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Not the Opium of the People: Income and Secularization in a Panel of Prussian Counties. (2013). Woessmann, Ludger ; Becker, Sascha.
In: CEPR Discussion Papers.
RePEc:cpr:ceprdp:9299.

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  2. Church Competition, Religious Subsidies and the Rise of Evangelicalism: a Dynamic Structural Analysis. (2022). Sanches, Fabio Miessi ; Corbi, Raphael.
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  3. What Drives Religiosity in America? Evidence from an Empirical Hotelling Model of Church Competition. (2022). Sanches, Fabio Miessi ; Corbi, Raphael.
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  4. Can Schools Change Religious Attitudes? Evidence from German State Reforms of Compulsory Religious Education. (2022). Zierow, Larissa ; Woessmann, Ludger ; Arold, Benjamin W.
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  5. The economics of missionary expansion: evidence from Africa and implications for development. (2022). Moradi, Alexander ; Zu, Felix Meier ; Jedwab, Remi.
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  6. Can Schools Change Religious Attitudes? Evidence from German State Reforms of Compulsory Religious Education. (2022). Arold, Benjamin ; Zierow, Larissa ; Woessmann, Ludger.
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  7. Religiosity and political participation - Panel data evidence from post-communist Poland. (2022). Fakowski, Jan ; Kurek, Przemysaw J.
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  19. Paradise Postponed: Future Tense and Religiosity. (2020). Tarverdi, Yashar ; Mavisakalyan, Astghik ; Weber, Clas.
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  20. The Separation and Reunification of Germany: Rethinking a Natural Experiment Interpretation of the Enduring Effects of Communism. (2020). Woessmann, Ludger ; Becker, Sascha ; Mergele, Lukas.
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  29. Religion in Economic History: A Survey. (2020). Woessmann, Ludger ; Rubin, Jared ; Becker, Sascha.
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  30. The Separation and Reunification of Germany: Rethinking a Natural Experiment Interpretation of the Enduring Effects of Communism. (2020). Woessmann, Ludger ; Mergele, Lukas ; Becker, Sascha O.
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  31. The Separation and Reunification of Germany: Rethinking a Natural Experiment Interpretation of the Enduring Effects of Communism. (2020). Woessmann, Ludger ; Mergele, Lukas ; Becker, Sascha.
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  49. Education Promoted Secularization. (2014). Woessmann, Ludger ; Becker, Sascha ; Nagler, Markus.
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  50. iPEHD--The ifo Prussian Economic History Database. (2014). Woessmann, Ludger ; Hornung, Erik ; Cinnirella, Francesco ; Becker, Sascha.
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  52. Education Promoted Secularization. (2014). Woessmann, Ludger ; Becker, Sascha ; Nagler, Markus.
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  53. Education Promoted Secularization. (2014). Woessmann, Ludger ; Becker, Sascha ; Nagler, Markus.
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  54. Rainfall Risk and Religious Membership in the Late Nineteenth-Century United States. (2014). Ciccone, Antonio ; Ager, Philipp.
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  56. Education Promoted Secularization. (2014). Woessmann, Ludger ; Becker, Sascha ; Nagler, Markus.
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  57. Religiosity and income: A panel cointegration and causality analysis. (2013). Strulik, Holger ; Herzer, Dierk.
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References

