성능향상물질
Performance-enhancing substance경기력향상 약물(PED)이라고도 알려진 경기력향상 물질은 인간의 어떤 형태의 활동성능을 향상시키는 데 사용되는 물질이다.[1] 잘 알려진 예로는 스포츠에서 도핑을 하는 것을 포함한다. 스포츠에서는 금지된 신체적인 경기력 향상 약물이 운동선수들과 보디빌더들에 의해 사용된다. 운동 경기력 향상 물질은 때때로 인간 유발 보조 도구라고 불린다.[2][3] 흔히 누트로픽스라고 불리는 인지능력 향상 약물은 학생들이 학업성취도 향상을 위해 사용하는 경우가 있다.[4] 경기력 향상 물질은 전투력 향상에도 군 장병들이 사용한다.[5]
경기력 향상 약물의 사용은 합법적인 사용과 약물 남용의 범주에 걸쳐 있다.
정의
성능향상 물질로 분류하는 것이 전적으로 명확하고 객관적이지 않다. 다른 유형의 분류에서와 마찬가지로 특정 프로토타입 성능 증진제는 일반적으로 (아나볼릭 스테로이드와 같이) 그러한 것으로 분류되는 반면, 다른 물질(비타민, 단백질 보충제 등)은 성능에 미치는 영향에도 불구하고 사실상 성능 증진제로 분류되지 않는다. 분류와 마찬가지로, 경계선상의 경우가 있다; 예를 들어, 카페인은 어떤 사람들에게는 성능 향상제로 여겨지지만 어떤 사람들에게는 그렇지 않다.[6]
종류들
이 구절은 다음과 같은 몇 가지 뚜렷한 종류의 약물을 가리키는 데 사용되어 왔다.
- 아나볼릭 약물은 근육을 형성한다; 예로는 스테로이드,[7] 호르몬, 특히 인간의 성장 호르몬, 그리고 그들의 프로드러브,[8] 선택적 안드로겐 수용체 조절기[9], 베타-2 작용제 등이 있다.[10][11]
- 각성제는 집중력과 경계력을 향상시킨다. 도파민으로 활성화되는 각성제의 낮은(치료)양(예를 들어, 재흡수 억제제, 요원)또한, nootropics와 그리고 파워 능력을 향상시키는 데 도움을 각각, 반응 시간과 피로 감소하고 근육의 힘과 지구력을 향상시킴으로써, 운동 경기력 향상 stimulan의[3][12][13]몇가지 예들 그리고 경기의 인지적 수행을 촉진한다.이익 caf 있페인,[2] 에페드린, 메틸페니데이트, 암페타민.[3][12][13][14][15]
- 인체 유발 보조제, 즉 운동 경기력 향상 물질에는 신체 성능에 다양한 영향을 미치는 여러 가지 약물이 포함된다. 암페타민과 메틸페니다이트와 같은 약물은 다른 운동 경기력 향상 효과 중 일정한 수준의 힘 발휘에서 전력 출력을 증가시키고 피로 시작을 지연시킨다.[14][15][16][3][12][13] 부프로피온은 또한 일정한 힘 발휘 수준에서 전력 출력을 증가시키지만 단기간 사용 동안에만 증가한다.[16] 운동선수들이 흔히 사용하는 영양제인 크레아틴은 고강도 운동능력을 높인다.[17]
- 인간 생체분자 – 크레아틴과 β-히드록시 β-메틸부티레이트는 인간에서 자연적으로 발생하는 화합물로, 보충할 때 인체 생성 효과와 신체 구성에 미치는 영향이 잘 확립되어 있다.[18]
- 적응균은 비특정 효과를 통해 건강을 지탱하고, 상대적으로 안전하고 부작용이 없는 상태에서 다양한 환경적, 신체적 스트레스 요인을 중화시키는 식물을 말한다.[19] 2008년 현재, 유럽 의약청의 입장은 "적응적 작용의 원칙은 임상 전 및 임상 영역에서 추가적인 설명과 연구가 필요하다. 이와 같이 EU에서 흔히 쓰이는 약리학적, 임상적 용어로는 이 용어가 받아들여지지 않는다."[20]
- 노트로픽스(nootropics) 또는 "인지 증진제"는 기억력 향상(예: 작업 메모리 용량 또는 업데이트 증가) 또는 인지 제어의 다른 측면(예: 억제 제어, 주의력 제어, 주의력 범위 등)을 통해 전체적인 인식에 도움이 된다.[4][21]
- 진통제는 통상적인 통증 한계치를 넘어서는 성과를 낼 수 있게 해준다. 어떤 진통제는 혈압을 상승시켜 근육 세포에 산소 공급을 증가시킨다. 운동선수들이 사용하는 진통제는 NSAID(이부프로펜 등)와 같은 일반 처방전 없이 살 수 있는 약에서부터 강력한 처방전 마약에 이르기까지 다양하다.
