Pleasure-arousal-dominance: A general framework for describing and measuring individual differences in Temperament

• Boyle, G.J., Stankov, L., & Cattell, R.B. (1995). Measurement and statistical models in the study of personality and intelligence. In D.H. Saklofske & M. Zeidner (Eds.),International handbook of personality and intelligence. New York: Plenum (pp. 417–446).

  Google Scholar 

• Bruch, M.A., Gorsky, J.M., Collins, T.M., & Berger, P.A. (1989). Shyness and sociability reexamined: A multicomponent analysis.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 904–915.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Bush, L.E., II. (1973). Individual differences multidimensional scaling of adjectives denoting feelings.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 25, 50–57.

  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

• Cheek, J.M. (1983). The revised Cheek and Buss Shyness Scale. Unpublished manuscript, Wellesley College.

• Costa, P.T., & McCrae, R.R. (1992).The NEO personality inventory (revised) manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

  Google Scholar 

• Crowne, D.P., & Marlowe, D.A. (1960). A new scale of social desirability independent of psychopathology.Journal of Consulting Psychology, 24, 349–354.

  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

• Eysenck, H.J. (1970).The structure of human personality (3rd ed.). London: Methuen.

  Google Scholar 

• Eysenck, H.J., & Eysenck, S.B. (1968).Manual for the Eysenck Personality Inventory. San Diego, CA: Educational and Industrial Testing Service.

  Google Scholar 

• Goldberg, L.R. (1992). The development of markers for the big-five factor structure.Psychological Assessment, 4, 26–42.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Jackson, D.N. (1967).Personality Research Form Manual. Goshen, NY: Research Psychologists Press.

  Google Scholar 

• Jenkins, C.D., Rosenman, R.H., & Zyzanski, S.J. (1974). Predication of clinical coronary heart disease by a test for the coronary-prone behavior pattern.New England Journal of Medicine, 290, 1271–1275.

  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

• Mandler, G., & Sarason, S.B. (1952). A study of anxiety and learning.Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 47, 166–173.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A. (1968). Male and female scales of the tendency to achieve.Educational and Psychological Measurement, 28, 493–502.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A. (1970). The development and validation of measures of affiliative tendency and sensitivity to rejection.Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30, 417–428.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A. (1971). Nonverbal betrayal of feelings.Journal of Experimental Research in Personality, 5, 64–73.

  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A. (1972). Nonverbal communication. In J.K. Cole (Ed.),Nebraska symposium on motivation. 1971, Vol. 19. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, pp. 107–161.

  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A. (1977). A questionnaire measure of individual differences in stimulus screening and associated differences in arousability.Environmental Psychology and Nonverbal Behavior, 1, 89–103.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A. (1978a). Measures of individual differences in temperament.Educational and Psychological Measurement, 38, 1105–1117.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A. (1978b). Characteristic individual reactions to preferred and unpreferred environments.Journal of Personality, 46, 717–731.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A. (1980).Basic dimensions for a general psychological theory: Implications for personality, social, environmental, and developmental studies. Cambridge, MA: Oelgeschlager, Gunn & Hain.

  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A. (1981).Silent messages: Implicit communication of emotions and attitudes (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A. (1986). Arousal-reducing effects of chronic stimulant use.Motivation and Emotion, 10, 1–10.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A. (1987).Eating characteristics and temperament: General measures and interrelationships. New York: Springer-Verlag.

  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A. (1991a). Outline of a general emotion-based theory of temperament. In J. Strelau and A. Angleitner (Eds.),Explorations in temperament: International perspectives on theory and measurement. New York: Plenum, pp. 75–86.

  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A. (1991b).Your inner path to investment success: Insights into the psychology of investing. Chicago: Probus.

  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A. (1994a).Manual for the Trait Pleasure-displeasure Scale. (Available from Albert Mehrabian, 1130 Alta Mesa Road, Monterey, CA, USA 93940).

• Mehrabian, A. (1994b).Manual for the Revised Trait Arousability (converse of Stimulus Screening) Scale. (Available from Albert Mehrabian, 1130 Alta Mesa Road, Monterey, CA, USA 93940).

• Mehrabian, A. (1994c).Manual for the Revised Trait Dominance-submissiveness Scale. (Available from Albert Mehrabian, 1130 Alta Mesa Road, Monterey, CA, USA 93940).

• Mehrabian, A. (1994d).Manual for the Mehrabian Depression and Trait Anxiety Scales. (Available from Albert Mehrabian, 1130 Alta Mesa Road, Monterey, CA, USA 93940).

• Mehrabian, A. (1994e). Evidence bearing on the Affiliative Tendency (MAFF) and Sensitivity to Rejection (MSR) Scales.Current Psychology, 13, 97–116.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A. (1994f).Manual for the Alcohol and Drug Use Scales. (Available from Albert Mehrabian, 1130 Alta Mesa Road, Monterey, CA, USA 93940).

• Mehrabian, A. (1994g).Manual for the Panic and Somatization Scales. (Avaiable from Albert Mehrabian, 1130 Alta Mesa Road, Monterey, CA, USA 93940).

• Mehrabian, A. (1994–95). Individual differences in achieving tendency: Review of evidence bearing on a questionnaire measure.Current Psychology, 13, 351–364.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A. (1995a). Theory and evidence bearing on a scale of trait arousability.Current Psychology, 14(1), 3–28.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A. (1995b). Relationships among three general approaches to personality description.Journal of Psychology, 129, 565–581.