References cited by this document

  1. A3. Additional Data The control variables used in Table A3 are taken from the Prussian Population Census in 1871.
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  2. A4. Merging the Datasets We merge the church attendance and income data by assigning the income data, available at the level of the administrative county, to that church district (for which we have church attendance data) which contains the capital of the administrative county (same for the 1871 control variables available for administrative counties). In cases where several county capitals are located in the same district, we aggregated the county data up to the church district level (taking populationweighted averages of income data). To make regional entities comparable over time in face of territorial changes during our period of observation, we aggregated church-district and county data up to the highest level at which consistency over time is given.
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  3. A5. Robustness Checks The pattern of results of the basic models presented in the paper is confirmed in a number of robustness checks. First, results are robust in the subsample of 116 counties with more than 90 percent Protestant population (Table A4), which shows that results are not affected by the fact that income refers to all teachers while church attendance refers to Protestants. Second, results are robust in a balanced sample of 89 counties with full data in all six waves (Table A5). Finally, results are robust when dropping Berlin (which has the highest income level in most waves) and when dropping the two counties with participations in Holy Communion over Protestants larger than one in 1911 (see Figure A1).
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  4. As an alternative income measure available only in 1892 and 1901, Table A6 uses daily wages of urban male day laborers aged 16 and over, taken from the Social Security Statistics.
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  5. Available data suggest that church membership barely changed over our period of investigation. On average across the 508 (593) Prussian counties in 1885 (1910), 65.9 (63.4) percent of inhabitants were Protestants, 32.8 (35.3) percent Catholics, 0.25 (0.43) percent other Christians, 0.99 (0.65) percent Jews, and only 0.01 (0.16) percent “adherents of other religions, with undetermined or without religious designation.” A6 Prussia at the end of the 19th century (for which Prussian census records provide income data). Due to the intersection requirement, our analysis does not cover the non-Prussian parts of modern Germany (esp. the Southern parts) and the parts of Prussia not located in modern Germany (esp. the Eastern Provinces located in modern Poland and Russia). Due to lack of church-district data, we also miss the Province of Brandenburg (except for Berlin) and Western Pomerania.
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  6. Because teacher salaries were almost entirely financed from local contributions at the time, they should provide a reasonable proxy for average income in the county (cf. Schleunes (1989)).
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  7. Becker and Woessmann (2009) show that across the 452 Prussian counties, log teacher income in 1886 is highly correlated with other measures of economic development such as the size of the non-agricultural sector in 1882 (correlation coefficient 0.74) and a proxy for average income constructed from data on income tax and wages of unskilled day laborers in 1900 (0.71).
    Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now

  8. Becker, Sascha O., and Ludger Woessmann. 2009. Was Weber wrong? A human capital theory of Protestant economic history. Quarterly Journal of Economics 124, no. 2: 531-596.

  9. Becker, Sascha O., Francesco Cinnirella, Erik Hornung, and Ludger Woessmann. 2012. iPEHD - The ifo Prussian Economic History Database. CESifo Working Paper 3904. Munich.

  10. Becker, Sascha O., Markus Nagler, and Ludger Woessmann. 2013. Education and secularization: Resurrecting the “traditional view” with panel evidence from German cities, 1890-1930. Work in progress. Munich: Ifo Institute.
    Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
  11. Data sources: church attendance: H olscher (2001) based on Sacrament Statistics; day laborer wages: Becker and Woessmann (2009) based on Social Security Statistics.
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  12. Data sources: church attendance: H olscher (2001) based on Sacrament Statistics; teacher income: Galloway (2007) based on Education Census.
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  13. Data sources: church attendance: H olscher (2001) based on Sacrament Statistics; teacher income: Galloway (2007) based on Education Census.
    Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
  14. Data sources: church attendance: H olscher (2001) based on Sacrament Statistics; teacher income: Galloway (2007) based on Education Censuses; control variables: Becker and Woessmann (2009) based on Population Census.
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  15. Data sources: church attendance: H olscher (2001) based on Sacrament Statistics; teacher income: Galloway (2007) based on Education Censuses; control variables: Becker and Woessmann (2009) based on Population Census.
    Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
  16. Data sources: church attendance: H olscher (2001) based on Sacrament Statistics; teacher income: Galloway (2007) based on Education Censuses.
    Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
  17. Data sources: church attendance: H olscher (2001) based on Sacrament Statistics; teacher income: Galloway (2007) based on Education Censuses.
    Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
  18. Data sources: church attendance: H olscher (2001) based on Sacrament Statistics; teacher income: Galloway (2007) based on Education Censuses.
    Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
  19. Data sources: church attendance: H olscher (2001) based on Sacrament Statistics; teacher income: Galloway (2007) based on Education Censuses.
    Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
  20. Data sources: church attendance: H olscher (2001) based on Sacrament Statistics; teacher income: Galloway (2007) based on Education Censuses.
    Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
  21. Desai, Ashok V. 1968. Real wages in Germany 1871-1913. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
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  22. Figure A1 Income and Church Attendance, 1911 Note: Ln(teacher income) refers to log income of male elementary-school teachers. Church attendance refers to participations in Holy Communion over Protestants.
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  23. Figure A2 Change in Income and in Church Attendance, 1886-1911 Note: Ln(teacher income) refers to log income of male elementary-school teachers. Church attendance refers to participations in Holy Communion over Protestants.
    Paper not yet in RePEc: Add citation now
  24. Finke, Roger, and Rodney Stark. 1992. The churching of America, 1776-1990: Winners and losers in our religious economy. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
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  25. First used in Becker and Woessmann (2009), who provide variable definitions and detailed documentation (see also iPEHD), they are based on Königliches Statistisches Bureau, Die Gemeinden und Gutsbezirke des Preussischen Staates und ihre Bevölkerung: Nach den Urmaterialien der allgemeinen Volkszählung vom 1. December 1871 (Berlin: Verlag des Königlichen Statistischen Bureaus, 1874).
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  26. For additional background on secularization in Germany around this time, see Nipperdey (1988) and Hölscher (2005), and Pollack (2003) for the post-WW II period. In post-WW II West Germany, the share of Protestants reporting to regularly attend church service declined from 13 percent in 1952 to 8 percent in 2005 (Pollack (2006), Table 1); among Catholics, the same measure declined from 51 percent to 23 percent over the same period.
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  27. Galloway, Patrick R. 2007. Galloway Prussia Database 1861 to 1914. patrickgalloway.com.
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  28. Galloway, Patrick R., Eugene A. Hammel, and Ronald D. Lee. 1994. Fertility decline in Prussia, 1875-1910: A pooled cross-section time series analysis. Population Studies 48, no. 1: 135-158.
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  29. Gruber, Jonathan, and Daniel M. Hungerman. 2008. The Church vs. the Mall: What happens when religion faces increased secular competition. Quarterly Journal of Economics 123, no. 2: 831-862.