- 진정제와 불안요법은 양궁과 같은 스포츠에서 종종 사용되는데, 양궁은 꾸준한 손놀림과 정확한 조준을 필요로 하며, 또한 지나친 초조감이나 불편함을 극복하기 위해 사용된다. 디아제팜과 프로프라놀놀은 흔한 예다. 에탄올과 대마초도 가끔 사용된다.
- 혈액 촉진제(혈액 도핑제)는 혈액의 산소 운반 능력을 개인의 자연 능력을 넘어 증가시킨다. 그들은 장거리 달리기, 사이클링, 노르딕 스키와 같은 지구력 스포츠에 사용된다. 인간 에리트로포이에틴(RHEPO)은 이 등급에서 가장 널리 알려진 약물 중 하나이다.[18]
- 유전자 도핑제는 비교적 최근에 기술된 운동 경기력 향상 물질의 종류다.[18] 바이러스 벡터 매개 유전자 전이가 수반되는 이들 약물요법은 2015년[update] 4월 현재 사용 중인 것으로 알려져 있지 않다.[18]
스포츠 용법
스포츠에서, 경기력 향상 약물은 아나볼릭 스테로이드나 그들의 전구체(구어적 용어 "스테로이드")와 관련하여 널리 사용된다. 반 도핑 단체들은 이 용어를 광범위하게 적용한다.[22] WADA, USADA와 같은 기관들은 선수들이 약물 테스트를 통해 이러한 약을 사용하는 것을 막으려고 노력한다. WADA는 딕 파운드에 의해 1999년 11월 10일에 설립되었다. 세계반도핑기구는 전 세계 모든 스포츠에 대한 규칙과 코드를 제정하고 시행하는 데 초점을 맞추고 있다. 그들의 목표는 선수들이 어떤 형태의 경기력 향상 약물을 사용하지 못하도록 하는 힘을 가진 도핑 프리 조직에서 모든 운동선수들 사이에서 공평하게 경기하게 하는 것이다. USADA는 2000년 10월 1일 비영리 단체로 시작했으며, 9명의 회원으로 구성되었다. 그 중 5명은 이전 올림픽 선수였고 나머지 4명은 독립 기업에서 선출되었다. 이것은 미국 도핑방지청이고 미국 전역에서 운동선수들을 테스트할 수 있는 능력을 가지고 있다.[23][24]
참고 항목
참조
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Caffeine-induced increases in performance have been observed in aerobic as well as anaerobic sports (for reviews, see [26,30,31]). Trained athletes seem to benefit from a moderate dose of 5 mg/kg [32], however, even lower doses of caffeine (1.0–2.0 mg/kg) may improve performance [33]. Some groups found significantly improved time trial performance [34] or maximal cycling power [35], most likely related to a greater reliance on fat metabolism and decreased neuromuscular fatigue, respectively. Theophylline, a metabolite of caffeine, seems to be even more effective in doing so [36]. The effect of caffeine on fat oxidation, however, may only be significant during lower exercise intensities and may be blocked at higher intensities [37]. ... For both caffeine-naïve as well as caffeine-habituated subjects, moderate to high doses of caffeine are ergogenic during prolonged moderate intensity exercise [61]. ... In summary, caffeine, even at physiological doses (3–6 mg/kg), as well as coffee are proven ergogenic aids and as such – in most exercise situations, especially in endurance-type events – clearly work-enhancing [26]. It most likely has a peripheral effect targeting skeletal muscle metabolism as well as a central effect targeting the brain to enhance performance, especially during endurance events (see Table 1). Also for anaerobic tasks, the effect of caffeine on the CNS might be most relevant. ... Muendel et al. [93] found a 17% improvement in time to exhaustion after nicotine patch application compared to a placebo without affecting cardiovascular and respiratory parameters or substrate metabolism. In this sense, nicotine seems to exert similar effects as caffeine by delaying the development of central fatigue as impaired central drive is an important factor contributing to fatigue during exercise. ... The physiological effects of the above mentioned substances are well established. However, the ergogenic effect of some of the discussed drugs may be questioned and one has to consider the cohort tested for every specific substance. However, only caffeine has enough strength of evidence to be considered an ergogenic aid.