  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A. (1995c). Framework for a comprehensive description and measurement of emotional states.Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 121, 339–361.

  PubMed  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A. (1996a). Distinguishing depression and trait anxiety in terms of basic dimensions of temperament.Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 15, 133–144.

  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A. (1996b). Analysis of the Big-five personality factors in terms of the PAD Temperament Model. Unpublished manuscript, UCLA.

• Mehrabian, A., & Bekken, M.L. (1986). Temperament characteristics of individuals who participate in strenuous sports.Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 57, 160–166.

  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A., & Bernath, M.S. (1991). Factorial composition of commonly used self-report depression inventories: Relationships with basic dimensions of temperament.Journal of Research in Personality, 25, 262–275.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A., & Blum, J.S. (1996). Temperament and personality as functions of age.The International Journal of Aging & Human Development, 42.

• Mehrabian, A., & Epstein, N. (1972). A measure of emotional empathy.Journal of Personality, 40, 525–543.

  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A., & Friedman, S.L. (1986). An analysis of fidgeting and associated individual differences.Journal of Personality, 54, 406–429.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A., & Hines, M. (1978). A questionnaire measure of individual differences in dominance-submissiveness.Educational and Psychological Measurement, 38, 479–484.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A., & Ksionzky, S. (1974).A theory of affiliation. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath.

  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A., Nahum, I.V., & Duke, V. (1986). Individual difference correlates and measures of predisposition to obesity and to anorexia.Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 5, 339–355.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A., & O’Reilly, E. (1980). Analysis of personality measures in terms of basic dimensions of temperament.Journal of Personality and Social Psycholoay, 38, 492–503.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A., & Ross, M. (1979). Illnesses, accidents, and alcohol use as functions of the arousing quality and pleasantness of life changes.Psychological Reports, 45, 31–43.

  PubMed  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A., & Russell, J.A. (1974a).An approach to environmental psychology. Cambridge, MA: M.I.T. Press.

  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A., & Russell, J.A. (1974b). A verbal measure of information rate for studies in environmental psychology.Environment and Behavior, 6, 233–252.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A., & Stefl, C.A. (1995). Basic temperament components of loneliness, shyness, and conformity.Social Behavior and Personality, 23, 253–264.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Mehrabian, A., Stefl, C.A., & Mullen, M. (1996). Emotional thinking in the adult: Individual differences in mysticism and globality-differentiation. Unpublished manuscript, UCLA.

• Mehrabian, A., & Weinstein, L. (1985). Temperament characteristics of suicide attempters.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53, 544–546.

  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

• Norman, W.T. (1963). Toward an adequate taxonomy of personality attributes: Replicated factor structure in peer nomination personality ratings.Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66, 574–583.

  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

• Osgood, C.E. (1960). The cross-cultural generality of visual-verbal synesthetic tendencies.Behavioral Science, 5, 146–169.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Osgood, C.E. (1966). Dimensionality of the semantic space for communication via facial expressions.Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 7, 1–30.

  PubMed  Google Scholar 

• Osgood, C.E. (1969). On the whys and wherefores of E. P. and A.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 12, 194–199.

  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

• Osgood, C.E., Suci, G.J., & Tannenbaum, P.H. (1957).The measurement of meaning. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.

  Google Scholar 

• Prohaska, T.R., Parham, I.A., & Teitelman, J. (1984). Age differences in attributions to causality: Implications for intellectual assessment.Experimental Aging Research, 10, 111–117.

  PubMed  Google Scholar 

• Russell, D., Peplau, L.A., & Cutrona, C.E. (1980). The revised UCLA Loneliness Scale: Concurrent and discriminant validity evidence.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 472–480.

  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

• Russell, J.A. (1980). A circumplex model of affect.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 1161–1178.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Russell, J.A., & Mehrabian, A. (1977a). Evidence for a three-factor theory of emotions.Journal of Research in Personality, 11, 273–294.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Russell, J.A., & Mehrabian, A. (1977b). Environmental effects on drug use.Environmental Psychology and Nonverbal Behavior, 2, 109–123.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Shaver, P., Schwartz, J., Kirson, D., & O’Connor, C. (1987). Emotion knowledge: Further exploration of a prototype approach.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1061–1086.

  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

• Sjoberg, L., & Svensson, E. (1976). The polarity and dimensionality of mood.Goteborg Psychological Reports, 6, No. 12.

• Snider, J.G., & Osgood, C.E. (Eds.) (1969).Semantic differential technique. Chicago: Aldine.

  Google Scholar 

• Spearman, C. (1904). The proof and measurement of association between two things.American Journal of Psychology, 15, 72–101.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Spielberger, C.D., Gorsuch, R.L., & Lushene, R.E. (1970).Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

  Google Scholar 

• Tupes, E.C., & Christal, R.E. (1961). Recurrent personality factors based on trait ratings. Technical Report ASD-TR-61-97. Lackland Air Force Base, TX: U.S. Air Force.

  Google Scholar 

• Valdez, P., & Mehrabian, A. (1994). Effects of color on emotions.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 123, 394–409.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Wiggins, J.S., Trapnell, P.D., & Phillips, N. (1988). Psychometric and geometric characteristics of the revised Interpersonal Adjective Scales (IAS-R).Multivariate Behavioral Research, 23, 517–530.

  Article  Google Scholar 

• Williams, F., & Sundene, B. (1965). Dimensions of recognition: Visual vs. vocal expression of emotion.Audio Visual Communications Review, 13, 44–52.

  Google Scholar 

Download references