southern Italy). Geomorphology 66:237–254
Guzzetti F, Perruccacci S, Rossi M, Stark CP (2008) The rainfall intensity-duration control of shallow landslides and debris flows: an update. Landslides 5:3–17. doi:10.1007/s10346-007-0112-1
Hungr O (1995) A model for the runout analysis of rapid flow slides, debris flows, and avalanches. Can Geotech J 32:610–623
Hungr O, Evans SG, Bovis MJ, Hutchinson JN (2001) A review of the classification of landslides of the flow type. Environ Eng Geosci 7(3):221–238
Iverson MR, Major JJ (1986) Groundwater seepage vectors and the potential for hillslope failure and debris flow mobilization. Water Resour Res 22:1543–1548
Jakob M (2000) The impacts of logging on landslide activity at Clayoquot Sound, British Columbia. Catena 38:279–300
Jakob M, Lambert S (2009) Climate change effects on landslides along the southwest coast of British Columbia. Geomorphology 107:275–284. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2008.12.009
Khanal N, Watanabe T (2006) Abandonment of agricultural land and its consequences. Mt Res Dev 26:32–40
Kulhawy FH, Mayne PW (1990) Manual on estimating soil properties for foundation design. Report EL-6800. Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto
Lasanta T, Arnaez J, Oserìn M, Ortigosa LM (2001) Marginal lands and erosion in terraced fields in the Mediterranean mountains. A case study in the Camero Viejo (Northwestern Iberian System, Spain). Mt Res Dev 21(1):69–76
Matsushi Y, Hattanji T, Matsukura Y (2006) Mechanisms of shallow landslides on soil-mantled hillslopes with permeable and impermeable bedrocks in the Boso Peninsula, Japan. Geomorphology 76(1):92–108. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2005.10.003
Meisina C (2006) Characterisation of weathered clayey soils responsible for shallow landslides. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 6(5):825–838
Montgomery DR, Dietrich WE (1994) A physically based model for the topographic control on shallow landsliding. Water Resour Res 30(4):1153–1171
Moser M (2002) Geotechnical aspects of landslides in the Alps. In: Rybar J, Stemberk J, Wagner P (eds) Landslides. Proceedings of the 1st European conference on landslides, Prague, Czech Republic, 24–26 June 2002, Swets & Zeitlinger, Lisse, The Netherlands, pp 23–43
Moser M, Hohensinn F (1983) Geotechnical aspects of soil slips in alpine regions. Eng Geol 19:185–211
Parrotta JA, Agnoletti M (2012) Traditional forest-related knowledge. In: Parrotta JA, Trosper RL (eds) World forests, vol 12. Springer, Netherlands, pp 491–533. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-2144-9
Regione Liguria (2006a) Carta geologica—La Spezia—Tavoletta no. 248.4 (scala 1:25000)
Regione Liguria (2006b) Carta Tecnica Regionale vettoriale tridimensionale scala 1:5000—El. no. 248012, 248013, 248051, 248054
Revellino P, Guadagno FM, Hungr O (2008) Morphological methods and dynamic modelling in landslide hazard assessment of the Campania Apennine carbonate slope. Landslides 5:59–70. doi:10.1007/s10346-007-0103-2
Revellino P, Grelle G, Donnarumma A, Guadagno FM (2010) Structurally controlled earth flows of the Benevento province (Southern Italy). Bull Eng Geol Environ 69(3):487–500. doi:10.1007/s10064-010-0288-9
Rollando G (2003) Vernazza nell’Ottocento. Notizie dagli Archivi del paese. Parco Nazionale delle Cinque Terre
Sereni E (1997) History of Italian agricultural landscape. Princeton University Press, Princeton
Shioi Y, Fukuni J (1982) Application of N-value to the design of foundations in Japan. In: Proceedings of the 2nd European Symposium on Penetration Testing (ESOPT2). Amsterdam, vol 1, pp 159–164
Sidle RC, Pearce AJ, O’Loughlin CL (1985) Hillslope stability and land use. Water Resources Monograph Series 11, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC
Silvestro F, Gabellani S, Giannoni F, Parodi A, Rebora N, Rudari R, Siccardi F (2012) A hydrological analysis of the 4 November 2011 event in Genoa. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 12(9):2743–2752. doi:10.5194/nhess-12-2743-2012
Stanchi S, Freppaz M, Agnelli A, Reinsch T, Zanini E (2012) Properties, best management practices and conservation of terraced soils in southern Europe (from Mediterranean areas to the Alps): a review. Quat Int 265:90–100. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.09.015
Terranova R (1984) Aspetti geomorfologici e geologico ambientali delle Cinque Terre: rapporti con le opere umane (Liguria Orientale). Studi e Ricerche di Geografia VII(1):39–90
Terranova R, Brandolini P, Spotorno M, Rota M, Montanari C, Galassi D, Nicchia P, Leale S, Bruzzo R, Renzi L, Seronello G, Dagorne A, Bally E, Castex JM, Reynes-Trias A, Alomar-Canyelles G, Ferrer-García I, Rodriguez-Gomila R, Grimalt-Gelabert M, Mus-Amezquita M (2002) Patrimoni de marjades a la Mediterrania Occidental. Una proposta de catalogaciò. Commissio Europea DGX, Programa Raphael, Palma di Mallorca: Fodesma
U.S. Department of Transportation (2006) Soil and foundations, reference manual 1, NHI course No. 132012. Pub No. FHWA NHI-06-088
Veeck G, Zhou L, Ling G (1995) Terrace construction and productivity on loessal soils in Zhongyang County, Shanxi province, PRC. Ann Assoc Am Geogr 85(3):450–467
Acknowledgments
Authors are grateful to the staff of S.G.L. Geotechnics Laboratory (Vado Ligure, Savona) for laboratory testing on soils, to Dr Gabriele Palummo for his help in site investigation, to Dr Luca Sanlorenzo for DEM analysis on slope angles, to the two anonymous referees for their constructive revisions which helped to improve the manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Cevasco, A., Pepe, G. & Brandolini, P. The influences of geological and land use settings on shallow landslides triggered by an intense rainfall event in a coastal terraced environment. Bull Eng Geol Environ 73, 859–875 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-013-0544-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-013-0544-x