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Amphetamines and caffeine are stimulants that increase alertness, improve focus, decrease reaction time, and delay fatigue, allowing for an increased intensity and duration of training ...
Physiologic and performance effects [of amphetamines]
• Amphetamines increase dopamine/norepinephrine release and inhibit their reuptake, leading to central nervous system (CNS) stimulation
• Amphetamines seem to enhance athletic performance in anaerobic conditions 39 40
• Improved reaction time
• Increased muscle strength and delayed muscle fatigue
• Increased acceleration
• Increased alertness and attention to task - ^ a b Frati P, Kyriakou C, Del Rio A, Marinelli E, Vergallo GM, Zaami S, Busardò FP (January 2015). "Smart drugs and synthetic androgens for cognitive and physical enhancement: revolving doors of cosmetic neurology". Curr Neuropharmacol. 13 (1): 5–11. doi:10.2174/1570159X13666141210221750. PMC 4462043. PMID 26074739.
Cognitive enhancement can be defined as the use of drugs and/or other means with the aim to improve the cognitive functions of healthy subjects in particular memory, attention, creativity and intelligence in the absence of any medical indication. ... The first aim of this paper was to review current trends in the misuse of smart drugs (also known as Nootropics) presently available on the market focusing in detail on methylphenidate, trying to evaluate the potential risk in healthy individuals, especially teenagers and young adults.
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In 1980, Chandler and Blair47 showed significant increases in knee extension strength, acceleration, anaerobic capacity, time to exhaustion during exercise, pre-exercise and maximum heart rates, and time to exhaustion during maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max) testing after administration of 15 mg of dextroamphetamine versus placebo. Most of the information to answer this question has been obtained in the past decade through studies of fatigue rather than an attempt to systematically investigate the effect of ADHD drugs on exercise. ... In 2008, Roelands and colleagues53 studied the effect of reboxetine, a pure NE reuptake inhibitor, similar to atomoxetine, in 9 healthy, well-trained cyclists. They too exercised in both temperate and warm environments. They showed decreased power output and exercise performance at both 18 and 30 degrees centigrade. Their conclusion was that DA reuptake inhibition was the cause of the increased exercise performance seen with drugs that affect both DA and NE (MPH, amphetamine, and bupropion).
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Manipulations of dopaminergic signaling profoundly influence interval timing, leading to the hypothesis that dopamine influences internal pacemaker, or "clock," activity. For instance, amphetamine, which increases concentrations of dopamine at the synaptic cleft advances the start of responding during interval timing, whereas antagonists of D2 type dopamine receptors typically slow timing;... Depletion of dopamine in healthy volunteers impairs timing, while amphetamine releases synaptic dopamine and speeds up timing.
- ^ a b Roelands B, de Koning J, Foster C, Hettinga F, Meeusen R (May 2013). "Neurophysiological determinants of theoretical concepts and mechanisms involved in pacing". Sports Med. 43 (5): 301–311. doi:10.1007/s40279-013-0030-4. PMID 23456493. S2CID 30392999.