  30. Guiso, Luigi, Paola Sapienza, and Luigi Zingales. 2003. People's opium? Religion and economic attitudes. Journal of Monetary Economics 50, no. 1: 225-282.

  31. Hölscher, Lucian. 2001. Datenatlas zur religiösen Geographie im protestantischen Deutschland: Von der Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts bis zum Zweiten Weltkrieg. 4 vols. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. 12 Hölscher, Lucian. 2005. Geschichte der protestantischen Frömmigkeit in Deutschland. Munich: C.H.Beck.
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  32. Iannaccone, Laurence R. 1998. Introduction to the economics of religion. Journal of Economic Literature 36, no. 3: 1465-1496.

  33. In several cases, county reforms led to the split of counties into smaller units over time; typically, with increasing urbanization, counties were split into urban counties (Stadtkreise) and rural counties (Landkreise). In those cases, we aggregated data in later years up to the boundaries as of earlier years. Since teacher income data are complete for all years 1886, 1891, …, 1911, this yields a balanced panel of teacher income data in constant county borders.
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  34. Lipford, Jody W., and Robert D. Tollison. 2003. Religious participation and income. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 51, no. 2: 249-260.

  35. Marx, Karl. 1844. Zur Kritik der Hegel'schen Rechtsphilosophie: Einleitung. In DeutschFranzösische Jahrbücher, edited by Arnold Ruge and Karl Marx. Paris: Bureau der Jahrbücher: 71-85.
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  36. McCleary, Rachel M., and Robert J. Barro. 2006. Religion and economy. Journal of Economic Perspectives 20, no. 2: 49-72.