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Aside from accounting for the reduced performance of mentally fatigued participants, this model rationalizes the reduced RPE and hence improved cycling time trial performance of athletes using a glucose mouthwash (Chambers et al., 2009) and the greater power output during a RPE matched cycling time trial following amphetamine ingestion (Swart, 2009). ... Dopamine stimulating drugs are known to enhance aspects of exercise performance (Roelands et al., 2008)
- ^ a b Roelands B, De Pauw K, Meeusen R (June 2015). "Neurophysiological effects of exercise in the heat". Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports. 25 Suppl 1: 65–78. doi:10.1111/sms.12350. PMID 25943657. S2CID 22782401.
Physical fatigue has classically been attributed to peripheral factors within the muscle (Fitts, 1996), the depletion of muscle glycogen (Bergstrom & Hultman, 1967) or increased cardiovascular, metabolic, and thermoregulatory strain (Abbiss & Laursen, 2005; Meeusen et al., 2006b). In recent decennia however, it became clear that the central nervous system plays an important role in the onset of fatigue during prolonged exercise (Klass et al., 2008), certainly when ambient temperature is increased ... 5-HT, DA, and NA have all been implicated in the control of thermoregulation and are thought to mediate thermoregulatory responses, certainly since their neurons innervate the hypothalamus (Roelands & Meeusen, 2010). ... This indicates that subjects did not feel they were producing more power and consequently more heat. The authors concluded that the "safety switch" or the mechanisms existing in the body to prevent harmful effects are overridden by the drug administration (Roelands et al., 2008b). Taken together, these data indicate strong ergogenic effects of an increased DA concentration in the brain, without any change in the perception of effort. ... The combined effects of DA and NA on performance in the heat were studied by our research group on a number of occasions. ... the administration of bupropion (DA/NA reuptake inhibitor) significantly improved performance. Coinciding with this ergogenic effect, the authors observed core temperatures that were much higher compared with the placebo situation. Interestingly, this occurred without any change in the subjective feelings of thermal sensation or perceived exertion. Similar to the methylphenidate study (Roelands et al., 2008b), bupropion may dampen or override inhibitory signals arising from the central nervous system to cease exercise because of hyperthermia, and enable an individual to continue maintaining a high power output
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The present meta-analysis was conducted to estimate the magnitude of the effects of methylphenidate and amphetamine on cognitive functions central to academic and occupational functioning, including inhibitory control, working memory, short-term episodic memory, and delayed episodic memory. In addition, we examined the evidence for publication bias. Forty-eight studies (total of 1,409 participants) were included in the analyses. We found evidence for small but significant stimulant enhancement effects on inhibitory control and short-term episodic memory. Small effects on working memory reached significance, based on one of our two analytical approaches. Effects on delayed episodic memory were medium in size. However, because the effects on long-term and working memory were qualified by evidence for publication bias, we conclude that the effect of amphetamine and methylphenidate on the examined facets of healthy cognition is probably modest overall. In some situations, a small advantage may be valuable, although it is also possible that healthy users resort to stimulants to enhance their energy and motivation more than their cognition. ... Earlier research has failed to distinguish whether stimulants' effects are small or whether they are nonexistent (Ilieva et al., 2013; Smith & Farah, 2011). The present findings supported generally small effects of amphetamine and methylphenidate on executive function and memory. Specifically, in a set of experiments limited to high-quality designs, we found significant enhancement of several cognitive abilities. ...
The results of this meta-analysis cannot address the important issues of individual differences in stimulant effects or the role of motivational enhancement in helping perform academic or occupational tasks. However, they do confirm the reality of cognitive enhancing effects for normal healthy adults in general, while also indicating that these effects are modest in size. - ^ "Performance-Enhancing Drug Resources". Drug Free Sport. Retrieved 14 April 2013.
- ^ "Who we are". World Anti-Doping Agency. 14 November 2013. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
- ^ "U.S. Anti-Doping Agency – USADA". U.S. Anti-Doping Agency (USADA). Retrieved 3 November 2015.
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