  37. Nipperdey, Thomas. 1988. Religion und Gesellschaft: Deutschland um 1900. Historische Zeitschrift 246, no. 3: 591-615.
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  38. Our resulting dataset covers an unbalanced panel of 175 separate territorial entities (which we refer to as “counties”) spanning 1886-1911. These counties constitute the intersection between modern Germany (for which Hölscher (2001) collected church attendance data) and 9
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  39. Pollack, Detlef. 2003. Säkularisierung - Ein moderner Mythos? Studien zum religiösen Wandel in Deutschland. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck.
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  40. Pollack, Detlef. 2006. Der Protestantismus in Deutschland in den 1960er und 70er Jahren: Forschungsprogrammatische Überlegungen. Mitteilungen der Evangelischen Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Kirchliche Zeitgeschichte 24: 103-125.
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  41. Schleunes, Karl A. 1989. Schooling and society: The politics of education in Prussia and Bavaria 1750-1900. London: St. Martin’s Press.
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  42. Second, in 1911, income is only reported as total income of male and female elementaryschool teachers combined, whereas for all other years both genders are reported separately. In 1911, we impute income of male elementary-school teachers by pre-multiplying total income of elementary-school teachers by the county-specific share of male teachers in total income observed in 1906.
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  43. Table A1 provides descriptive statistics. Figure A1 shows a scatterplot of income and church attendance in 1911.
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  44. Table A2 Income and Church Attendance: Year-by-Year Cross-Sections 1886 1891 1896 1901 1906 1911 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Church attendance-0.291-0.334-0.321-0.256-0.286-0.309 (0.042)∗∗∗ (0.033)∗∗∗ (0.034)∗∗∗ (0.031)∗∗∗ (0.038)∗∗∗ (0.037)∗∗∗ Const. 7.365 7.426 7.497 7.657 7.705 7.705 (0.030)∗∗∗ (0.022)∗∗∗ (0.023)∗∗∗ (0.020)∗∗∗ (0.022)∗∗∗ (0.020)∗∗∗ Obs. = number of counties 123 149 156 162 160 148 R2 0.308 0.384 0.381 0.314 0.321 0.376 Dependent variable: log income of male elementary-school teachers. Ordinary least squares (OLS) estimations in cross-sections of counties for respective year indicated in header. Church attendance refers to participations in Holy Communion over Protestants. Robust standard errors in parentheses: significant at the ∗∗∗ 1, ∗∗ 5, ∗ 10 percent level.
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  45. The data were collected by the Prussian Statistical Office and reported at the level of administrative counties (Kreise). Teacher income data are available for all Prussian counties in A3 all the years 1886, 1891, 1896, 1901, 1906, and 1911. The data are drawn from the Galloway (2007) Prussia Database and are based on the following volumes of the Preussische Statistik: Volume 101, pp. 2-391 (for 1886); Volume 120, part II, pp. 2-313 (for 1891); Volume 151, part II, pp. 2-315 (for 1896); Volume 176, part III, pp. 2-485 (for 1901); Volume 209, part III, pp. 2513 (for 1906); and Volume 231, part II, pp. 2-599 (for 1911).
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  46. The Population Census provides data on several measures that are often used in the church attendance literature and in the income literature, such as the age structure (where, in addition to the share of the population below 10 years of age, we also use the share of the population aged 60 and older from Galloway (2007)), gender distribution, the share of the county population that lives in urban areas, literacy, migration, and the share of Protestants in the A5 population. Unfortunately, these cross-sectional control variables are not consistently available in the panel dimension.9 In the province of Hannover, county borders changed substantially between 1871 and 1886 in a fashion that prevents re-aggregation (for example, two old counties split and merged into three new counties). Counties in the province of Hannover are therefore dropped in the regression analyses in Table A3 that involve control variables from 1871.
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  47. The Prussian authorities used these day laborer wages as reference values to determine A4 contributions to the compulsory Health Insurance System (1.5 percent of the customary wage paid to day laborers), indicating that they were considered sufficiently representative of wages in low-income households and thus constitute a useful proxy for their local standard of living. The source of the variable is Georg Neuhaus, “Die ortsüblichen Tagelöhne gewöhnlicher Tagearbeiter in Preußen 1892 und 1901,” Zeitschrift des Königlich Preussischen Statistischen Bureaus, 44 (1904), 310-346. For additional information, see Becker and Woessmann (2009) and the ifo Prussian Economic History Database (iPEHD) described in Becker, Cinnirella, Hornung, and Woessmann (2012).

  48. There are two changes in how teacher income is reported over time. First, in 1886 and 1891, teacher income covers only direct wage payments, but not extras such as housing allowances and any other allowances. From 1896 onwards, data include all components of income. To make data consistent over time, we pre-multiply direct wage payments in 1886 and 1891 by the county-specific ratio of total income over (only) wage payments observed in 1896.
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  49. Weber, Max. 1904/05. Die protestantische Ethik und der Geist des Kapitalismus. Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik 20: 1-54 and 21: 1-110.
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  50. While the data were contemporaneously regularly published in a comparative manner at the level of the Regional Churches, Hölscher (2001)’s “Data Atlas on the Religious Geography in Protestant Germany: From the Mid-19th Century to the Second World War” for the first time brings together the district-level data, gathered from regional archives, for the geographic coverage of modern Germany.8 Hölscher kindly provided us with digital versions of the data as 8
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